《新编语言学教程》课后答案

《新编语言学教程》课后答案

(1)semantics:thestudyoflinguisticmeaning.(2)truth-conditionalsemantics:anapproachthatknowingthemeaningofthesentenceisthesameasknowingtheconditionsunderwhichthesentenceistrueorfalse,andknowingthemeaningofawordorexpressionisknowingthepartthatitplaysinthetruthorfalsehoodofthesentencecontainingit.(3)namingtheory:theviewthatthemeaningofanexpressioniswhatitrefersto,ornames.(4)behavioristtheory:theviewthatthemeaningofalinguisticformisdefinedasobservablebehaviorswhichisanapproachdrawingonpsychology.(5)usetheory:thesemantictheoryaccordingtowhichthemeaningofanexpressionisdeterminedbyitsuseincommunicationandmoregenerally,insocialinteraction.(6)sense:theinherentpartofanexpression’smeaning,togetherwiththecontext,determinesitsreferent.Forexample,knowingthesenseofanounphrasesuchasthepresidentoftheUnitedStatesin2004allowsonetodeterminethatGeorgesuchasthepresidentoftheUnitedStatesin2004allowsonetodeterminethatGeorge(7)reference:(insemantics)therelationshipbetweenwordsandthethings,actions,eventsandqualitiestheystandfor.AnexampleinEnglishistherelationshipbetweenthewordtreeandtheobject“tree”(referent)intherealworld.(8)conceptualmeaning:Itmeansthemeaningofwordsmaybediscussedintermsofwhattheydenoteorreferto,alsocalleddenotativeorcognitivemeaning.Itistheessentialandinextricablepartofwhatlanguageisandiswidelyregardedasthecentralfactorinverbalcommunication.Forinstance,theconceptualmeaningof“he”inEnglishisanymalepersonormaleanimal.(9)connotativemeaning:Itisthecommunicativemeaningthatawordoracombinationofwordshasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overitspurelyconceptualmeaning.Forexample,theconnotativemeaningof“woman”isemotional,frail,inconstant,irrational,etc.(10)semanticfield:theorganizationofrelatedwordsandexpressionsintoasystemwhichshowstheirrelationshiptooneanother.Forexample,kinshiptermssuchasfather,mother,brother,sister,uncle,auntbelongtoasemanticfieldwhoserelevantfeaturesincludegeneration,sex,membershipofthefather’sormother’ssideoffamily.(11)lexicalgap:theabsenceofawordinaparticularplaceinasemanticfieldofalanguage.Forinstance,inEnglishwehavebrotherversussister,sonversusdaughter,butnoseparatelexemesfor“male”and“female”cousin.(12)componentialanalysis:(insemantics)anapproachtothestudyofmeaningwhich\nanalyzesawordintoasetofmeaningcomponentsorsemanticfeatures.Forexample,themeaningoftheEnglishwordboymaybeshownas[+human][+male][-adult].(13)semanticfeature:thesmallestunitsofmeaninginaword.Themeaningofwordmaybedescribedasacombinationofsemanticcomponentsorfeatures.Forexample,thefeature[+male]ispartofthemeaningoffather,andsoisthefeature[+adult],butotherfeaturesareneededtomakeupthewholemeaningoffather.Often,semanticfeaturesareestablishedbycontrastandcanbestatedintermsof[+]and[-],e.g.womanhasthesemanticfeatures[+human],[-male]and[+adult].(14)synonym:thesenserelationsofequivalenceofmeaningbetweenlexicalitems,e.g.small/littleanddead/deceased.(15)antonym:thesenserelationofvariouskindsofopposingmeaningbetweenlexicalitems,e.g.big/small,alive/deadandgood/bad.(16)hyponymy:thesenserelationbetweentermsinahierarchy,whereamoreparticularterm(thehyponym)isincludedinthemoregeneralone(thesuperordinate):XisaY,e.g.abeechisatree,atreeisaplant.(17)meronym:thesenserelationbetweenbodyanditspartswhicharenotonlysectionsofthebodybutdefinedintermsofspecificfunctions.Forexample,theheadisthepartofthebodywhichcarriesthemostimportantsenseorgans,i.e.eyes,ears,noseandtongue.