Discourse语篇,社会语言学

Discourse语篇,社会语言学

DiscourseByLiuxuan\nContentBackground1Releventconcepts2DiscourseAnalysis32.1Definitions2.2Types2.3Functions\n1.BackgroundBeforethe1920s,thereweremanystudiesonlanguageitselffromsyntaxview.Thestudiesaremainlyonthegrammaticalstructureofseperatedsentences.Theystudiedneithertherelationshipbetweensentences,northefunctionsofsentencesinalargerlinguisticunit.However,justlikeonewordmayhavedifferentmeaningsindifferentsentences,onesentencealsohasdifferentmeaningsandfunctionsindifferentlinguisticcontext.Howsentencesareusedincontext?Howsentencesarelinkedtogether?IssuesLinguistscasttheireyesonahigherlevelthansentenceslevel,whichiscalleddiscourse.Theystudyontheuseofsentencesindiscourse.\n2.Releventconcepts2.1DefinitionsDiscourseis"languageabovethesentenceorabovetheclause".(Stubbs1983)Discourseisacontinuousstretchoflanguagelargerthanasentence.(Crystal1986)Thestudyofdiscourseisthestudyofanyaspectoflanguageuse.(Fasold1990)黄国文在《语篇分析概要》(1988)一书中对语篇做了以下定义:“语篇通常指一系列连续的话段或句子构成的语言整体。……它可以是讲话,也可以是文章;短者一、二句可成篇,长者可洋洋万言以上...”(黄国文1988)\nDiscourseisaunitoflanguageabovethesentence.(E.g.paragraph,article)formal/structuralDiscourseislanguageinuse.(E.g.conversation,speech,word,phrase)functionaldiscoursesentencewordwordwordsentencesentencewordwordword\n2.2TypesofDiscourseAshiftofinterestinthisfieldmightbenoticed,presentlyresultinginfocusonsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenwrittenandspokendiscourse.(Renkema2004:64)\n\nHello,Chicago!Howdoyoulikeyournewoffice?Well,Iloveit.Theroomisspecialandcleanwithbigwindowsandalotofsunshine.本台最新消息：中国卫生部二十九日通报，广东省广州市报告的一例输入性甲型H1N1流感疑似病例当日被诊断为确诊病例\nSpokenDiscourseWrittenDiscourseComposedofsoundsComposedoflettersMakesuseofintonation,pitch,rhythem,tempoMakesuseofpunctuationandothergraphological(字系学)deviceslikeitalics(斜体)TransitoryRelativelypermanentPerceivedbytheearPerceivedbytheeyeAddresseeispresentAddresseeisabsentImmediatefeedbackFeedbackdelayedMeaninghelpedbycontext,bodymovement,gesturesMeaningmustbemadeclearwithinthecontext\nAccordingtoSteger,spokendiscourseissubdividedintosixtypes:Thecriteriaofthisdivisionincludesuchfactorsaspresenceorabsenceofinteraction,numbersofspeakersandtheirrelationtoeachother,flexibilityoftopicalongwithselectionandattitudeofspeakerstowardsthesubjectmatter.presentationmessagereportpublicdebateconversationinterview\nAccordingtoWerlich(1982),writtendiscourseissubdividedintofivetypes:description,narration,exposition,argumentation,instruction.\nDiscription:thepatternofdevelopmentthatpresentsawordpictureofathing,aperson,asituation,oraseriesofevents.Narration:Narrationencompassesasetoftechniquesthroughwhichthecreatorofthestorypresentstheirstory.Expositionisatypeofwritingwherethepurposeistoexplain,inform,orevendescribe.Argumentationistheprocessofformingreasons,justifyingbeliefs,anddrawingconclusionswiththeaimofinfluencingthethoughtsand/oractionsofothers.Instruction(说明书)：是以应用文体的方式对某事或物来进行相对的详细描述，方便人们认识和了解某事或物。\n\n\n2.3FunctionsTherearetwomainfunctionsofanyformofdiscourse.(Brown,G.&Yule,G.1993)Thatfunctionwhichlanguageservesintheexpressionof‘content’wewilldescribeastransactional.TransactionalThatfunctioninvolvedinexpressingsocialrelationsandpersonalattitudeswewilldescribeasinteractional.InteractionalFunctionsofDiscourse\n2.3.1TransactionalFunctionTheaimof transactionallanguage istoconvey"factualorpropositionalinformation".Languageusedinsuchasituationismainly‘messageoriented’.Itisimportantthattherecipientgetstheinformativedetailcorrect.