英语专业语言学考试

英语专业语言学考试

Chapter11．Whatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication2.Designfeaturesoflanguage？a)Arbitrariness:Itreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.b)Duality:thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures.Suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganizationc)Productivity/creativity:Languageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityandrecursiveness.Languagehasitspotentialtocreateendlesssentences.d)Displacement:Humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.3.Functionsoflanguage1)Informative:Thespeakersuselanguagetotalkabouttheirthoughts,ideas,beliefsorwhattheybelieve,theysee,theyhear.e.g.Waterboilsat212degreeFahrenheit.2)Interpersonalfunction:peopleuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinsociety.e.g.Itincludesformsofaddress,speechfunction,modality,etc.3)Performative:Languageisusedto“dothings”,toperformactions.\n4)Emotivefunction:Itiscrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.5)Phaticcommunion:Thespeakerwilluseseeminglymeaninglessexpressionstoestablishacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutinvolvinganyfactualcontent.6)Recreationalfunction:Thelanguageisusedforthesheerjoy.7)Metalingualfunction:Languagecanbeusedtotalkaboutlanguage.Languageisself-reflexive.E.g.paraphrase:(orderchange,similarexpressions)definition:(/a:/isavoweland/b/isaconsonant.)4. Mainbranchesoflinguistics1)Phonetics----speechsoundsItstudiesspeechsounds,includingtheproductionofspeech,thatis,howthespeechsoundsareactuallymade,transmittedandreceived,thesoundsofspeech,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,etc.2)Phonology---phonemeItstudiestherulesgoverningofthestructure,distributionandsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Simplyputit,itstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication.3)Morphology---morphemeItisconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.Itstudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning---morphemesandword-formationprocess.4)Syntax\nItstudiestherulesintheformation,organizationofasentence.Orspecifically,itstudiesthewordorderofasentence.5)SemanticsItconcernsthestudyofmeaninginalanguage.6)PragmaticsItisthestudyofmeaninginacontext,inaparticularsituation.5.Macrolinguistics:Linguisticsisadiscipline.Ithasrelationshipswithotherdisciplinessuchaspsychology,sociology,computerscienceandsoon.1)Psycholinguistics:Itinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind.2)Sociolinguistics:Itconcernstherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety,includingthesocialfunctionsoflanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.3)Anthropologicallinguistics:Itusesthetheoriesandmethodsofanthropologytostudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtotheculturalpatternsandbeliefsofman.6.Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics1)Descriptivevs.prescriptiveThedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.Descriptivelinguisticsdescribesandanalyzesthefactsobserved.Prescriptivelinguisticstriestolaydownrulesfor“correct”behavior.2)SynchronicandDiachronicAsynchronicdescriptiontakesafixedinstantasitspointofobservation.\nThatis,ifwestudylanguageatsomepointintime,itissynchronicstudy.Diachroniclinguisticsisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.Thatis,ifwestudylanguageasitexistsindifferenthistoricalperiods,itisdiachronicstudy.3)LangueandparoleLangueistheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,includingrules,conventions;Itisstableandsystemic.Paroleistheconcreteuseofrules.Paroleissubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints4)CompetenceandperformanceCompetencereferstothelanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules.Performancereferstotheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.Chapter21.Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.ArticulatoryPhoneticsisthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.AcousticPhoneticsisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds.PerceptualorAuditoryPhoneticsisconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.2.ConsonantsandvowelsConsonantsareproducedwithsomeformofobstructionoftheairpassage,withorwithoutthevibrationofthevocalcords.