(18)semanticrole:thewayinwhichthereferentofanounphraseisinvolvedinthesituationdescribedorrepresentedbytheclause,forexampleasagent,patient,orcause.(19)entailment:therelationshipbetweentwosentenceswherethetruthofone(thesecond)isinferredfromthetruthoftheother,e.g.CordayassassinatedMaratandMaratisdead;ifthefirstistrue,thesecondmustbetrue.(20)presupposition:implicitassumptionsabouttheworldrequiredtomakeanutterancemeaningfulorappropriate,e.g.“someteahasalreadybeentaken”isapresuppositionof“Takesomemoretea!”2.(1)Hewaitedbythebank.a.Hewaitedbythefinancialinstitutionwhichpeoplecankeeptheirmoneyinorborrowfrom.b.Hewaitedbythebankoftheriver.(2)Ishereallythatkind?a.Ishereallythattypeofperson?b.Ishereallythatkind-hearted?(3)Weboughtherdogbiscuits.\na.Weboughtdogbiscuitsforher.b.Weboughtbiscuitsforherdog.(4)Hesawthatgasolinecanexplode.a.Hesawthatgasolinecontainerexplode.b.Hesawthatgasolinemayexplode.(5)Fiftysoldiersshotthreewildfoxes.a.Fiftysoldiersshotthreewildfoxesintotal.b.Eachofthefiftysoldiersshotthreewildfoxes.(6)Hesawherdrawingpencils.a.Hesawherpencilsfordrawing.b.Hesawherdrawingthepictureofpencils.3.(2)(4)(5)(8)areantonyms;(1)(3)(6)(7)aresynonyms.4.charity:kindness,sympathy,church,helpfuliron:strong,brave,hard,determinedmole:traitor,betrayal,spysnow:pure,virgin,cleanstreet:homeless,livinghard,pitiable5.(1)a.hoardb.scribblec.barn,methodd.olfactory(2)a.acquireb.tellc.wayd.smell(3)a.buy,win,steal.b.talk,tellc.road,way,pathd.smellThesewordsarelessmarkedintheirsetsbecausetheyaremoreusualandtendtobeusedmorefrequently.Theyconsistofonlyonemorphemeandareeasiertolearnandrememberthanothers.Theyarealsooftenbroaderinmeaningandcannotbedescribedbyusingthenameofanothermemberofthesamefield.6.homophones:sea-see,break-brake;polysemies:sea,break,prayer,mature,trace,househomonyms:ear.7.Inasemanticfield,notalllexicalitemsnecessarilyhavethesamestatus.Thelessmarkedmembersofthesamesemanticfield(1)areusuallyeasiertolearnandrememberthanmoremarkedmembers;(2)consistofonlyonemorphemeincontrasttomoremarkedmembers;(3)cannotbedescribedbyusingthenameofanothermemberofthesamefield;(4)tendtobeusedmorefrequentlythanmoremarkedterms;(5)broaderinmeaningthanmoremarkedmembers;(6)arenottheresultofthemetaphoricalusageofthenameofanotherobjectorconcept,butmoremarkedare.8.(1)a.bachelor,man,son,paperboy,pope,chiefb.bull,rooster,drake,ram.\nThe(a)and(b)wordsaremale.The(a)wordsarehuman.The(b)wordsareanimals.(2)a.ask,tell,say,talk,converseb.shout,whisper,mutter,drawl,hollerThe(a)and(b)wordsarerealizedbysounds.The(a)wordsarenormalvoicequality.The(b)wordsareproducedbymodifyingone’snormalvoicequality.(3)a.walk,run,skip,jump,hop,swimb.fly,skate,ski,ride,cycle,canoe,hang-glideThe(a)and(b)wordsaresports(movement).The(a)wordsaresportswithoutinstruments.The(b)wordsaresportswithinstruments.(1)pragmatics:abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguageinuse.(2)deixis:themarkingoftheorientationorpositionofentitiesandsituationswithrespecttocertainpointsofreferencesuchastheplace(here/there)andtime(now/then)ofutterance.(3)reference:(insemantics)therelationshipbetweenwordsandthethings,actions,events,andqualitiestheystandfor.(4)anaphora:aprocesswhereawordorphrase(anaphor)refersbacktoanotherwordorphrasewhichwasusedearlierinatextorconversation.(5)presupposition:implicitassumptionsabouttheworldrequiredtomakeanutterancemeaningfulorappropriate,e.g.