语言学chapter 3. morphology

语言学chapter 3. morphology

ReviewQuestions1.HowareEnglishconsonantsclassified?2.HowareEnglishVowelsclassified?3.Phonetictranscription4.supresegmentls\nChapter3Morphology\nMorphologyMorph,verb;morphing,noun[U][V,VN]tochangesmoothlyfromoneimagetoanotherusingcomputerANIMATION;tomakeanimagechangeinthisway-ology(BrEalso-logy)combiningform(innouns),asubjectofstudy:sociology;genealogyacharacteristicofspeechorwriting:phraseology;trilogy-ological,-logical(also-ologic,-logic)(inadjectives):pathological-ologist,-logist(innouns):biologist\nChapter3Morphology3.1Whatisaword?3.2TheformationofWord3.3LexicalChange\n4TERMSLexemeMorphemeAllomorphWord\n(1)Whatisalexeme(义素)?thesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersimilarunits.anabstractunit.canoccurinmanydifferentformsinactualspokenorwrittensentences,andisregardedasthesamelexemeevenwheninflected.E.g.theword“write”isthelexemeof“write,writes,wrote,writingandwritten.”\n(2)Whatisamorpheme?thesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontentaunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.E.g.boxes=box+esneitherof“box”or“es”permitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisshapesifwedon’twanttosacrificeitsmeaning.\nmorphemeThemostbasicelementofmeaningistraditionallycalledmorpheme.Thesmallestmeaningfulelementoflanguagethatcannotbereducedtosmallerelements.(Bussmann1996:313)\n(3)Whatisanallomorph?Anallomorphisthealternateshapesofthesamemorpheme.E.g.thevariantsoftheplurality“-s”:map–maps,mouse–mice,ox–oxen,tooth–teeth,etc.\n(4)Whatisaword?Awordisthesmallestofthelinguisticunitsthatcanconstitute,byitself,acompleteutteranceinspeechorwriting.\n3.1WhatisWord?3.1.1ThreeSensesof“Word”3.1.2IdentificationofWords3.1.3ClassificationofWords\n3.1.1Threesensesof“word”1.Aphysicallydefinableunit:asetofsoundsegmentsorwirtinglettersbetweentwopausesorblanks2.Wordbothasageneraltermandasaspecificterm3.Agrammaticalunit,justlikemorphemeorclausecomplex\n3.1.2IdentificationofWords(1).stability(2).relativeuninterruptibility(3).aminimumfreeform\nWordsarethemoststableofalllinguisticunits,inrespectoftheirinternalstructure.E.g.,wordstructure:chairman——*manchair（*=unacceptable）(stable,littlerearrangementpotential)Sentencestructure:pleasecomein.——Comein,please.(relativepositionalmobility)3.1.2IdentificationofWords(1)Stability\nnewelementsarenottobeinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.E.g.disappointment:dis+appoint+ment.Nothingistobeinsertedinbetweenthethreepartsoftheword.Norisoneallowedtousepausesbetweenthepartsofaword:*disappointment.3.1.2IdentificationofWords(2)Relativeuninterruptibility\nbyLeonardBloomfield(1933):totreatsentenceas“themaximumfreeform”andword“theminimumfreeform,”thelateristhesmallestunitthatcanconstitute,byitself,acompleteutterance.3.1.2IdentificationofWords(3)Aminimumfreeform\n3.1.3ClassificationofWords1.VariableVsinvariablewords2.GrammaticalwordsVslexicalwords3.Closed-classwordsVsopen-classwords4.Wordclass\n1.VariableVsinvariablewordsVariablewords:wordsthathaveinflectivechanges/differentgrammaticalforms,butpartofthewordremainsrelativelyconstant.Invariablewords:wordsthatdonothaveinflectiveendings\n2.GrammaticalwordsandlexicalwordsLexicalwords,a.k.a.contentwords,havelexicalmeanings,i.e.thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandqualitynouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbsGrammaticalwords,a.k.a.functionwords,expressgrammaticalmeaningsconjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronouns\n3.Openclassandclosedclass1.Openclass/contentwords,whosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimitedtowhichnewwordscanberegularlyaddedNounsverbsadjectivesadverbs2.Closedclass/“grammatical”/“functional”words,whosemembershipisfixedorlimited,towhichnewwordsarenotusuallyaddedConjunctionsprepositionsarticlespronouns\n4.Wordclasstraditionalgrammar—partsofspeechwordclassinlinguisticanalysis—widerrangeofmorepreciselydefinedcategories：particles,auxiliaries,pro-forms,determiners.\n(1)ParticlesParticlesinclude:theinfinitivemarker“to,”thenegativemarker“not,”thesubordinateunitsinphrasalverbs,suchas“getby,”“doup,”“lookback,”etc.\n(2)AuxiliariesAuxiliariesusedtoberegardedasverbs.Becauseoftheiruniqueproperties,whichonecouldhardlyexpectofaverb,linguiststodaytendtodefinethemasaseparatewordclass.\n(3)Pro-formsPro-formsaretheformswhichcanserveasreplacementsfordifferentelementsinasentence.Forexample,inthefollowingconversation,soreplacesthatIcancome.A:Ihopeyoucancome.B:Ihopeso.\n(4)Determinersusedbeforethenoun,actingasheadofanounphrase,anddeterminethekindofreferencethenounphrasehas.Threesubclasses:predeterminers,centraldeterminerspostdeterminers.\n3.2Theformationofword3.2.1Morphemeandmorphology3.2.2Typesofmorphemes3.2.3Inflectionandwordformation3.2.4Thecounterpointofphonologyandmorphology\n3.2.1MorphemeandmorphologyMorpheme—thesmallestunitoflanguagethatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Morphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.\n3.2.2Typesofmorphemes1.Freemorphemeandboundmorpheme2.Root,affixandstem3.Inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix\nFreemorphemeandboundmorphemeintermsoftheircapacityofoccurringalone.根据能否单独出现，可以将语素分为两类Freemorphemes:Thosewhichmayoccuralone,thatis,thosewhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselves,arefreemorphemes.Boundmorphemes:Thosewhichmustappearwithatleastanothermorphemearecalledboundmorphemes.\n2.Root,affixandstemArootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.(词根是词的基本形式,不能再作进一步的分析而完全不损失同一性。也就是说，去掉所有的词缀后，词所剩下的部分就是词根。)Anaffixisthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.Astemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.\nRootInthewordinternationalism,aftertheremovalofinter-,-aland-ism,whatisleftistherootnation.Allwordscontainarootmorpheme.所有的词都包含一个词根语素Arootmaybefreeorbound.E.g.blackinblackbird,blackboardandblacksmith;-ceiveinreceive,conceiveandperceive.AfewEnglishrootsmayhavebothfreeandboundvariants.\nAffixCollectivetermforboundformativesorword-formingelementsthatconstitutesubcategoriesofwordclasses.Affixescanbeclassifiedaccordingtotheirplacementonthesteminto:Prefix:Morphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothermorphemes.(Boundmorphemesthatprecedethestem.)Suffix:Morphemesthatonlyoccurafterothermorphemes.(Boundmorphemesthatareattachedfinallytofreemorphemeconstructions)\nStemE.g.thewordsleepisafreerootmorpheme,whereasslep-inthepasttenceformsleptcannotexistbyitself,andthereforebound.Astemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.(词干是指能加上屈折词缀的语素或语素的组合.)E.g.friend-infriendsandfriendship-infriendshipsarebothstems.Theformershowsthatastemcanbeequivalenttoaroot,whereasthelattershowsthatastemmaycontainarootandaderivationalaffix.\n3.InflectionalaffixandderivationalaffixInflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.屈折变化是通过附加屈折词缀的语法关系的表现，如数，人称，有定性，体和格，屈折词汇不会改变所附加词语的语法类。\nInflectionalaffixandderivationalaffixinflectionalaffixesVsderivationalaffixesinflectionalmorphemesVsderivationalmorphemes\nInflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix(1)Inflectionalaffixesveryoftenaddaminuteordelicategrammaticalmeaningtothestem.E.g.toys,walks,John’s,etc.Therefore,theyservetoproducedifferentformsofasingleword.Incontrast,derivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicalmeaning.E.g.cite,citation,etc.\nInflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix(2)Inflectionalaffixesdon’tchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto,suchasflower,flowerswhereasderivationalaffixesmightormightnot,suchastherelationbetweensmallandsmallnessfortheformer,andthatbetweenbrotherandbrotherhoodforthelatter.\nInflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix(3)Inflectionalaffixesareoftenconditionedbynon-semanticlinguisticfactorsoutsidethewordtheyattachtobutwithinthephraseorsentence.E.g.thechoiceoflikesin“Theboylikestonavigateontheinternet.”isdeterminedbythesubjecttheboyinthesentencewhereasderivationalaffixesaremoreoftenbasedonsimplemeaningdistinctions.E.g.Thechoiceofcleverandclevernessdependsonwhetherwewanttotalkabouttheproperty“clever”orwewanttotalkabout“thestateofbeingclever.”\nInflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix(4)InEnglish,inflectionalaffixesaremostlysuffixes,whicharealwayswordfinal.E.g.drums,walks,etc.Butderivationalaffixescanbeprefixesorsuffixes.E.g.depart,teacher,etc.\nmorphemefree:freerootrootboundboundrootaffixinflectionalderivationalprefixsuffix\n3.2.3Inflectionandwordformation1.Inflection2.Wordformation(1)Compound合成(2)Derivation派生\n1.InflectionInflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.屈折变化是通过附加屈折词缀的语法关系的表现，如数，人称，有定性，体和格，屈折词汇不会改变所附加词语的语法类。\n2.WordformationWordformationreferstotheprocessofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.Itcanbefurthersubclassifiedinto(1)thecompositionaltype(compound);(2)thederivationaltype(derivation).\n(1)CompoundCompoundsrefertothosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform,ice-cream,sunrise,paperbag,railway,rest-room,simple-minded,wedding-ring…\n(1)CompoundTheheadofanominaloranadjectivalendocentriccompoundisde-verbal,thatis,itisderivedfromaverb(从动词派生而来).Consequently,itisalsocalledaverbalcompoundorasyntheticcompound.Usually,thefirstmemberisaparticipantoftheprocessverb.E.g.Nouns:self-control,pain-killer,etc.Adjectives:virus-sensitive,machine-washable,etc.TheexocentriccompoundsareformedbyV+N,V+A,andV+P,whereastheexocentricadjectivescomefromV+NandV+A.E.g.Nouns:playboy,cutthroat,etc.Adjectives:breakneck,walk-in,etc.\n(2)DerivationDerivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandsuffixes.Incontrastwithinflections,derivationscanmakethewordclassoftheoriginalwordeitherchangedorunchanged.\n3.2.4Thecounterpointofphonologyandmorphology1.Allomorph:Anyofthedifferentformsofamorpheme.2.Morphophonology形态音系学,词素音系学/morphophonemics词素音位学，形态音位学3.Assimilation同化4.Dissimilation异化\n2.Morphophonology/morphophonemicsMorphophonologyisabranchoflinguisticsreferringtotheanalysisandclassificationofthephonologicalfactorsthataffecttheappearanceofmorphemes,andcorrespondingly,thegrammaticalfactorsthataffecttheappearanceofphonemes.Itisalsocalledmorphonologyormorphonemics.\n3.AssimilationAssimilationreferstothechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacent[ə`dʒeisənt]sound,whichismorespecificallycalled“contact”or“contiguous”assimilation邻近同化.\n4.DissimilationDissimilationreferstotheinfluenceexercisedbyonesoundsegmentuponthearticulationofanother,sothatthesoundsbecomelessalike,ordifferent.\n3.3Lexicalchange3.3.1Lexicalchangeproper3.3.2Phonologicalchange3.3.3Morpho-syntacticalchange3.3.4Semanticchange3.3.5Orthographicchange\n3.3.1Lexicalchangeproper1.Invention发明法2.Blending混成法3.Abbreviation/clipping缩写法4.Acronym缩略法5.Back-formation逆构词法6.Analogicalcreation类推造字法7.Borrowing借词法/借用法\nExamples—science&technologyNuke [nju:k]—1)Tocookorre-heatfoodinamicrowaveoven.Justnukeitfortwominutesandyou'rereadytoeat!2)Anuclearwarheadormissile,ortheactofusinganuclearwarheadormissile.Etymology:Referstothepowerfulandpossiblydeadlyeffectsof'nuclear'devices,suchasreactorsandbombs.\nExamples—science&technologyAIDS=AcquiredImmureDeficiencySyndrome获得性免疫功能丧失综合症e-mail/email=electronicmailon-line=adj.&adv.,controlledbyorconnectedtoacomputerortotheInternet:anonlineticketbookingsystem\nExamples—economiclifevideotape—v.&n.,theprocessofrecordingandshowingfilms,movies,picturesandsounds,andprogrammesbyusingaspecialcameraandatelevisionsetlikevideorecorderrefrigerator—orfridge，apieceofelectricalequipmentinwhichfoodiskeptcoldsothatitstaysfreshdeepfreeze—(BrE)(AmEDeepfreezedeep，freezer)=freezerCoke—可乐，迷幻药科克\nExamples—politics&economicsNATO—NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization北大西洋公约组织OPEC—OrganizationofPetroleumExportingCountries石油输出国家组织coldwar—noun[sing.,U](oftenColdWar)averyunfriendlyrelationshipbetweentwocountrieswhoarenotactuallyfightingeachother,usuallyusedaboutthesituationbetweentheUSandtheSovietUnionaftertheSecondWorldWar\nExamples—politics&economicsWTO—WorldTradeOrganizationWorldTourismOrganizationWorldToiletOrganizationCIA—CertifiedInternalAuditorFBI—FederalBureauofInvestigation\nExamples—militaryaffairsHbomb—hydrogenbomb氢弹spacewarguidedmissilesupersonicjet\nExamples—culturalfieldcounterculturehippiesyuppie—youngurbanprofessionalchairpersonuppers—1)打气者;2)adrugdowners—apowerfuldrugthatmakesyoufeelcalmandrelaxedorputsyoutosleep\nExamples—educationunderachieveropenclassroomTA=(AmE)teachingassistant助教(BrE)territorialarmy地方自卫队grade-pointaverageCAI=ComputerAidedInstructionSAT=ScholasticAssessmentTest美国学术能力评估考试CET=CollegeEnglishTestTEM=1)TransmissionElectronMicroscope透射电子显微镜，简称：透射电镜2)TestforEnglishMajors英语专业等级考试pass-fallgrading\n1.InventionSinceeconomicactivitiesarethemostimportantanddynamicinhumanlife,manynewlexicalitemscomedirectlyfromtheconsumeritems,theirproducersortheirbrandnames.iPod,Kodak,Coke,nylon,Xeros\n2.BlendingBlendingisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.混成法\n3.Abbreviation/clippingAnewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpart,cuttingtheinitialpartorcuttingboththeinitialpartsoftheoriginalwords.n.缩写,缩写词【root】brev＝short（短的）\n4.AcronymAcronymismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadword.首字母缩写词【root】onym＝name（名字）\n5.Back-formationBack-formationreferstoanabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimagedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguage.逆构词法，构词法中一种不规则的类型，即把一个语言中已经存在的较长单词删去想象中的词缀，由此造出一个较短的单词。televisiontelevise，television先存在于语言中，television的前面部分被提取出来，分析成词根，尽管实际上英语中并没有这样的词根\n6.AnalogicalcreationTheprincipleofanalogicalcreationcanaccountfortheco-existenceoftwoforms,regularandirregular,intheconjugationofsomeEnglishverbs.类推构词，某些英语动词同时具有规则的和不规则的两种变化形式，这可以用类推构词（analogicalcreation）的原则来解释。例如，人们都知道英语动词表示过去时态的后缀应该是-ed，于是喜欢把它应用到所有的动词上。因此，我们会发现许多英语动词既有旧的形式，又有新的形式。\n7.BorrowingEnglishinitsdevelopmenthasmanagedtowidenhervocabularybyborrowingwordsfromotherlanguages.Greek,Latin,French,Spanish,Arabicandotherlanguageshaveallplayedanactiveroleinthisprocess.\nGreek：flokati（（手织的）希腊厚绒粗地毯）、apocynthion（远月点）、obstetrics（产科学）、epilepsy（癫痫症）、electricity（电流，电，电学）、atom（原子）……Latin：cancer（癌，毒瘤）、tumor（瘤）、alias（别名，化名）、injunction（命令，指令）、alibi（犯罪现场，辩解，托辞）、affidavit（宣誓书，书面陈述）、subpoena（传票）、pp.（pages）（页）、LL.B（bacheloroflaws）（法学士）、i.e.（thatis）（也就是）、e.g.（forexample）（举例来说）、etc.（etcetera）（等等）……French：mortgage（抵押）、apres-ski（滑雪后的（社交活动、休息等））、extraordinaire（异常的，特别的）、bidonville（临时搭建的简陋棚户区）、entail（使必需，使蒙受）……\nSpanish：macho（男子的，男子气的）、flotilla（小舰队）、grandee（贵族）、junta（小集团，派别）、siesta（午睡）、renegade（背教者）……Italian：autostrada（意大利的高速公路）、cica（无，不）……German：gemutlich（和善的，安逸的）、rankfurter（一种德制香肠）、hamburger（汉堡包）、delicatessen（熟食店）、thick-milk（炼乳）、fat-cakes（油炸糕点）……Chinese：taji（太极拳）、chowmein（炒面）、wok（锅，炒菜锅）、kung-fu（中国功夫）……Japanese：Judo（柔道）\n3.3.2Phonologicalchange(1)Loss(2)Addition(3)Metathesis(4)Assimilation\n(1)LossThelossofsoundcanfirstrefertothedisappearanceoftheverysoundasaphonemeinthephonologicalsystem.Thelossofsoundsmayalsooccurinutterancesattheexpenseofsomeunstressedwords.\n(2)AdditionSoundsmaybelostbuttheymayalsobeaddedtotheoriginalsoundsequence.\n(3)MetathesisMetathesisisaprocessinvolvinganalternationinthesequenceofsounds.Metathesishadbeenoriginallyaperformanceerror,whichwasoverlookedandacceptedbythespeechcommunity.\n(4)AssimilationAssimilationreferstothechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound,whichismorespecificallycalled“contact”or“contiguous”assimilation.\n3.3.3Morpho-syntacticalchange1.MorphologicalchangeTheformofinflectionalaffixesmayalsochange.2.SyntacticalchangeTherearemoreinstancesofchangesinthesyntacticalfeaturesofwords\n3.3.4Semanticchange1.Broadening2.Narrowing3.Meaningshift4.Classshift5.Folketymology\n1.BroadeningBroadeningisaprocesstoextendorelevatethemeaningfromitsspecificsensetoarelativelygeneralone.\n2.NarrowingContrarytobroadening,theoriginalmeaningofawordcanbenarrowedorrestrictedtoaspecificsense.\n3.MeaningshiftAllsemanticchangesinvolvemeaningshift.Heremeaningshiftisunderstoodinitsnarrowsense,i.e.thechangeofmeaninghasnothingtodowithgeneralizationorrestrictionasmentionedabove.\n4.ClassshiftByshiftingthewordclassonecanchangethemeaningofawordfromaconcreteentityornotiontoaprocessorattribution.Thisprocessofwordformationisalsoknownaszero-derivation,orconversion.\n5.FolketymologyFolketymologyreferstoachangeinformofawordorphrase,resultingfromanincorrectpopularnotionoftheoriginormeaningofthetermorfromtheinfluenceofmorefamiliartermsmistakenlytakentobeanalogous.\n3.3.5OrthographicchangeChangescanalsobefoundatthegraphiticlevel.SincewritingisarecordingofthesoundsysteminEnglish,phonologicalchangeswillnodoubtsetoffgraphiticchanges.