语言学期末复习总结

语言学期末复习总结

5,WhatisLinguistics?Thescientificstudyofhumanlanguage■Aimsoflinguistictheory:■WhatisknowledgeofIanguage?(Competence)■Howisknowledgeoflanguageacquired?(Acquisition)Howisknowledgeoflanguageputtouse?(Performance/languageprocessing)■Agrammarineludeseverythingoneknowsaboutthestructureofone'sIanguage:■PhoneticsandPhonology(thesoundsandthesoundsystemorpatterns)■Lexicon(thewordsorvocabularyinthementaldictionary)■Morphology(thestructureofwords)■Syntax(thestructureofphrasesandsentencesandtheconstraintsonwell-formednessofsentences)■Semantics(themeaningofwordsandsentences)SemanticsThefollowingarewhatthekeyconceptslooklike:semanticcomponentsdenotationofwordssenserelationsbetweenwordssuchasantonymyandsynonymysenserelationsbetweensentencessuchasentailmentandpresuppositionandothers■Thefollowingaresomebooktitlesoflinguistics.Canyoujudgethesynchronicordiachronicorientationjustfromthetitles?■1.EnglishExamined:TwoCenturiesofCommentontheMother-Tongue.■2.ProteanShape:AstudyinEighteenth-centuryVocabularyandUsage.■3.PejorativeSenseDevelopmentinEnglish.theBlackEnglishVernacular.■4.TheCategoriesandTypesofPresent-DayEnglishWord-Formation.5.LanguageintheinnerCity:StudiesinSynchronic:2,4,5.Diachronic:1,3.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualizedlanguage,orrealizationoflangue.Asasocialproduct,langueisasetofconventionsthatmembersofaspeechcommunityseemtoabideby.Itcanbethoughtofasthegeneralizedrulesofthelanguage.Parole,ontheotherhand,istheconcreteuseoftheconventionsorapplicationoftherules.Wecancomparethemalongthefollowingdimensions.Langueisabstract;paroleisspecifictothesituationinwhichitoccurs.Langueisnotactuallyspokenbyanyone;paroleisalwaysanaturallyoccurringevent.Langueisrelativelystableandsystematic;paroleissubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints.■Paroleisamassofconfusedfactsandnotsuitableforsystematicinvestigation.Whatthelinguisthastodoistoabstractlanguefrominstancesofparole一thatis,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethemthe\nsubjectoflinguistics.Forlanguage(langue)isnotcompleteinanyspeaker;itexistsperfectlyonlywithinacollectivity.Inseparatinglanguage(langue)fromspeaking(parole)weareatthesametimeseparating(1)whatissocialfromwhatisindividual;and(2)whatisessentialfromwhatisaccessoryandmoreorlessaccidental.CompetenceandperformanceThisfundamentaldistinetionisdiscussedbyChomskyinhisAspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax(1965).Competenceistheideallanguageuser"sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage・PerformanceistheactuaIreaIizationofthisknowIedgeinutterances・■Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.■Aspeaker'scompetenceisstablebuthisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.■Chomsky，sdistinctionandSaussure^sdistinctionarenotexactlythesame.Saussure^langueisasocialproduct,asetofconventionsforaspeechcommunity.Chomskyregardscompetenceasapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.SaussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalpointofviewwhileChomskylooksatitmorefromapsychologicalpointofview.8.5LinguisticpotentialandactuallinguisticbehaviorAnothersimilardistinctionismadebyEnglishlinguistM.A.K.Hallidayinthe1960s,thedistinctionbetweenlinguisticpotentialandactuallinguisticbehavior.■Hallidaylooksatlanguagefromafunctionalpointofview,heismoreconcernedwithwhatspeakersdowithlanguage.■Withlanguage,thereisawiderangeofthingsaspeakercandointhecultureheisin.Therearemanythingshecansay,forexample,tomanypeople,onmanytopics.■Whatheactuallysaysonaparticularoccasiontoaparticularindividualiswhathehasselectedfromamongthemanypossiblethingshecouldhavesaid.