“someteahasalreadybeentaken”isapresuppositionof“Takesomemoretea!”(6)SpeechActTheory:ThetheorywasproposedbyJ.L.AustinandhasbeendevelopedbyJ.R.Searle.Basically,theybelievethatlanguageisnotonlyusedtoinformortodescribethings,itisoftenusedto“dothings”,toperformacts.Insaying“Sorry”,youareperforminganactofapology.(7)indirectspeechact:anutterancewhoseliteralmeaning(location)andintendedmeaning(illocution)aredifferent.Forexample,Canyoupassthesalt?isliterallyayes/noquestionbutisusuallyutteredasarequestorpolitedirectiveforaction.(8)theCooperativePrinciple:aprincipleproposedbythephilosopherPaulGricewherebythoseinvolvedincommunicationassumethatbothpartieswillnormallyseektocooperatewitheachothertoestablishagreedmeaning.Itiscomposedof\n4maxims:quality,quantity,relationandmanner.(9)thePolitenessPrinciple:politenessisregardedbymostinterlocutorsasameansorstrategywhichisusedbyaspeakertoachievevariouspurposes,suchassavingface,establishingandmaintainingharmonioussocialrelationsinconversation.Thisprinciplerequiresspeakersto“minimizetheexpressionofimpolitebeliefs”.Itiscomposedof6maxims:MaximsofTact,Generosity,Approbation,Modesty,AgreementandSympathy.(10)conversationalimplicature:theuseofconversationalmaximsintheCooperativePrincipletoproduceextrameaningduringconversation.2.Deicticexpressions:I,now,you,that,here,tomorrow.3.Anaphoricexpressions:she,him,it.4.(1)Heboughtthebeer.(2)Youhaveawatch.(3)Weboughtacar.5.Directacts:(1)/(5);Indirectacts:(2)/(3)/(4)6.(a)TheMaximofQuality:(1)Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse;(2)Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.(b)TheMaximofQuantity:(1)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange);(2)Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.(c)TheMaximofRelation:Berelevant.(d)TheMaximofManner:Beperspicuous(1)Avoidobscurityofexpression;(2)Avoidambiguity;(3)Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity);(4)Beorderly.7.ThespeakerisparticularlycarefulaboutthemaximofAgreementinPP.Theresponsebeginswith“well”ratherthan“no”inordertominimizedisagreementbetweenthespeakerandhearer.8.Itisanindirectspeechact.CarolinvitesLaratoaparty,butLarawantstodeclinetheinvitation.Tobepolite,shedoesn’tchooseadirectrefusal,insteadshesays“I’vegotanexamtomorrow”asareasonableexcusetodeclinetheinvitation.Inthisway,sheminimizestheexpressionofimpolitebeliefs,thustheutteranceconformstoPP(1)discourse:ageneraltermforexamplesoflanguageuse,i.e.languagepro-ducedastheresultofanactofcommunication.Itreferstothelargerunitsoflanguagesuchasparagraphs,conversationsandinterviews.(2)discourseanalysis:thestudyofhowsentencesinwrittenandspokenlanguageformlargermeaningunitssuchasparagraphs,conversationsandinterviews.\n(3)giveninformation:theinformationthattheaddresserbelievesisknowntotheaddressee.(4)newinformation:theinformationthattheaddresserbelievesisnotknowntotheaddressee.(5)topic:themaincenterofattentioninasentence.(6)cohesion:thegrammaticaland/orlexicalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentelementsofatext.Thismaybetherelationshipbetweendifferentsentencesordifferentpartsofasentence.(7)coherence:therelationshipthatlinksthemeaningsofutterancesinadiscourseorofthesentencesinatext.(8)discoursemarker:thetechnicaltermforalltheitemsthatareusedtohelpconstructdiscourse,suchassignifyingthebeginningorendingofaparagraphoraturninconversation.Theyarecommonlyusedintheinitialpositionofanutteranceandaresyntacticallydetachablefromasentence,suchaswell,Imean,now,then,first,second,finally.