英语语言学复习资料

英语语言学复习资料

英语语言学复习资料一：名词解释1.Language(语言)isasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.2.Linguistics(语言学)isgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.3.Generallinguistics(普通/一般语言学)Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.4.Phonetics(语音学)thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunicationledtotheestablishmentofphonetics.5.Phonology(语音体系)howsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication.6.Morphology(形态学)thesesymbolsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwordshasconstitutedthebranchofstudycalledmorphology.7.Syntax(句法学)thenthecombinationofwordstoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguagesisgovernedbyrules.Thestudyoftheserulesconstitutesamajorbranchoflinguisticstudiescalledsyntax.8.Semantics(语意学)thestudyofmeaningisknownassemantics.9.Pragmatics(语用学)whenthestudyofmeaningisconducted,notinisolation,butinthecontextoflanguageuse,itbecomesanotherbranchoflinguisticstudycalledpragmatics.10.Phone(音素)isaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.11.Phoneme(音位)isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.12.Allophones(音位变体)thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophones.13.IPA(InternationalPhoneticAlphabet国际音标)It’sastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription.ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingoneletterselectedfrommajorEuropeanlanguagestorepresentonespeechsound.14.Diacritics(变音符)itisasetofsymbolswhichareaddedtotheletter-symbolstobringoutthefinerdistinctions.15.broadtranscription(宽式标音)oneisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly.16.narrowtranscription(严式标音)theotheristhetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics.17.openclasswords(开放类词)InEnglish,openclasswordsarenouns,verbs,adjectivesandadverbs.Wecanregularlyaddnewwordstotheseclasses.18.closedclasswords(封闭类词)InEnglish,closedclasswordareconjunctions,prepositions,articlesandpronouns.Newwordsarenotusuallyaddedtothem.19.Morpheme(词素)themostbasicelementofmeaningistraditionallycalledmorpheme.20.boundmorpheme(黏着词素)morphemeswhichoccursonlybeforeother78\nmorphemes.Theycannotbeusedalone.21.freemorpheme(自由词素)itisthemorphemeswhichcanbeusedalone.22.suprasegmentalfeatures(超音段特征)thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.23.Category(范畴)itreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.24.Phrases(短语)Syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrases.二：简答题1.Threedistinctofphonetics(语音学的三个分支？)Articulatoryphonetics发音语音学;auditoryphonetics听觉语音学;acousticphonetics声光语音学.2.Mainfeaturesoflanguage(语言的主要特征？)Languageisasystem.Languageisarbitrary.Languageisvocal.Languageishuman-specific.3.Synchronicvs.diachronic(共识语言学与历史语言学的区别？)Languageexistsintimeandchangesthroughtime.Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy;itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.4.Speechandwriting(言语与文字的区别？)Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Thenineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed,speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlaterwhenhegoestoschool.Writtenlanguageisonlythe“revised”recordofspeech.5.Whatarethebranchesoflinguisticstudy?(语言学研究领域中的主要分支有哪些？)1)sociolinguistics;2)psycholinguistics;3)appliedlinguisticsandsoon.6.Traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics(传统语法与现代语言学的区别？)Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Second,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammarians,tendedtoemphasize,maybeover-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword.ModernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.7.Prescriptivevs.descriptive(语言学中描写性与规定性的特征是什么？)Prescriptiveanddescriptiverepresenttwodifferenttypesoflinguisticstudy.Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itis78\nsaidtobedescriptive;ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,itissaidtobeprescriptive.8.Designfeaturesoflanguage(语言的识别特征？)Arbitrariness随意性，productivity生产性,duality二重性,displacement不受时空限制的特征,culturaltransmission文化传递系统.9.Competenceandperformance(语言能力与语言行为的区别？)Competenceisdefinedastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.10.Organsofspeech(发音器官)Pharyngealcavity—thethroat,oralcavity—themouth,nasalcavity—thenose.11.Word-levelcategories(决定词范畴的三个标准)Todetermineaword’scategory,threecriteriaareusuallyemployed,namelymeaning,inflectionanddistribution.三：问题回答1.Somerulesinphonology(音位学规则)sequentialrules(序列规则)；assimilationrule(同化规则)；deletionrule(省略规则)。2.Suprasegmentalfeatures(超音段特征)stress(重音)；tone(声调)；intonation(语调)。3.