\n2.3.2InteractionalFunctionTheaimof interactionallanguage istomaintainasocialrelationship.Conversationalanalystshavebeenparticularlyconcernedwiththeuseoflanguagetonegotiaterole-relationships,peer-solidarity,theexchangeofturnsinaconversation,thesavingoffaceofbothspeakerandhearer.\nE.g.Excuseme,Sir.Couldyoupleasetellmethewaytothenearestbusstation?Ofcourse.Justgodownthisstreet,turnleftatthefirsttrafficlightand...\n3.DiscourseAnalysis3.1Development3.2Definition3.3ScopeofResearch3.4Significance3.5PreviousStudies\n3.1DevelopmentThearrangementofwordsinphrasesandsentencesis decidednotonlybysyntax,butalsoby speakers’knowledge of the world and oftheirsociety.Toexplainthearrangement,wemustconnect languagewiththatknowledgeand shelve the project ofdescribing language byitself.Andwemustquit working with invented data andstartworkingwithauthentic data.Theseprospectsarepreciselywhatdiscourseanalysisintendstoachieve.\nThetermDAwasfirstusedin1952byHarrisinhispaper.Hepointsout"languagedoesnotoccurinstraywordsorsentences,butinconnecteddiscourse"(Harris1952).independentfield3.1Development\nFourStagesTheFirstStage:(1952-the1960s)Malinowski(1933)arguesthatthemeaningofasentenceisdecidedwhenandonlyinthecontext.Harris(1952)createdthetermDA,whichisregardedasthebeginningofdiscoursestudies.Firth(1957)claimslanguage"isabehaviorthatbehavesandmeanwhileurgesotherpersontobehave",solinguistsshouldpayattentionto"thecontext".3.1Development\nTheSecondStage:(the1970s)Pike(1967)developsthediscourseanalysisbyitsresearchonlexemeoflanguageandhumangestures.SinclairandCoulthard(1975)saidthatanutteranceismadeupofmove,whichiscomposedofacts.Sacks,SchegloffandJefferson(1974)startedconversationalanalysisbythetermturn.\nTheThirdStage:(the1980s)HallidayandHasan(1976)publishedCohesioninEnglishinwhichtextandtextstructureareintroducedandin1985,AnintroductiontoFunctionalGrammar,whichisconsideredtextgrammarbylinguists.Halliday(1976)createsSystemicFunctionalGrammartostudythesentenceconstructionandtherelationsbetweensentencesanddiscourse.\nTheFourthStage:(the1980s-the1990s)Widdowson(1983)andHalliday(1985)viewsDAisthestudyoftextcohesionanddiscoursecoherence.BrownandYule(1983)havepointedoutthat"theanalysisofdiscourseisnecessary,theanalysisoflanguageinuse".McCarthy(1994)claimsthat"discourseanalysisisfundamentallyconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenlanguageandthecontext.\nSummaryEarlierstudiesofdiscourseoftenfocusedontheabstractstructuresof(written)texts,whilemanycontemporaryapproaches,especiallythoseinfluencedbythesocialsciences,favoramoredynamicstudyof(spoken,oral)talk-in-interaction.DAhasgrownintoawide-rangingdisciplinethatdescribeslanguageabovesentenceandaninterestinthecontexts,whichaffectlanguageinuse.\nLanguagestudydevelops:FromToabstractlanguagesystemactualproductofthatsystemsentenceleveldiscourselevelinsideofthelanguagetheoutsideworld\n5.2DefinitionDiscourseanalysisHarris(1952)claimedexplicitlythat“discourseisthenextlevelinahierarchyofmorphemes,clausesandsentences”.Harrisviewsdiscourseanalysisprocedurallyasaformalmethodology,whichcouldbreakatextdownintorelationships(suchasequivalence,substitution)amongitslower-levelconstituents.Limitations:(Widdowson,H.G.2004)Identifyingtheunderlyingstructuralpatternsthatmakeconnectionsacrosssentencestellsusnothingaboutwhattheymightmean.Helooksbeyondtheboundsofthesentence,itistrue,buthisvisionisessentiallythatofthesentencegrammarian.