(9)adjacencypair:asetoftwoconsecutive,orderedturnsthat“gotogether”inaadjacencypair:asetoftwoconsecutive,orderedturnsthat“gotogether”inaacceptance,criticism/denial.(10)preferencestructure:intheconversationstherecanbeseveralsecondpartsrelatedtoonefirstpart,buttheyarenotofequalstatus.Thestructurallikelihoodiscalledpreference,andthislikelystructureisthepreferencestructurethatdividessecondpartsintopreferredanddispreferred.Theformeristhestructurallyexpectedandthelatterunexpected.Inansweringthequestion“Haveyougotalight?”,thereply“Hereyouare”ispreferredand“Sorry,no,Idon’tsmoke”isdispreferred.(11presequence:theopeningsequencesthatareusedtosetupsomespecialpotentialactions,suchasgreetingsbeforeformalconversations.“Whatareyoudoingtonight?”canbeusedasapresequenceifitisfollowedby“Ifnothingspecial,comeoverandhavedinnerwithusplease.”(12)criticaldiscourseanalysis:theanalysisoflanguageusedirectedat,andcommittedto,discoveringtheconcealedideologicalbias,injustice,inequalityinthepowerrelationsamongspeakersandhearers.2.Inthestudyofdiscourse,cohesionreferstothegrammaticaland/orlexicalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentpartsofatext.Thismaybetherelationshipbetweendifferentsentencesordifferentpartsofasentence.Itconcernsthequestionofhowsentencesareexplicitlylinkedtogetherinadiscoursebydifferentkindsofovertdevices.Suchcohesive\ndevicesincludereference,substitution,ellipses,conjunctionandlexicalcohesion.5.Itisnotacoherentdiscourse.AlthoughithasconnectionwordssuchasaFordacarandblack––Black,whichlooklikecohesivedevices,theyrefertoentirelydifferentthings.Thereisatotallackofinternalrelationamongthesentences.Atextcan’tbeonlybasedonsuperficialconnectionsbetweenthewordstopursuecoherence;theremustbesomerelationshipthatlinksthemeaningsofthesentencesinatext,too.Thistextisnotinlinewithourrealexperienceofthewaytheworldis.Thus,wecan’tmakesenseofitdirectlyunlesswearelaborioustocreatemeaningfulconnectionswhicharenotactuallyexpressedbythewordsandsentences.Soit’snotacoherentdiscourse.6.Coherenceistherelationshipthatlinksthemeaningsofutterancesinadiscourseorofthesentencesinatext.Thisextractiscoherent.Allthesentences(questionsinfact)areorganizedaroundthetopic“interview”,andtheyarearrangedfromthegeneraltothemorespecificinalogicalordersothatthetextiseasytofollow.(1)sociolinguistics:thestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety,thatis,howsocialfactorsinfluencethestructureanduseoflanguage.(2)standardlanguage:thevarietyofalanguagewhichhasthehigheststatusinacommunityornationandwhichisusuallybasedonthespeechandwritingofeducatednativespeakersofthelanguage.(3)dialect:alanguagevarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialgroup;dialectscanbecharacteristicofregional,social,temporal,occupationalorgendergroups.(4)register:alanguagevarietyassociatedwithaparticularsituationofuse,e.g.babytalkandlegallanguage.(5)pidgin:avarietyoflanguagethatisnotanativelanguageofanyone,butislearnedincontactsituations.(6)creole:alanguagethatbeginsasapidginandeventuallybecomesthefirstlanguageofaspeechcommunitythroughitsbeinglearnedbychildren.(7)languageplanning:planning,usuallybyagovernmentorgovernmentagency,concerningchoiceofnationalorofficiallanguage(s),waysofspreadingtheuseofalanguage,spellingreforms,theadditionofnewwordstothelanguage,andotherlanguageproblems.