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds(英语语音分类)TheclassificationwilldividethespeechsoundsinEnglishinto20vowelsand28consonants.4.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures(短语的范畴和类型)nounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),adjectivephrase(AP),prepositionalphrase(PP).5.Morphologicalrulesofwordformation(形态学的规则)Thewayswordsareformedarecalledmorphologicalrules.Theserulesdeterminehowmorphemescombinetoformwords.Someofthemorphologicalrulescanbeusedquitefreelytoformnewwords.Theyareproductivemorphologicalrules.Anotherwaytoformnewwordsarecompoundwords,isbystringingwordstogether.1.1.Whatislanguage?“Languageissystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Itisasystem,sincelinguisticelementsarearrangedsystematically,ratherthanrandomly.Arbitrary,inthesensethatthereisusuallynointrinsicconnectionbetweenawork(like“book”)andtheobjectitrefersto.Thisexplainsandisexplainedbythefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferent“books”:“book”inEnglish,“livre”inFrench,inJapanese,inChinese,“check”inKorean.Itissymbolic,becausewordsareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideasetc.bynothingbutconvention.Namely,peopleusethesoundsorvocalformstosymbolizewhattheywishtoreferto.Itisvocal,becausesoundorspeechistheprimarymediumforall78\nhumanlanguages,developedor“new”.Writingsystemscamemuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Thefactthatsmallchildrenlearnandcanonlylearntospeak(andlisten)beforetheywrite(andread)alsoindicatesthatlanguageisprimarilyvocal,ratherthanwritten.Theterm“human”inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishumanspecific.1.2.Whataredesignfeaturesoflanguage?“Designfeatures”hererefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethattellthedifferencebetweenhumanlanguageandanysystemofanimalcommunication.Theyarearbitrariness,duality,productivity,displacement,culturaltransmissionandinterchangeability1.3.Whatisarbitrariness?By“arbitrariness”,wemeanthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds(seeI.1).Adogmightbeapigifonlythefirstpersonorgroupofpersonshaduseditforapig.Languageisthereforelargelyarbitrary.Butlanguageisnotabsolutelyseemtobesomesound-meaningassociation,ifwethinkofechowords,like“bang”,“crash”,“roar”,whicharemotivatedinacertainsense.Secondly,somecompounds(wordscompoundedtobeoneword)arenotentirelyarbitraryeither.“Type”and“write”areopaqueorunmotivatedwords,while“type-writer”islessso,ormoretransparentormotivatedthanthewordsthatmakeit.Sowecansay“arbitrariness”isamatterofdegree.1.4.Whatisduality?Linguistsrefer“duality”(ofstructure)tothefactthatinalllanguagessofarinvestigated,onefindstwolevelsofstructureorpatterning.Atthefirst,higherlevel,languageisanalyzedintermsofcombinationsofmeaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,wordsetc.);atthesecond,lowerlevel,itisseenasasequenceofsegmentswhichlackanymeaninginthemselves,butwhichcombinetoformunitsofmeaning.AccordingtoHuZhanglinetal.(p.6),languageisasystemoftwosetsofstructures,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.Thisisimportantfortheworkingsoflanguage.Asmallnumberofsemanticunits(words),andtheseunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences(notethatwehavedictionariesofwords,butnodictionaryofsentences!).Dualitymakesitpossibleforapersontotalkaboutanythingwithinhisknowledge.Noanimalcommunicationsystemenjoysthisduality,orevenapproachesthishonor.1.5.Whatisproductivity?Productivityreferstotheabilitytotheabilitytoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinone’snativelanguage,includingthosethathasneverheardbefore,butthatareappropriatetothespeakingsituation.Noonehaseversaidorheard“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthesmallhotelbedwithanAfricangibbon”,buthecansayitwhennecessary,andhecanunderstanditinrightregister.Differentfromartisticcreativity,though,productivitynevergoesoutsidethelanguage,thusalsocalled“rule-boundcreativity”(by78\nN.Chomsky).1.6.Whatisdisplacement?