\n5.2DefinitionDiscourseanalysisDiscourseanalysisisthestudyofhowsentencesinspokenandwrittenlanguageformlargemeaningfulunitssuchasparagraphsandconversation.(Richardsetal.1985)"Discourseanalysisisnota'level'ofanalysis,say,phonologyorlexico-grammar,butanexplorationofhow"texts"atalllevelsworkwithinsocio-culturalpractices."(Candlin1995)Theterm"discourseanalysis"referstoaformoflanguage,publicspeechesormoregenerallytospokenlanguageorwaysofspeaking.(VanDijk1997)Discourseanalysisstudieslanguagebyanalyzingdiscourse-thatis,byexaminingaspectsofthestructureandfunctionoflanguageinuse.(Johnstone2002)\n5.2DefinitionDAinvolveslookingatbothlanguageformandlanguagefunctionandincludesthestudyofbothspokeninteractionandwrittentexts.DAreferstotherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthesocialandculturalcontextsinwhichitisused.Itisnotmerelyconcernedwithlanguageitself,instead,italsostudiedonthecontextofcommunication,suchaswhoisinvolved,whatistheirrelationship,whatisthesituation,throughwhatmedium,whatisthefunctionandsoon.(CaoChunchun2003)\nSummaryDiscourseanalysisconcerns:theanalysisoflanguageinusetherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthecontextsinwhichitisusedthedescriptionandanalysisofbothspokenandwritteninteractions\n5.3ScopeofResearchThestudyofdiscourseThestudyoftextsisnotonlyonwrittentexts,butalsoonsoundrecordingortranscriptionsofspokenlanguageaswell.Thestudyofinteractiveeventsconcernstheproblemsandsuccessesthatpeoplehavewhenuselanguageintheirinteractions.Textinteractiveevents\n5.3.1TextlinguisticsThestudyoftexts,oftencalled,textlinguistics,isaprominentareaoflinguisticsinEurope.Animportantfeatureofthestudyoftexts,writtenororal,arethenotionsofcohesionandcoherence.Thosefeaturescontributetothesenseofunityinatext.\nCohesionCohesionisasemanticconcept,whichreferstorelationsofmeaningthatexistwithinthetext.(Halliday&Hasan1976)Itinvolvesinthegrammaticalorlexicalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentelementsofadiscourse.Thismaybetherelationshipbetweendifferentsentencesorbetweendifferentpartsofasentence.E.g.(1)A:"IsJanehere?"B:"No,sheisn't."(2)Youcanleadahorsetowater,butyoucan'tmakehimdrink.\nCohesivedevicesAccordingtoHallidayandHasan,ReferenceSubstitutionEllipsisConjunctionLexicalCohesion\n1.ReferenceItreferstotherelationbetweenanelementofthediscourseandanotherelement.E.g.ImetXiaoLilastweek.Heworksforajointventure.Wearegoingtotheoperatonight.Thiswillbeourfirstoutingformonths.\n2.SubstitutionSubstitutionisthereplacementoftheword,wordgrouporsentencesegment.Therearethreetypes:clausalsubsitution,verbalsubsitutionandnominalsubstitution.E.g.(1)Haveyouanyknives?Ineedasharpone.(2)BobsaysheisgoingtojointheLabourParty.Itwillbeinterestingtoseewhetherhedoes.(3)A:"Bruceisagoodactor."B:"Idon'tthinkso."\n3.Ellipsis"Anellipticalisonewhich,asitwere,leavesspecificstructuralslotstobefilledfromeverywhere."Torealizeellipsis,itomitstheelementsinthesentence.HallidayandHasantermit"substitutionbyzero".Ithasthreesubcategories:nominalellipsis,verbalellipsisandclausalellipsis.