(8)diglossia:asituationwhentwodistinctvarietiesofthesamelanguageareused,sidebyside,fortwodifferentsetsoffunctions.(9)bilingualism:theuseofatleasttwolanguageseitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers,suchastheinhabitantsofaparticularregionoranation.(10)code-switching:themovementbackandforthbetweentwolanguagesordialects\nwithinthesamesentenceordiscourse.(11)taboo:awordorexpressionthatisprohibitedbythepolitesocietyfromgeneraluse.(12)euphemism:awordorphrasethatreplacesataboowordorisusedtoavoidreferencetocertainactsorsubjects,e.g.“powderroom”for“toilet”.2.Idiolectsarevarietiesofalanguageusedbyindividualspeakers,withpeculiaritiesofpronunciation,grammarandvocabulary.3.Apresidentwhodidnothaveanaccentmayrefertoapresidentwhospeaksthestandardlanguage.Thestandardlanguageisaparticularvarietyofalanguagethatisofficiallygivenastatushigherthananyother,andthereforeadominantorprestigiousvariety.Thestandardlanguageisusuallybasedonthespeechandwritingofeducatednativespeakersofthelanguageandisgenerallyusedingovernmentdocuments,education,broadcastingandprinting.Agoodpresidentisexpectedtospeaktheprestigiousvarietyofhislanguage.4.Languageplanningisusuallydonebyagovernmentorgovernmentagencywhichconcernsthechoiceofnationalorofficiallanguage(s),waysofspreadingtheuseofthelanguage(s),spellreforms,theadditionofnewwordstothelanguage,andotherlanguageproblems.Inordertocarryitouteffectively,theofficialattemptmayconcentrateoneitherthestatusofalanguagewithregardtosomeotherlanguageorvarietyoritsinternalconditionwithaviewtochangingit.Languageplanningusuallyinvolvestwoaspects:statusplanningandcorpusplanning.Statusplanningchangesthefunctionofalanguageoravarietyofalanguageandtherightofthosewhouseit.Andcorpusplanningseekstodevelopavarietyoflanguageoralanguage,usuallytostandardizeit,thatis,toprovideitwiththemeansforservingmostlanguagefunctionsinsociety.Governmentsmaytakebothsidesintoconsideration.5.Apidginisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.PidginarosefromablendingofseverallanguagessuchasChinesedialectsandEnglish.Typicallypidginshavealimitedvocabularyandamuchreducedgrammaticalstructurecharacterizedbythelossofinflections,genderandcase.Whenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage,itissaidtohavebecomeacreole.Thestructureoftheoriginalpidginisexpandedtoenableittofulfillitsnewfunctions.Thevocabularyisvastlyenriched,andnewsyntactic-semanticconceptsdeveloped.NotableexamplesofcreolearetheEnglish-basedcreoleofHaiti.6.Therearemanyeuphemismsfortoilet,suchasWC,powderroom,Men’sroom,Ladies’\nroom,Gentlemen,bathroom,restroomandsoon.Inmanycultures,peopleavoidreferringtothisplaceby“toilet”or“lavatory”becausetheyareunpleasanttotheear.Theuseofeuphemismsreflectssocialattitudesorsocialcustoms.Wechoosethewordsorexpressionsofeuphemismbecausetheyaremorepoliteorpleasanttousewithoutembarrassingothers.7.Therearetwopossiblereasons.Onereasonisthatwomenareusuallymorestatus-consciousthanmenandtheyareawareoftheirlowerstatusinsocietyandasaresult,theymayusemorestandardspeechformsintheirattempttoclaimequalityorevenachieveahighersocialstatus.Theotherreasonmightbeattrib-utedtotheeducation.Womenareeducatedtobehave“likealady”whentheyarelittlegirls,andsucheducationmayinfluencetheirspeechaswell.(Theanswersarequiteopen)(1)psycholinguistics:thestudyoftherelationbetweenlanguageandmind:thementalstructuresandprocesseswhichareinvolvedintheacquisition,comprehensionandproductionoflanguage.