英语语言学的知识整理

英语语言学的知识整理

实用标准文案Chapter1Introduction语言学的定义：Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.问题：Howdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage?→Itisascientificstudybecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Whatthelinguisthastodo“first,then,but”:①toobserveandcollectlanguagefactsandgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem.②toformulatesomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.③tocheckthehypothesesthusformedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.(普通语言学)问题:Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?→phonetics（语音学）→thestudyofsounds→phonology（音位学）→studyhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaning→morphology（形态学）→studythewayinwhichsymbolsormorphemesarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords.→syntax（句法学）→thestudyofrulesofformingsentences→semantics（语义学）→thestudyofmeaning→pragmatics（语用学）→thecontextoflanguageuseSociolinguistics（社会语言学）：Thestudiesofallthesesocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyformthecoreofthebranch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：RelatethestudyoflanguagetopsychologyAppliedlinguistics（应用语言学）：Inanarrowsenseitreferstotheapplicationoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（theSwisslinguistF.deSaussure——CourseinGeneralLinguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（theAmericanlinguistN.Chomsky）⑥traditionalgrammar（传统语法）/modernlinguistics（现代语言学）精彩文档\n实用标准文案问题：inwhatbasicwaysdoesmodernlinguisticsdifferfromtraditionalgrammar?①linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.②modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.③modernlinguisticsdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.问题：Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?Why?Inmodernlinguistics,asynchronic(不考虑历史演进的,限于一时的)approachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronic(探求现象变化的,历时的)one.Becauseitisbelievedthatunlessthevariousstatesofalanguageindifferenthistoricalperiodsaresuccessfullystudied,itwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.Synchronicdescriptionsareoftenthoughtofasbeingdescriptionsoflanguageinitscurrentexistence,andmostlinguisticstudiesareofthistype.问题：Forwhatreasonsdoesmodernlinguisticsgiveprioritytospeechratherthantowriting?Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday’sworldtherearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten.Thenineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.Spokenlanguagerevealsmoretruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythe“revised”recordofspeech.Andlinguists’dataforinvestigationandanalysisaremostlydrawnfromeverydayspeech,whichtheyregardedasauthentic.语言的定义：Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Designfeaturesoflanguage（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness任意性（atthesyntacticlevel）②productivity能产性，创造性Secondaryunits（底层结构sounds）③duality双层性Primaryunits（上层结构unitsofmeaning）④displacement不受时空限制性（handlegeneralizationandabstraction）⑤culturaltransmission文化传递性⑥interchangeability互换性⑦convention约定性Functionsoflanguage：三大主要功能：精彩文档\n实用标准文案ThedescriptivefunctionTheexpressivefunctionThesocialfunctionRomanJacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speakeraddresser→emotive感情功能②addressee→conative意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic诗学功能⑤contact→phaticcommunion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic元语言功能Otherfunctions:①phaticfunction问候功能②informativef.信息功能③interrogativef.询问功能④expressivef.表达功能⑤evocativef.感染功能⑥directivef.指令功能⑦performativef.行使（权力）功能M.A.K.Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/socialrelationships）③textual问题：HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?ThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebySaussure,langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Paroleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable;itdoesnotchangefrequently,whileparolevariesfrompeopletopeople,andfromsituationtosituation.ThedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformanceproposedbytheAmericanlinguistsChomsky,competenceisadealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andtheperformanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Imperfectperformanceiscausedbysocialandpsychologicalfactors.Saussuremakesthisdistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Inhisopinion,paroleissimpleamassoflinguisticfacts,toovariedconfusingforsystematicinvestigation,andthatlinguisticsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,i.e.,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.SimilartoSaussure,Chomskythinkswhatlinguistsshouldstudyistheidealspeaker’scompetence,nothisperformance,whichistoohaphazardtobestudied.精彩文档\n实用标准文案问题：WhatarethemainfeaturesofhumanlanguagethathavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystem?①arbitrariness任意性（atthesyntacticlevel）②productivity能产性，创造性Secondaryunits（底层结构sounds）③duality双层性Primaryunits（上层结构unitsofmeaning）④displacement不受时空限制性（handlegeneralizationandabstraction）⑤culturaltransmission文化传递性⑥interchangeability互换性⑦convention约定性Chapter2PhonologyPhonetics:（语音学）①thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage②lookatspeechsoundsfrom3distinctbutrelatedpointsofview.Ⅰstudythesoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview→articulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlookatthesoundsfromthehearer’spointofview→auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudythewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves→acousticphonetics（声学语音学）③studyhowsoundsareproduced,transmittedandperceived.Organsofspeech:⒈threeimportantareas①Thepharyngealcavity→thethroat②theoralcavity→themouth③thenasalcavity→thenose⒉Thepharyngealcavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords⒊theoralcavity→tongue/uvula/softpalate(velum)/hardpalate/teethridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternationalPhoneticAlphabet（IPA）①diacritics附加符号②broadtranscription（宽式标音）→thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly③narrowtranscription（严式标音）→thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacriticsClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds①twobroadcategoriesofspeechsoundsinEnglish:Vowels/consonants精彩文档\n实用标准文案②twowaystoclassifytheEnglishconsonants:IntermsofmannerofarticulationIntermsofplaceofarticulation③Intermsofmannerofarticulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④Intermsofplaceofarticulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤bilabialLabio-dentaldentalalveolarpalatalvelarglottalstopsVLptkVDbdgfricativesVLfθsʃhVDvðzʒaffricatesVL(tʃ)tʃVD(dʒ)dʒnasalsVDmnŋliquidsVDl/rglidesVDwjClassificationofEnglishvowels⒈criteria:（monophthongs）单元音Thepositionofthetongueinthemouth:front/central/backTheopennessofthemouth:closevowels/semi-closevowels/semi-openvowels/openvowelsTheshapeofthelips:unrounded/roundedThelengthofthevowels:tense/laxfrontcentralbackclosei:u:iuSemi-closeeə:Semi-openəɔ:openæʌɔaa:⒉diphthongs双元音/ei//ai//au/精彩文档\n实用标准文案/əu//ɔi//iə//εə//uə/Phonology音韵学，语音体系Differenceofphonologyandphonetics:①Phoneticsisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages.②Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Phone（音素）:Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Phoneme（音位）:Itisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Allophone（音位变体）:Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Phonemiccontrast（音位对立）Complementarydistribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimalpairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimalset（最小对立集）：isusedtofindtheimportantsoundsinlanguage.PhonologicalAnalysis（音位分析）Principle:certainsoundscausechangesinthemeaningofawordorphase,whereasothersoundsdonot.Phoneticallysimilarsounds:描述音位关系Freevariants:音位的自由变体Thedifferenceofpronouncingasoundcausedbydialect,habit,individualdifferenceorregionaldifferencesinsteadofbyanydistributionrule.Somerulesinphonology①sequentialrules:序列规则Ifawordbeginswitha/l/ora/r/,thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:Thefirstphonememustbe/s/Thesecondphonememustbe/p//t//k/Thethirdphonememustbe/l//r//w/②assimilationrule:同化规则③deletionrule：省略规则精彩文档\n实用标准文案Suprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：thelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.Syllable音节：Asyllablenucleus(oftenavowel)withoptionalinitialandfinalmargins(oftenconsonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。句子里读重音的词：Nouns/mainverbs/adjectives/adverbs/numerals/demonstrativepronouns②tone（词汇层面）EnglishisnotatonelanguageChineseisatypicaltonelanguage:Level/thesecondrise/thethirdfall-rise/thefourthfall③intonation（句子层面）Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:Thefallingtone/therisingtone/thefall-risetone/therise-falltone问题：Whatarethetwomajormediaofcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy?SpeechandwritingSpeechBecausefromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday’sworldtherearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten.Thenineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.Spokenlanguagerevealsmoretruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythe“revised”recordofspeech.Andlinguists’dataforinvestigationandanalysisaremostlydrawnfromeverydayspeech,whichtheyregardedasauthentic.问题：Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused?Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalled“voicing”,whichisafeatureofallvowelsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish.Chapter3Morphology词法形态学精彩文档\n实用标准文案1定义和知识点：①thepartofthegrammarthatisconcernedwithwordformationandwordstructure②thebranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.③itisessentiallysynchronic,primarilyconcernedwiththeformsofwordsthroughtheuseofmorphemeconstruct.④itoverlapswiththeothersub-branchesasawordisasoundunitthathasmeaningandsyntacticfunction.⑤fourfacets:Sounds(phonology)Constructions(syntax)Meanings(semantics)Formsofwords2词性分类①openclasswords:名、动、形、副arethecontentwordsofalanguage②closedclasswords:连、介、冠、代aresmallandstablesincefewnewwordsareadded3词素有关❶Morpheme:词素构成单词的最小意义单位，包括声音和意义，abstractunits(任意性)❷Morph:形素thesoundofamorpheme声音❸Allomorphs:语素变体Thevariantformsofamorpheme4分类morphemes①Freemorpheme(自由词素):Amorphemewhichcanbeawordbyitself②boundmorpheme(粘着词素)：Amorphemethatmustbeattachedtoanotherone③lexicalmorphemes/derivationalmorphemes(派生词素,包括前后缀):Theyareusedtoderivenewwords,alsoknownasderivationalmorphemes④inflectionalmorphemes(屈折词素)：词类不发生变化5单词定义：WordAwordisaunitofexpressionwhichisintuitivelyrecognizedbynativespeakersinbothspokenandwrittenlanguage.Awordisabasicandminimalunitsofalanguagetomakesentences,whicharecombinationsofwordsaccordingtosyntacticrules.Awordisalexeme(词位).Alexemeisawordinanabstractsense.Awordcanbedefinedasagrammaticalunit.6单词结构：Structure精彩文档\n实用标准文案Root:therootconstitutesthecoreofthewordandcarriesthemajorcomponentofitsmeaning.Rootsbelongtolexicalcategory.Stem:itistheformofthewordtowhichbothinflectionalandderivationalmorphemescanbeadded.Base:词基Affixes:theyareformsthatareattachedtowordsorwordelementstomodifymeaningorfunction.Allofthemareboundmorphemesanddon’tbelongtoalexicalcategory.7单词合成：Wordformation①morphologicalrules→productivemorphologicalrules②derivation③compounds几点注意：Whenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbelikethis:n.+n./adj.+adj.Whenthetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories:n.+adj./v.+n.