(1)A:Herearesomepicturebooks.Howmanywouldyouliketohave?B:I'dliketohavetwo∅.(2)IwantsomemapsofChina.Haveyougotany∅?\n4.ConjunctionConjunctionisbasedontheassumptionthatthereareinthelinguisticsystemformsofsystematicrelationshipsbetweensentences.Conjunctionistherelationshipindicatinghowthesubsequentsentenceorclauseshouldbelinkedtotheprecedingorthefollowingpartofthesentence.E.g.Itisrainingnow,sowehavetostayathome.\n5.LexicalCohesionLexicalcohesionisthecontinuitythatisconstructedinatextbychoosingwords(Halliday1992).E.g.(1)A:"Whichdressareyougoingtowear?"B:"Iwillwearmygreenfrock."(2)Maryistall,buthersisterisshort.\nCoherenceCohesionmakesadiscourselinkedinform,whilecoherencemakesadiscoursecoherentincontent.Coherenceinlinguisticsiswhatmakesatextsemanticallymeanful.Itreferstotherelationshipwhichlinksthemeaningofutterancesinadiscourseorofthesentencesinatext.\nWhereisthecake?Well,thedoglookshappy.\nE.g."DoyouknowJohn?Shecametoseemelastnight."Thereisnocohesionandcoherencebetweenthesetwosentences,soitisnotadiscourse.However,ifweputthesentencesintoalargerscope,theymaybecoherent."John'ssisterisverylovely.DoyouknowJohn?Shecametoseemelastnight.Andwehadagoodtime."\nThompson(1996)viewsthatcohesionisadiscoursedevice,whichisusedbythespeakertorepresenttheexperienceofdiscoursecoherenceanditisgrammarmeansoftheinterpersonalcoherence;coherenceispsychologicalphenomenon,whichexistsinthespeakers'mind,andcluescannotbefoundatdiscourselevel.\nItcloselytiestosurfaceaspectsoflanguage,whichisachievedbygrammaticalandlexicaldevice.Itreferstothelogicalstructureofinternalaspectsoflanguage,whichisalinerarrangementoftheinformation.CohesionCoherence\n5.3.2ConversationAnalysisThestudyofinteractiveeventsiscalledconversationanalysis.CAreferstotheanalysisofnaturalconversationinordertodiscoverwhatthelinguisticcharacteristicsofconversationareandhowconversationisusedindailylife.ThepurposeofCAistostudythesequentialstructureofnaturalconversation,todiscoverhowthesturctureandresourcesofnaturalconverstionreflectspeakers'socialknowledgeandsocialidentity.\nTurn-takingTurn:Turnreferstothebasicunitoftheconversation.(HarveySacks1974)Turn-taking(话轮转换):Speakersdonotspeakallatthesametime,theywaitfortheir'turn'.Yieldingtherighttospeak,orthe'floor',tothenextspeakerconstitutesaturn.Anyonecanattempttogettherighttospeakinanysituation.\n会话的特点是话轮替换，发话者与受话者不断交换所扮演的角色。日常会话的基本单位是话轮，构成话轮的语言单位可以是单词、短语、分句、句子、句组或更大的单位。会话中有一条潜在的，会话者自然地、无意识地遵守着的规则：每次至少有一方，但又不多于一方在说话。如果有多人或无人发话，便会有人来“挽救”局面。(黄国文1988)\n萨克斯的研究表明，正在讲话的人对会话的发展有三种控制程度：1）通过点名来选定下一位说话人。E.g.Whatdoyouthink,John?2）通过提问题，提请求等方式来选定下一个讲话人，但不是通过点名，而是由其他人自己作出选择。E.g.Whowouldliketosaysomethingaboutit?3）正在讲话的人完全留待其他参加会话的人自行选择，继续进行对话。E.g.A:...That'swhatIthinkofit.B:Well,I'dliketosayafewwordsaboutit...\n在会话中，话轮替换的时机通常发生在受话者认为发话者的话已经到了“可能的结尾”之处，这就要求参加会话的人都必须具备理解和分析别人的讲话内容的能力，具备识别“可能的结尾”的能力。杰斐逊（1973）的研究表明，会话者无疑具备下面这三种能力：1）他们能够不留间隙地给前一位说话者已经完整的话段加上一个结尾。E.g.Ben:An'there--therewasatleasttenmilesoftraffic,bumpertobumper.Ethel:--becauseofthat.\n2）他们能够在合适的时机给一个还没有完整的句子加上自己建议的结尾。E.g.Louise:No,ahsosheissomeonewho-isacarboncopyoftheirfriend.Roger:drinksPepsi.3）他们能够预测句子的结尾部分，并可能和正在讲话的人同时说出同样的话。E.g.Dan:Theguywhodoesn'truntheracedoesn'twinit,buthedoesn'tloseit.Roger:loseit.\n如果正在讲话的人想越过“可能的结尾”并继续说下去，那他可以采取一些方法来实现这一愿望。最简单的方法是使用萨克斯所说的“话段未结束成分”，即一般所说的连接性状语，如：but,and,however,besides等。另一种办法是使用像if,since,when这种“未结束标记”，因为这些词可用来表明在第一个肯恩的结尾之前至少有一到两个分句。