(2)languageproduction:theprocessinvolvedincreatingandexpressingmeaningthroughlanguage,suchasthefoursuccessivestagesprovidedbyLevelt(1989):conceptualization,formulation,articulationandself-regulation.(3)languagecomprehension:Fromapsycholinguisticpointofview,westoreagreatdealofinformationaboutthepropertiesofthelanguage,andretrievethisinformationwhenweunderstandlanguage.Besides,languagecomprehensioncanbetreatedinfourlevels:sound,word,sentenceandtextcomprehensions.(4)Sapir-WhorfHypothesis:Itreferstotheviewthatthelanguagesystemcouldinfluenceorevendetermineone’sthought,andaparticularlanguageimposesparticularideasofnatureorbeliefsofone’sculture.(5)linguisticdeterminism:One’slanguagestructuredetermineshiscognitivestructure.Thatis,learningalanguagemaychangethewayapersonthinksorperceivestheobjectiveworld.(6)linguisticrelativity:Asone’slanguageinfluencesone’scognitivesystem,speakersofdifferentlanguagesperceivetheworlddifferently.2.Psycholinguisticsisthestudyofpsychologicalaspectsoflanguage;itusuallyinvestigatesthepsychologicalstatesandmentalactivitiesassociatedwiththeuseoflanguage.Mostproblemsinpsycholinguisticsarecomparativelymoreconcrete,involvingthestudyoflanguageacquisitionespeciallyinchildrenandlinguisticperformancesuchasproducingandcomprehendingutterancesorsentencesamongadults.However,theoreticallinguisticsismoreobjective.Itusuallyinvestigatestheexistingphenomenaaboutlanguagesanditsinvestigationsareusually\ncarriedoutinthebranchesofmicrolinguistics:phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntaxandsemantics.Psycholinguisticsisaninterdisciplinarystudyoflanguageandpsychology,withstructurallinguisticsandcognitivepsychologyasitsrootswhiletheoreticallinguisticssolelyfocusesonaspectsoflanguage.3.(1)Thecorrectformis“Theyswamacrossthelake”,whichiscausedbyexchange.(2)Thecorrectformis“Thespywasboundandgagged”,whichiscausedbyexchange.(3)Thecorrectformis“Iwillseeyouinthepark”,whichoriginatesfromsubstitution.4.Theslip-of-the-tonguephenomenondescribedabovecanbeexplainedbytheparalleldistributedprocessing(PDP)approachinwordcomprehension.ThePDPapproachholdsthatpeopleuseseveralseparateandparallelprocessesatthesametimetounderstandspokenorwrittenlanguage.Intheslip-of-the-tonguephenomenon,peoplehavealreadyconceptualizedhis/heridea(thought),butcannotfindaproperwordtoexpresstheidea.Thisshowsthatthoughtprecedeslanguage.Accordingtolinguisticdeterminism,languageshapesone’sthought.Ifthereisn’tlanguage,thereshouldbenothought.Thus,thisphenomenongoesagainstlinguisticdeterminismandshowsthatthoughtcanexistwithorwithoutlanguage.5.Thefactmentionedherefliesatthefaceoflinguisticdeterminismwhichsaysthatone’slanguagestructuredeterminesone’scognitivestructure.That’stosay,aparticularlanguagecannotshapeone’sworldview.Languagechangesalongsocialchanges.Andsocialchangescanleadtothechangesofpeople’sview.Atthesametime,one’sworldviewcanaffectaparticularlanguage.Forexample,Xiaojiewasusedtorefertothedaughterofrichandimportantfamiliesbefore1949.Then,since1949,greatchangeshavetakenplaceinChina.TheworldviewofChinesepeoplehaschangedradicallybutthelanguagehaschangedlittle.DuringtheCulturalRevolution,Xiaojiebecameverymuchculturallyloaded—youngwomennotbelongingto‘therevolutionaryrank’andpeoplenottobepoliticallytrusted.After1979,itgraduallybecamepopularagain,andnowithastakenonaderogatorymeaning(hooker).Asitismentionedabove,itissocialchangesthatshapeone’sworldview,anditiscognitivestructurethataffectslanguage.\n