（不总是这样）Themeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.8单词合成过程：①compounding②affixationorderivationBlends混合词Abbreviation缩略语③shorteningacronyms按音节拼读首字母的单词Initials按字母拼读的单词Clippings缩写词④backformation逆构词法9要点Grammaticalmorphemesaregrammaticalinnature,functioningasgrammaticalmarkersorshowsyntacticrelations.Theyconsistofbothinflectionalmorphemesandsomefreeoneslikein,and,do,they,while,where,butandthat,whicharetraditionallyknownasfunctionalwords.Chapter4Syntax句法1定义Itisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.2四大派别①traditionalsyntax传统学派精彩文档\n实用标准文案②structuralsyntax结构主义学派（索绪尔）③transformationalsyntax生成学派（乔姆斯基）（本书重点学习）④functionalsyntax功能学派（哈里德）3范畴CategoriesNoun(N)Verb(V)MajorlexicalcategoriesAdjective(A)Preposition(P)Word-levelcategoriesDeterminer(Det)限定词/成分Degreewords(Deg)程度词MinorlexicalcategoriesQualifier(Qual)修饰语Auxiliary(Aux)助词Conjunction(Con)连词Syntacticcategories句法范畴的定义：①Thefactthatwordsinallhumanlanguagescanbegroupedtogetherintoarelativelysmallnumberofclasses.②注：Theword-levelcategoriesarethemostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudy.Majorlexicalcategories(主要词汇范畴)playaveryimportantroleinsentenceformationandtheyareoftenassumedtobetheheadsaroundwhichphrasesarebuilt.Minorlexicalcategories(次要词汇范畴)Meaning意义Threecriteriatodetermineaword’scategoryinflection屈折变化Distribution分布?Itismisleadingtoassumethataword’scategorycanbetoldstraightforwardfromitsmeaning:①nounsdonotconcretelyrevealtheirentities.②somewordstendtobeverbsbuttheycanalsobeusedasnouns.③wordswiththesameorsimilarmeaningssometimesbelongtodifferentwordcategories.Phrasesaresyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategory.↓Thephraseisbuiltaroundthewordcategory.↓Thewordcategorydeterminesthecategoryofphrase.精彩文档\n实用标准文案4要点生成学派认为句子由短语构成。短语→单词→词素→音节→短语层面任何短语都有2个层面单词层面5themostcommonlyrecognizedanddiscussedphrasalcategories:NP:nounphraseVP:verbphraseAP:adjectivephrasePP:prepositionalphrase6theelementsofphrasesthatareformedofmorethanoneword:①head/termedhead中心语/中心成分:Thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformed②specifiers标志语/标志成分：Thewordsontheleftsideoftheheads③complements补语/补足语/补足成分：Thewordsontherightsideoftheheads7phrasestructurerule短语结构规则定义：Aspecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakesupaphrase.ThephrasestructureruleforNP,VP,AP,PPNP→(Det)N(PP)…VP→(Qual)V(NP)…AP→(Deg)A(PP)…PP→(Deg)P(NP)…XPrule公式一：XP→(specifier)X(complement)X’Theory（X标杆理论）①X’:Theintermediatelevelformedbytheheadandthecomplementbetweenwordlevelandphraselevel.②X’Theory:(specifier)X’(word)X’=X(complement)Coordinationrule(并列规则)Coordinatestructures(并列结构)精彩文档\n实用标准文案Coordination(并列，并列关系)Fourimportantpropertiesofcoordination：①thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriortotheconjunction.②acategoryatanylevel(aheadoranentireXP)canbecoordinated.③coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype.④thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.公式二：X→X*ConX（其中“*”代表无限的意思）8PhraseelementsSpecifiershavebothspecialsemanticandsyntacticroles.①semantically,theyhelpmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead.②syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.InEnglishspecifiersoccurattheleftboundaryoftheirrespectivephrases.Complementsarethemselvesphraseandprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead.ComplementsareattachedtotherightoftheheadinEnglish.Subcategorization(次范畴化)：中心成分决定补充成分这种现象。中心成分决定补充成分时，决定着是否需要补充成分，需要什么样的补充成分，以及补充成分的位置问题。TheXPRule(revised)公式三：XP→(specifier)X(complement*)Complementizers(Cs):补语化成分WordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementComplementclause:补语从句ThesentenceintroducedbythecomplementizerComplementphrase(CP):补语短语Matrixclause主句Modifiers修饰成分，修饰语TheExpandedXPrule:公式四：XP→(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)精彩文档\n实用标准文案9sentencesTheSrule:S→NPVP4种短语1种（句子为屈折短语）10transformations（转换规则）Yes-noquestionSyntacticmovementwh-questionPassivevoiceTransformation/Inversion（倒置）定义:aspecialtypeofrulethatcanmoveanelementfromonepositiontoanother.Inversion（倒置）：MoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNPAllSsoccurwithinlargerCPs,whethertheyareembeddedornot.Inversion(revised):MoveInfltoCIfweassumethattherecanbeonlyoneelementineachpositioninatreestructure,complementizersandauxiliariesaremutuallyexclusive.Trace:用“e”表示Headmovement中心语移位：ThemovementofawordfromtheheadpositioninonephraseintotheheadpositioninanotherInversion→一般疑问句+显性助词Doinsertion:InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition11TwolevelsofsyntacticstructureDeepstructure(D-structure):ThestructureformedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorizationpropertiesSurfacestructure(S-structure):Thestructurecorrespondstothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresults精彩文档\n实用标准文案fromappropriatetansformations★TheorganizationofthesyntacticcomponentofthegrammarTheXPRule↓Deepstructure(subcategorizationrestrictschoiceofcomplements)↓Transformations↓Surfacestructure12WhMovement:MovethewhphrasetothebeginningofthesentenceWhMovement(revised)：MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP13Moveαandconstraintsontransformations❶thereisageneralruleforallthemovementrules.ThisgeneralruleisreferredtoasMoveα,where“alpha”isacovertermforanyelementthatcanbemovedfromoneplacetoanother.❷onlycertaincategoriesaretargetedbymovementrules,andtherearelimitsonhowfarelementscanbemoved.①inversioncanmoveanauxiliaryfromtheInfltothenearestCposition.②noelementmayberemovedfromacoordinatestructure.Chapter5Semantics语义学1语义学定义：Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.2Thenamingtheory(ancientGreekscholarPlato)A→BThewordsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Limitations:Thistheoryseemsapplicabletonounsonly.Abstractnotionscannotbedefinedbythistheory.精彩文档\n实用标准文案3Theconceptualistview(概念论)Thereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto.Semantictriangle/triangleofsignificance(OgdenandRichards)1923年提出Thought/referenceSymbol/form……………………………...referent4Contextualism语境论（J.R.Firth——Britishlinguist）Malinowski(Polishanthropologist)Wittgenstein(Germanphilosopher)Thecontextualistviewofmeaningisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontext:ThesituationalcontextThelinguisticcontext/co-textThemaincomponentsofaparticularspatiotemporalsituation:TheplaceThetimeThespeakerThehearerTheactionsThevariousobjectsandeventsThelinguisticcontextisconcernedwiththeprobabilityofaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocationwithanotherword,whichformspartofthe“meaning”oftheword,andalsowiththepartoftextthatprecedesandfollowsaparticularutterance.5Behaviorism行为主义论（AmericanBloomfield）Thistheoryislinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.刺激反应理论：JillJackS------------------r………..s-------------------R精彩文档\n实用标准文案6lexicalmeaningSenseandreferenceSense定义:Itisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofalinguisticform,thecollectionofallitsfeatures;itisabstractandde-contextualized.(Dictionarycompilersareinterestedin)每个单词都有它的意义（sense）Reference定义：Itmeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.不是所有单词都有语义（reference）Majorsenserelations:❶synonymy同义关系synonyms①dialectalsynonyms方言同义词（BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglish）Girl------lass/lassie(Scottishdialect)Liquor-------whiskey(Irishdialect)BAAutumnfallLiftelevatorLuggagebaggageLorrytruckPetrolgasolineFlatapartmentWindscreenwindshieldTorchflashlight②stylisticsynonymsWordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformalityE.g.oldman/daddy/dad/father/maleparentStart/begin/commenceKid/child/offspringKickthebucket/popoff/die/passaway/decease③synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluationmeaningCollaborator/accomplice④collocationalsynonyms短语同义词Accuse…of/charge…with/rebuke…forRottentomatoes/addledeggs/rancidbacon/sourmilk精彩文档\n实用标准文案⑤semanticallydifferentsynonyms语义上不同的同义词Amaze/astoundDrift/float❷polysemy一词多义❸homonymy同音异义①identicalinsound(homophones):Rain/reignnight/knightpiece/peaceleak/leek②identicalinspelling(homographs):Bow/bowtear/tearlead/lead③identicalinbothsoundandspelling(completehomonyms):Fast/fastscale/scale❹hyponymy下义关系①Itreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.