“Displacement”,asoneofthedesignfeaturesofthehumanlanguage,referstothefactthatonecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent,aseasilyashedoesthingspresent.Inotherwords,onecanrefertorealandunrealthings,thingsofthepast,ofthepresent,ofthefuture.Languageitselfcanbetalkedabouttoo.Whenaman,forexample,iscryingtoawoman,aboutsomething,itmightbesomethingthathadoccurred,orsomethingthatisoccurring,orsomethingthatistooccur.Whenadogisbarking,however,youcandecideitisbarkingforsomethingoratsomeonethatexistsnowandthere.Itcouldn’tbebowwowingsorrowfullyfordomelostloveorabonetobelost.Thebee’ssystem,nonetheless,hasasmallshareof“displacement”,butitisanunspeakabletinyshare.1.7.Whatisculturaltransmission?Thismeansthatlanguageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,butthatthedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Itistruethatthecapacityforlanguageinhumanbeings(N.Chomskycalledit“languageacquisitiondevice”,orLAD)hasageneticbasis,buttheparticularlanguageapersonlearnstospeakisaculturaloneotherthanageneticonelikethedog’sbarkingsystem.Ifahumanbeingisbroughtupinisolationhecannotacquirelanguage.TheWolfChildrearedbythepackofwolvesturnedouttospeakthewolf’sroaring“tongue”whenhewassaved.Helearnedthereafter,withnosmalldifficulty,theABCofacertainhumanlanguage.1.8.Whatisinterchangeability?(1)Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.Wecansay,andonotheroccasionscanreceiveandunderstand,forexample,“Pleasedosomethingtomakemehappy.”Thoughsomepeople(includingme)suggestthatthereissexdifferentiationintheactuallanguageuse,inotherwords,menandwomenmaysaydifferentthings,yetinprinciplethereisnosound,orwordorsentencethatamancanutterandawomancannot,orviceversa.Ontheotherhand,apersoncanbethespeakerwhiletheotherpersonisthelistenerandastheturnmovesontothelistener,hecanbethespeakerandthefirstspeakeristolisten.Itisturn-takingthatmakessocialcommunicationpossibleandacceptable.(2)Somemalebirds,however,uttersomecalls,whichfemalesdonot(orcannot?),andcertainkindsoffishhavesimilarhapsmentionable.Whenadogbarks,alltheneighboringdogsbark.Thenpeoplearoundcanhardlytellwhichdog(dogs)is(are0“speaking”andwhichlistening.1.9.Whydolinguistssaylanguageishumanspecific?Firstofall,humanlanguagehassix“designfeatures”whichanimalcommunicationsystemsdonothave,atleastnotinthetruesenseofthem(seeI.2-8).Let’s78\nborrowC.F.Hocket’sChartthatcompareshumanlanguagewithsomeanimals’systems,fromWangGang(1998,p.8).Secondly,linguistshavedonealottryingtoteachanimalssuchaschimpanzeestospeakahumanlanguagebuthaveachievednothinginspiring.BeatniceandAlanGardnerbroughtupWashoe,afemalechimpanzee,likeahumanchild.Shewastaught“AmericansignLanguage”,andlearnedalittlethatmadetheteachershappybutdidmotmakethelinguisticscirclehappy,forfewbelievedinteachingchimpanzees.Thirdly,ahumanchildrearedamonganimalscannotspeakahumanlanguage,notevenwhenheistakenbackandtaughttolotoso(seethe“WolfChild”inI.7)1.10.Whatfunctionsdoeslanguagehave?Languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:phatic,directive,Informative,interrogative,expressive,evocativeandperformative.AccordingtoWangGang(1988,p.11),languagehasthreemainfunctions:atoolofcommunication,atoolwherebypeoplelearnabouttheworld,andatoolbywhichpeoplelearnabouttheworld,andatoolbywhichpeoplecreateart.M.A.K.Halliday,representativeoftheLondonschool,recognizesthree“Macro-Functions”:ideational,interpersonalandtextual(see!11-17;seeHUZhuanglinetal.,pp10-13,pp394-396).1.11Whatisthephaticfunction?The“phaticfunction”referstolanguagebeingusedforsettingupacertainatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontacts(ratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas).Greetings,farewells,andcommentsontheweatherinEnglishandonclothinginChineseallservethisfunction.Muchofthephaticlanguage(e.g.“Howareyou?”“Fine,thanks.”)Isinsincereiftakenliterally,butitisimportant.Ifyoudon'tsay“Hello”toafriendyoumeet,orifyoudon’tanswerhis“Hi”,youruinyourfriendship.1.12.Whatisthedirectivefunction?The“directivefunction”meansthatlanguagemaybeusedtogetthehearertodosomething.Mostimperativesentencesperformthisfunction,e.g.,“Tellmetheresultwhenyoufinish.”Othersyntacticstructuresorsentencesofothersortscan,accordingtoJ.AustinandJ.Searle’s“indirectspeechacttheory”(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp271-278)atleast,servethepurposeofdirectiontoo,e.g.,“IfIwereyou,Iwouldhaveblushedtothebottomofmyears!”1.13.Whatistheinformativefunction?Languageservesan“informationalfunction”whenusedtotellsomething,characterizedbytheuseofdeclarativesentences.Informativestatementsareoftenlabeledastrue(truth)orfalse(falsehood).AccordingtoP.Grice’s“CooperativePrinciple”(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp282-283),oneoughtnottoviolatethe“MaximofQuality”,whenheisinformingatall.78\n1.14.Whatistheinterrogativefunction?Whenlanguageisusedtoobtaininformation,itservesan“interrogativefunction”.Thisincludesallquestionsthatexpectreplies,statements,imperativesetc.,accordingtothe“indirectspeechacttheory”,mayhavethisfunctionaswell,e.g.,“I’dliketoknowyoubetter.”Thismaybringforthalotofpersonalinformation.Notethatrhetoricalquestionsmakeanexception,sincetheydemandnoanswer,atleastnotthereader’s/listener’sanswer.1.15.Whatistheexpressivefunction?The“expressivefunction”istheuseoflanguagetorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsorattitudesofthespeaker.Subconsciousemotionalejaculationsaregoodexamples,like“Goodheavens!”