■ThisleadstoHalliday'sdistinctionbetweenlinguisticpotentialandactuallinguisticbehaviour.■HislinguisticpotentialissimilartoSaussure"sLangueandChomsky7scompetence,andhisactuallinguisticbehaviourissimilartothenotionsofparoleandperformance.\nAmongthedistinctions,parole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehaviourhavealotincommon;butlangue,competenceandlinguisticpotentialdifferconsiderably.Theyaresimilaronlyinoneaspect,thatis,theyallrefertotheconstantwhichunderliestheutterancesthatconstituteparolelperformance/actuallinguisticbehaviour.Theirdifferenceisfairlyobvious.Langueisasocialpropertywhilelinguisticpotentialissomethingavailableforthespeakertoselectfrom.Competenceisaformof"knowing"whilelinguisticpotentialisasetofpossibilitiesfor“doing".Thecompetenceversusperformancedistinctionisonebetweenwhataperson"knows”andwhathe“does，：whilethelinguisticpotentialversusactuallinguisticbehaviourdistinctionisonebetweenwhataperson"cando^andwhataperson“does：■ChapterTwoSpeechSounds■Ashumanbeingswearecapableofmakingallkindsofsounds,butonlysomeofthesesoundshavebecomeunitsinthelanguagesystem.■Wecananalyzespeechsoundsfromvariousperspectivesandthetwomajorareasofstudyarephoneticsandphonology-ThesoundsofEnglish■ReceivedPronunciation(RP)■GeneralAmerican(GA)■EnglishconsonantsTheconsonantsofEnglishcanbedescribedinthefollowingmanner:■[p]voicelessbilabialstop■[b]voicedbilabialstop■[s]voicelessalveolarfricative■[z]voicedalveolarfricative■ThedescriptionofEnglishvowelsneedstofulfillfourbasicrequirements:■theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low);■thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back);■thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tensevs.laxorlongvs.short),and■lip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded).■WecannowdescribetheEnglishvowelsinthisway:\n[i：]highfronttenseunroundedvowel[u]highbacklaxroundedvowel[a]midcentrallaxunroundedvowel[d]lowbacklaxroundedvowelFromphoneticstophonologySpeechisacontinuousprocess,sothevocalorgansdonotmovefromonesoundsegmenttothenextinaseriesofseparatesteps・Rather,soundscontinuallyshowtheinflueneeoftheirneighbors.Forexample,map,lamb.CoarticulationWhensuchsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved,wecalltheprocesscoarticulation.Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,asinthecaseoflamb,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation.Ifthesoundshowstheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,itisperseverativecoarticulation,asisthecaseofmap・Toindicatethatavowelhasbeennasalized^weaddadiacritictothetopofthesymbol[ae],as[ael.■Thefactthatthevowel[ae]inlambhassomequalityofthefollowingnasalisaphenomenonwecallnasalization.[p]isaspiratedinpeakandunaspiratedinspeak.hhThisaspiratedvoicelessbilabialstopisthusindicatedbythediacritic,as[p],whereastheunaspiratedcounterpartistranscribedas[p].Whenweuseasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscript!on,itiscalledabroadtranscription.Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.Botharephonetictranscriptionssoweputbothformsinsquarebrackets[]・Phonologicalrules1.assimilationrule2.sequentialrule3.deletionruleSequentialrules:TherulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularIanguage\narecalledsequentialrules,e.g.inEnglish,uk,b,i,I”mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Ifawordbeginswitha[I]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:a)thefirstphonememustbe/s/;b)thesecondphonememustbe/p//t/or/k/;c)thethirdphonememustbe/I//r/or/w/・E.g.Spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.Deletionrule：Thephonologicalrule,whichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,iscalleddeletionrule.Forexample,inthepronunciationofsuchwordsassign,design,andparadigm,thereisno回soundalthoughitisrepresentedinspellingbytheletterg.Therulecanbestatedas:deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.ChapterThreeLexiconMorphologyMoiphology:thestudyofword-formation,ortheinternalstructureofwords,ortherulesbywhichwordsareformedfromsmallercomponents一morphemes-TypesofmorphemesFreevs.Boundmorphemes:Freemorphemes:thosethatmayconstitutewordsbythemselves,egboy,girl,table,nation.Boundmorphemes:thosethatcannotoccuralone,eg-s#・ed,dis-#un・・Root:thebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity,egfriendasinunfriendliness.Rootsmaybefree:thosethatcanstandbythemselves,egnation+-al.bound:thosethatcannotstandbythemselves,eg-ce/izeinreceive,perceive,conceive・Affix:thetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.Normallydividedintoprefix(dis・，un-)andsuffix(-enz-ify).Stem:amorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixmaybeadded,egfriend+-s;write+・ing,possibility+-es・Inflection:grammaticalendings,egplural,tense,comparative,etc.Derivation:combinationofabaseandanaffixtoformanewword,egfriend+-ly>friendly.\nWord・formationInflectionNominalforms:boys,boy，sVerbforms:wants,wanted,wantingAdjective/adverbforms:smaller,smallestCompoundingCompoundreferstothosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform.Nouncompounds:daybreak,playboy,haircut,windmillVerbcompounds:brainwash,lipread,babysitAdjectivecompoundszmaneating.heartfelt‘dutyfreePrepositioncompounds:into,throughoutEndocentric&exocentricEndocentric:oneelementservesasthehead,therelationshipof"akindof5;egself-contro1:akindofcontrolarmchair:akindofchairExocentric:thereisnohead,sonotarelationshipof“akindofsomething\egScarecrowbreakneckWrittenformsofcompoundsSolid:blackboard,teapot,bodyguardHyphenated:wedding-ring,wave-lengthOpen:coffeetable,washingmachineFreevariation:businessman,business-man,businessmanwinebottle,wine-bottle,winebottlenoone,no-one,nooneDerivationClass-changing:N>V:lengthen,hospitalize,discardN>A:friendly,delightful,speechlessV>N:worker;employee,inhabitantV>A:acceptable,adorableA>N:meanness,rapidityA>V:deafen,sweetenAdj>Adv:exactly,quickly\nN>N:nonsmoker,ex-wife,bookletV>V:disobey,unfastenA>A:grayish,irrelevant■Thebasefortheaffix-ionisopt,thebaseforthesuffix-alisoption,andthebaseforthesuffix-ityisoptional.■Yes,optistherootfortheentireword.\nacceptablesmokersrootsufllxsmokecr•LexicalchangeFormationofnewwordsPhonologicalchangeMorphosyntacticchangeSemanticchangeOrthographicchangeTypesofloanwordsLoanwords:aupair,encore,coupd^tat,kungfu,sputnikLoanblendcoconut:coco(Spanish)+nut(English)Chinatown:China(Chinese)+town(English)Loanshiftbridge:meaningasacardgameborrowedfromItalianponteLoantranslation,orcaiquefreeverserapseallionMetathesis:changingthesequeneeofsoundO.E.brid>bird,O.E.ox/ax>askAssimilation:impossible,immovableirregular,irresponsibleillogical,illegalSemanticchangeBroadening:holiday:holyday(religion)>dayforrestbird:youngbird>anykindtask:taximposed>apieceofworkNarrowing:meat:food>\ngirl:youngperson>youngwomandeer:beast>aspecialkindofanimalMeaningshift:bead:prayer>theprayerbead>small,ball-shapedpieceofglass,metalorwoodClassshift:conversiontootherwordclassesengineer:persontrainedinengineering>toactasanengineer(N>V)Folketymology:apopularbutmistakenaccountoftheoriginofawordorphrase.history:OldFrenchherstoryFakeetymology:akindoffolketymologyManhattan:manwithhatonMBA:marriedbutavailablePhD:perhapshavedivorcedgolf:GentlemenOnly;LadiesForbiddenOrthographicchangeChangeofspelling:Iesus>Jesussate>satSunne>Sun