②superordinate上坐标词③hyponyms下义词④co-hyponyms共同下义词E.g.Flower:rose/tulip/carnation/lily/morninggloryAnimal:dog/cat/tiger/lion/wolf/elephant/fox/bearFurniture:bed/table/desk/dresser/wardrobe/settee❺antonymy反义关系①gradableantonyms等级反义词②complementaryantonyms互补反义词（不能共存，非此即彼）③relationalopposites反向反义关系（相反的两个极端但可共存）7senserelationsbetweensentences①XissynonymouswithY.(X真，Y真；X假，Y假)②XisinconsistentwithY.(X真，Y假；X假，Y真)③XentailsY.(X真，Y一定真；X假，Y可真可假)④XpresupposesY.(X真，Y一定真；X假，Y仍为真)⑤Xisacontradiction.(X永远假)⑥Xissemanticallyanomalous.语义破格句8analysisofmeaning❶componentialanalysis----awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning(成分分析)Semanticfeatures语义特征：Theword“man”comprisesthefeaturesof+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE❷predicationanalysis----awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning(述谓结构分析)Themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupthemeaningsofall精彩文档\n实用标准文案itsconstituentwords.TherearetwoaspectstosentencemeaningGrammaticalmeaning:grammaticalwell-formednessThegrammaticalityofasentenceisgovernedbythegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage.Semanticmeaning:Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions(选择限制).(constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers.)注意同生成学派次范畴化进行对比Predicationanalysis:proposedbytheBritishlinguistG.Leech.Predication:itistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)(变元)andpredicate(谓词)E.g.TOM(SMOKE)KID,APPLE(LIKE)(BEHOT)(SNOW)Argument(s)(变元)定义：Itisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwithanominalelementinasentence.Predicate(谓词)定义：Itissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.Classificationofthepredicationaccordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication:①two-placepredication②one-placepredication③no-placepredicationChapter6Pragmatics语用学Origin起源：1938,AmericanphilosopherCharlesMorrisFoundationoftheTheoryofSignsSemiotics:符号学ascienceofsigns3branches:syntax/semantics/pragmatics√Pragmatics定义：Itisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.精彩文档\n实用标准文案Astheprocessofcommunicationisessentiallyaprocessofconveyingandunderstandingmeaninginacertaincontext,itcanalsoberegardedasakindofmeaningstudy.Twomajortraditionsinthestudyofpragmatics:①theAnglo-Americantradition:Laymuchemphasisonthestudyofspecificlanguagephenomena②theEuropeancontinentaltradition:Itdoesnotidentifypragmaticswithaspecificunitofanalysis,buttakespragmaticstobeageneralcognitive,social,andculturalperspectivesattheuseoflanguage.√PragmaticsVS.SemanticsWhatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisconfinedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.Fiveconcepts:五个概念整理√❶context:FirstnotedbyBritishlinguistJohnFirthinthe1930sItisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguageItisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Variouscomponentsofsharedknowledgehavebeenidentified.Contextdeterminesthespeaker’suseoflanguageandalsothehearer’sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.Variouscomponentsofsharedknowledge:KnowledgeofthelanguagetheyuseKnowledgeofwhathasbeensaidbefore(属于linguisticcontext)KnowledgeabouttheworldingeneralKnowledgeaboutthespecificsituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplaceKnowledgeabouteachother√❷sentencemeaning:和❹进行比较Themeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.(abstract/decontextualized)精彩文档\n实用标准文案❸sentenceAsentenceisagrammaticalconcept.√❹utterancemeaning:Concrete/context-dependent❺utteranceAnutterancecanbegrammaticallyacompletesentenceorincompletesentence.