\nAvowelisproducedwithoutanyobstructionoftheairstreaminthemouth,Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.Placeofarticulation(1).Bilabial(双唇音):[p],[b],[m],[w](2).Labial-dental（唇齿音:[f],[v](3). Dental（齿音）:[ð],[θ](4). Alveolar（齿龈音）:[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l](5). Post-alveolar（后齿龈音）:[ſ],[3](7).Palatal（硬腭音）:[j](8).Velar（软腭音）:[k],[g],[η](11).Glottal（声门音）:[h]1.Whatisminimalpair?twodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplace.2.Allophones[p,ph]aretwodifferentphonesandarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophonesofthesamephoneme.complementarydistribution:theyneveroccurinthesamecontext:Phoneticsimilarity:theallophonesofaphonememustbearsomephoneticresemblance.3.Assimilation:Nasalization,dentalization,andvelarizationareallinstancesofassimilation,aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.4.Suprasegmentalsfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolve\nmorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprinciplesuprasegmentalsarestress,tone,andintonation.1.Thesyllablestructure:Allsyllablesmusthaveanucleusbutallsyllablescontainanonsetandacoda.Asyllablethathasnocodaiscalledanopensyllablewhileasyllablewithcodaisaclosedsyllable.2.Tone:languageslikeChineseareknownastonelanguages.Chapter31.Morpheme（词素）:thesmallestmeaningfulunitincompositionofwords.Morphology:thestudyofword-formation,ortheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformedfromsmallercomponents---morphemes.1.typesofmorphemes1)freemorphemeandboundmorpheme（自由词素和粘附词素）Freemorphemes---morphemeswhichmayoccuraloneormayconstitutewordsbythemselves,e.g.dog,nation,desk,close.Boundmorphemes---morphemeswhichcannotoccuraloneandmustappearwithatleastanothermorpheme,e.g.dis-,un-,-ed,-ment.2)root,affixandstem(词根、词缀和词干)Root---thebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Itisthepartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.Allwordscontainaroot.\nAffix---themorphemesthatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).Therearethreesubtypes:Prefixes,Suffixes&Infixes.Stem---anymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.Oritisthepartofwordformwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved.3).inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix（屈折词缀和派生词缀）Inflectionalaffix---affixeswhichoftenonlyaddagrammaticalmeaningtothestem.Derivationalaffix---affixeswhichchangethelexicalmeaning.•TwofieldsofMorphology:Inflectionalmorphology-thestudyofinflections.•Derivationalmorphology(派生形态学):thestudyofword-formation.2.whatisword1)stability2)relativeuninterruptbility3)aminimumfreeform(Awordisaminimalfreeformofalanguagethathasagivensound,meaningandsyntacticfunction.)3.classificationofwords1)Variable&invariablewordsVariable:wordswithorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordforms.Partofthewordremainsrelativelyconstant.Invariable:wordswithoutinflectiveendings.e.g.since,when,seldom,through,etc.\n2)GrammaticalwordsandLexicalwordsGrammatical/Functionwords:wordswhichexpressgrammaticalmeaning;tolinkdifferentpartstogether.Lexical/Contentwords:wordswhichhavelexicalmeaning,orwhichcarrythemaincontentofalanguage3)Closed-class&open-classwordsClosed-class:whosemembershipisfixedorlimited,i.e.,newmemberscannotnormallybeadded,suchaspronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,auxiliaries.Open-class:whosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited,i.e.,newmemberscanbeadded,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs4)Wordclass:knownasPartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar,whichestablishesninewordclasses,suchasnoun,verb,adjectives,adverbs,pronoun,preposition,conjunction,interjectionandarticle.Pro-form:substitutesforotherterms.lPro-adjective:Yourcarisred.Soishis.lPro-verb:HespeaksEnglishbetterthanhedoes.lPro-adverb:HehopestowinandIhopesotoo.lPro-locative:Hewentthere,underthetree.4.LexicalChange1)Invention/Coinage发明法2)Blending混成法:3)Back-formation逆构词法4)Clipping/Abbreviations缩写词5)Acronym缩略语\n6)Analogicalcreation类推构词7)Borrowing借词5.Compoundreferstoawordthatiscomposedofmorethanonemorpheme,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform.Derivationshowsarelationshipbetweenrootsandaffixes.Newderivationalwordsarecreatedbyattachingprefixesorsuffixestoalreadyexistingwords.Chapter41.Positionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage,or(arelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequenceorbetweenelementswhichareallpresent).PositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSyntagmaticRelationsobservedbyF.deSaussure.1.TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure,(orrelationholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure,betweenoneelementpresentandtheothersabsent).2.ThetechniqueofbreakingupsentencesintosmallerunitsbymakingsuccessivebinarycuttingiscalledImmediateConstituent(IC)Analysis.3.Immediateconstituents:constituentsimmediately,directly,belowthelevelofconstruction,or,thetwopartsthatareyieldedaftereachcut.Animmediateconstituentcanbefurthersegmenteduntilweobtainthesmallestgrammaticalunit\nAdvantageofICanalysisnOnonehand,theinternalstructureofasentencemaybedemonstratedclearlyinICanalysis.nOntheotherhand,ifsomeambiguitiesexist,theywillalsoberevealed.1.Endocentric:Endocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead.2.Exocentric:Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup,3.Category:Itreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Morespecifically,itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:Categoriesofthenoun:number,gender,caseandcountabilityCategoriesoftheverb:tense,aspect,voice4.Agreement:Agreement(orConcord)maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallalso,becharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticllymarkedcategory(orcategories).Chapter51.Semantics:Itreferstothestudyofmeaninginlanguage.More\nspecifically,semanticsisthestudyofthemeaningoflinguisticunits,wordsandsentencesinparticular2.Theword“meaning”itselfhasdifferentmeanings.InthislectureTheMeaningofMeaningwrittenin1923,C.K.OgdenandI.A.Richardspresenteda“representativelistofthemaindefinitionswhichreputablestudentsofmeaninghavefavored”.3.Seventypesofmeaning:*Conceptual/denotativemeaningConnotativemeaningSocialmeaningAffectivemeaningReflectedmeaningCollocativemeaningThematicmeaning4.“Semantictriangle”theory（语义三角理论）na)ProposedbyOgdenandRichardsinthebookTheMeaningofMeaning.nb)Theyarguethattherelationbetweenawordandathingitreferstoisnotdirect.Itismediatedbyconcept,mentalimage.Inotherwords,thelinkbetweenwordsandthingscanbemadeonlythroughtheuseofmind.Foreveryword,thereisanassociatedconcept.nConcept---isthementalimage,theabstractionorgeneralizationofobjectsofthesamekind.Itisabstractedfromtheobjectwhichisreferredto.5.Sense:Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualised.\nReference:Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.6.Senserelations:a)Synonymy:1)Dialectalsynonymy:regionaldialects2)Stylisticsynonymy(Register)3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning4)Collocationalsynonymy:5)SemanticallydifferentsynonymsUsageofSynonymy:1.Paraphrase2.Cohesionintextualanalysisb)Antonymy1)Gradableantonymy2)Complementaryantonymy3)Converseantonymyc)HyponymynSuperordinate/hypernym:themoregeneraltermnHyponym:themorespecifictermnCo-hyponyms:membersofthesameclass8.Componentialanalysis:Itisanapproachthatanalyzeswordmeaningbydecomposingitintoitssemanticfeatures.\nChapter61.SixsubjectsofresearchnLanguageacquisition(L1/L2)nLanguagecomprehensionnLanguageproductionnLanguagedisordersnLanguageandThoughtnNeurocognition2.LanguageAcquisition1)Holophrasticstage(独词句阶段)2)Two-wordstage:around18m3)Three-word-utterancestage4)FluentgrammaticalconversationstageChapter61.Sapir-WhorfHypothesis1)Twopointsinhistheory:nLanguagedeterminesourthinkingpatternsnSimilaritybetweenlanguagesisrelative.Thegreatertheirstructuraldifferentiations,themorediversetheirconceptualizationoftheworldwillbe.2)Linguisticdeterminism(语言决定论):语言决定思维Linguisticrelativity(语言相对论)：思维相对于语言，思维模式随着语言的不同而不同。---expoundedbyWilhelmvonHumboldt,aGermanethnologist2.Typesoflinguisticsexism(fromKing1991)1)male-as-norm(womeninvisible)\n2)irrelevantreferencetogender3)irrelevantreferencetophysicalappearanceordomesticrelationships4) inappropriateformsofaddressChapter81.Pragmaticsmaybedefinedasthestudyofmeaningofword,sentenceofaindividualLanguageinsocialcontextContext----abasicconceptinthestudyofpragmatics.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer,suchasculturalbackground,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),therelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer,etc.2.Constatives(叙事句)vs.performatives(施为句)Constatives:utteranceswhichroughlyservestostateafact,reportthatsomethingisthecase,ordescribewhatsomethingisPerformatives:utteranceswhichareusedtoperformacts,donotdescribeorreportanythingatall;theutteringofthesentenceisthedoingofanaction;theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.