这样就可减少被人打断话的可能性。\n5.4SignificanceofDAIthasdemonstratedthatbothspokenandwrittendiscoursehaveconsistentanddescribablestructures,withdifferentcomplexitiesreflectingthedifferentfunctionsofspeechandwritinginourculture.Itprovidesvaluableinsightsintothewaywepatternandorganizeourspeech.Discourseanalysiswillenableustorevealthehiddenmotivationsbehindadisourse(benefitreadingcomprehension).Itcanhelpusimproveourappreciationandevaluationofliteraryworks,andbetterourlinguisticexpressionbothorallyandwritten,andenlargeourvisioninthefieldoflinguisticstudies.\n5.5.PreviousStudiesonDAPreviousstudiesinWesterncountries01PreviousstudiesinChina02\n5.5.1PreviousStudiesinWesternCountriesIn1952,HarrispublishedapaperentitledDiscourseAnalysis,whichputstheterm"discourseanalysis"intooperation.Hetriestoexplainthelinkingbetweensentencesintextsthroughgrammaticaldevices,aimingatresearchinglanguageelementsinadiscourse.Hymes(1964)providesasociologicalperspective,whichpioneersthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsocialcontext.Halliday'sfunctionalapproach(1976)isthemostinfluentialamongthem.Hisframworkemphasizesthesocialfunctionsoflanguageandthematicaswellasinformationstructureofspeechandwriting.Widdowson(1978)furtherstatesthatdiscourseanalysisisastudyofhowsentencesareusedincommunicationtocompletethesocialbehavior,emphasizingthecommunicativefunctionoflanguage.\nAccordingtoBrownandYule(1983),theanalysisofdiscourseintheanalysisoflanguageusedintherealsituation.McCarthy(2002)statesthatdiscourseanalysisisfundamentallyconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenlanguageandthecontexts.Martin'sdiscoursesemantics(2004)theroyisthelatestdevelopmentofdiscourseanalysistheorywithinthesystem-functionalframework.\n5.5.2PreviousStudiesinChinaChineselinguistsbegintostudyDAonlysince1980s,buttheirachievementsareexceptional.Manyscholarshaveplacedthelanguageteaching,especiallythescienceofEnglishteachingmethodonagoodbasisfromtheirresearchesindiscourseanalysis.HuangGuowen'sworks(1988)onDAisEssentialofTextAnalysis.Heintroducessomeimportanttheoriesofdiscourseanalysisandtextanalysisbriefly.HuZhuanglin(1994)writesabooknamedDiscourseCohesionandCoherence,inwhichheintroducesHallidayandHasan'sworkstoChinaandevenaddsChinesedatatohisstudies,extendingtherangeofcohesivedevices.Hethinksthatcohesionandcoherenceshouldbeanalyzedinthetextandthatoverallandglobalcohesiverelationsserveasthecoherenceofatext.\nLiuChendan(1999)publishesthebooknamedTextLinguisticsforTeachers,inwhichheintroducesDAtoEnglishlanguageteachinginChina.Notonlydoeshedevelopsomesignificanttheroiesoftextanalysis,butalsohemakessomeexplanationsthatareconvincing.Hesuggestsafewwaysoflanguageteachingaswell.RuJinxia(2005)probesintothementalrepresentationtothecoherenceofatextinterpretationandconstructionfromtheperspectiveofcognitivelinguistics,byanalyzingthementalrepresentation,textualcohesionanddiscoursereceiver'sworldintelletualrelationshipin2005.Thisresearchprovidesalotofhelptoexplaindiscoursecoherence.\nInrecentyears,discourselinguisticsresearchersbegantoapplytheirreserachachievementstopracticeofteaching.ZhangLina(2006)analyzestheschematheoryandcontextualtheroyinthepracticeofEnglishreadingteaching,andshiputsforwardtheconstructionofstereoscopicteachingtheorybycombinationofpramaticsandpsychology.\n@Liuxuan