注：themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning.Speechacttheory言语行为理论理论基础：whenwearespeaking,weareperformingactions(doingsomething)ItwasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherJohnAustininthelate50softhe20thcentury.Itisaphilosophicalexplanationofthenatureoflinguisticcommunication.Itaimstoanswerthequestion“whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”Constatives:述事话语(表述句)定义Theyarestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable.Performatives:行事话语(施为句)定义Theyaresentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.√Newmodel:threeactsAmericanphilosopher-linguistJohnSearle①locutionaryact(言内行为)Theactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexicon,andphonologyTheactofutteringwords,phrases,andclauses②illocutionaryact(言外行为)语言学家最感兴趣Theactofexpressingthespeaker’sintentionTheactofperformedinsayingsomething③perlocutionaryact(言后行为)主要与听话人有关TheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomethingItistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.Itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.√Searle’sclassificationofspeechactsSpecificactsthatfallintothefivetypesharethesameillocutionarypoint,butdifferintheirstrength.精彩文档\n实用标准文案①representatives/assertives(阐述类):statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue②directives(指令类):tryingtogetthehearertodosomething③commissives(承诺类)：committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.④expressives(表达类)：expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate⑤declarations(宣告类)：bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething.√Indirectspeechacts√Whensomeoneisnotsayinginanexplicitandstraightforwardmannerwhathemeanstosay,ratherhisistryingtoputacrosshismessageinanimplicit,roundaboutway,wecansayheisusingindirectlanguage.Atraditionalwaytoexplainindirectlanguageuseisbythemismatchbetweenthebasiclanguageformsandtheirtypicalcommunicativefunctions.Weknowofthereexistthreebasicsentenceforms,thedeclarativesentence,theimperativesentence,andtheinterrogativesentence.√Searleproposedthenotionofindirectspeechact,whichaimedtoexplainindirectlanguageinthelightofthespeechacttheory.Primaryspeechact(主要言语行为)Itisthespeaker’sgoalofcommunicationSecondaryspeechact(次要言语行为)ItisthemeansbywhichheachieveshisgoalTherelationbetweenthesecondaryspeechactandtheprimaryoneisthatbetweenmeansandend.Therecognitionoftherealpurposeofthespeakerthroughwanthesaysisachievedthroughinferencesmadebythehearerbasedonhisgeneralknowledgeandalsohisknowledgeofsomepragmatictheoriesandprinciples.√Principleofconversation会话原则=cooperativeprinciple(CP)合作原则Aphilosopherandlogician,PaulGricespecifiedtwokindsofimpliedmeaningorimplicature①conventionalimplicature(规约含义)Basedontheconventionalmeaningofcertainwordsinthelanguage②non-conventionalimplicature（非规约含义）精彩文档\n实用标准文案主要是particularizedconversationalimplicature(特定语境下的会话含义）InGrice’sview,toconversewitheachother,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate.Grice’soriginalwording:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.FourmaximsThemaximofquantity数量原则（不多不少）Themaximofquality质量准则Themaximofrelation关系原则Themaximofmanner方式准则Threewaysofviolatingthefourmaxim:Thespeakerwantstomisleadthehearer.Thespeakerdoesnotpossesstheadequateamountofinformationheisexpectedtoprovide.Thespeakersimplydoesnotwanttogoonwiththeconversation.Floutingamaximmeansviolatingitblatantly,boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation.Cross-culturalpragmaticfailurePragmaticfailure:WhenthespeakerfailstouselanguageeffectivelytoachieveaspecificcommunicativepurposeWhenthehearerfailstorecognizetheintentionWhenthehearerfailstorecognizetheillocutionaryforceofthespeaker’sutteranceinthecontextofcommunication.Pragmaticfailuremayoccurbothinintra-culturalcommunicationandincross-culturalcommunication.TwodimensionsofpragmaticsPragmalinguistics(语用语言学)Itisappliedtothemorelinguisticendofpragmatics/howthelinguisticformsofalanguageareusedtoservespecificpragmaticpurposes.Sociopragmatics(社会语用学)精彩文档\n实用标准文案Itisthesociologicalinterfaceofpragmaticsandisconcernedwiththecustomarywaysinwhichpeopleofaparticularculturebehavetoachieveaparticularpurpose.精彩文档