“MyGod!”Sentenceslike“I’msorryaboutthedelay”canserveasgoodexamplestoo,thoughinasubtleway.Whilelanguageisusedfortheinformativefunctiontopassjudgmentonthetruthorfalsehoodofstatements,languageusedfortheexpressivefunctionevaluates,appraisesorassertsthespeaker’sownattitudes.1.16.Whatistheevocativefunction?The“evocativefunction”istheuseoflanguagetocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimis,forexample,toamuse,startle,antagonize,soothe,worryorplease.Jokes(notpracticaljokes,though)aresupposedtoamuseorentertainthelistener;advertisingtourgecustomerstopurchasecertaincommodities;propagandatoinfluencepublicopinion.Obviously,theexpressiveandtheevocativefunctionsoftengotogether,i.e.,youmayexpress,forexample,yourpersonalfeelingsaboutapoliticalissuebutendupbyevokingthesamefeelingin,orimposingiton,yourlistener.That’salsothecasewiththeotherwayround.1.17.Whatistheperformativefunction?Thismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings”orperformactions.Oncertainoccasionstheutteranceitselfasanactionismoreimportantthanwhatwordsorsoundsconstitutetheutteredsentence.WhenaskedifathirdYangtzeBridgeoughttobebuiltinWuhan,themayormaysay,“OK”,whichmeansmorethanspeech,andmorethananaveragesocialindividualmaydofortheconstruction.Thejudge’simprisonmentsentence,thepresident’swarorindependencedeclaration,etc.,areperformativesaswell(seeJ.Austin’sspeechActTheory,HuZhuanglin,ecal.pp271-278).1.18.Whatislinguistics?“Linguistics”isthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonesociety,butalsothelanguageofallhumanbeings.Alinguist,though,doesnothavetoknowandusealargenumberoflanguages,buttoinvestigatehoweachlanguageisconstructed.Heisalsoconcernedwithhowalanguagevariesfromdialecttodialect,fromclasstoclass,howitchangesfromcenturytocentury,howchildrenacquiretheirmothertongue,andperhapshowapersonlearnsor78\nshouldlearnaforeignlanguage.Inshort,linguisticsstudiesthegeneralprincipleswhereuponallhumanlanguagesareconstructedandoperateassystemsofcommunicationintheirsocietiesorcommunities(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp20-22)1.19.Whatmakeslinguisticsascience?Sincelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage,itoughttobaseitselfuponthesystematic,investigationoflanguagedata,whichaimsatdiscoveringthetruenatureoflanguageanditsunderlyingsystem.Tomakesenseofthedata,alinguistusuallyhasconceivedsomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure,tobecheckedagainsttheobservedorobservablefacts.Inordertomakehisanalysisscientific,alinguistisusuallyguidedbyfourprinciples:exhaustiveness,consistency,andobjectivity.Exhaustivenessmeansheshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevanttothestudyandgivethemanadequateexplanation,inspiteofthecomplicatedness.Heistoleavenolinguistic“stone”unturned.Consistencymeansthereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement.Economymeansalinguistshouldpursuebrevityintheanalysiswhenitispossible.Objectivityimpliesthatsincesomepeoplemaybesubjectiveinthestudy,alinguistshouldbe(orsoundatleast)objective,matter-of-face,faithfultoreality,sothathisworkconstitutespartofthelinguisticsresearch.1.20.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics(e.g.HuZhuanglinetal.,1988;WangGang,1988).Butalinguistsometimesisabletodealwithonlyoneaspectoflanguageatatime,thustheariseofvariousbranches:phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,sociolinguistics,appliedlinguistics,pragmatics,psycholinguistics,lexicology,lexicography,etymology,etc.1.21.Whataresynchronicanddiachronicstudies?Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(asifitstoppeddeveloping)isasynchronystudy(synchrony).Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy(diachronic).Anessayentitled“OntheUseofTHE”,forexample,maybesynchronic,iftheauthordoesnotrecallthepastofTHE,anditmayalsobediachronicifheclaimstocoveralargerangeorperiodoftimewhereinTHEhasundergonetremendousalteration(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp25-27).1.22.Whatisspeechandwhatiswriting?(1)Nooneneedstherepetitionofthegeneralprincipleoflinguisticanalysis,namely,theprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Speechisprimary;becauseitexistedlonglongbeforewritingsystemscameintobeing.Geneticallychildrenlearntospeakbeforelearningtowrite.Secondly,writtenformsjustrepresentinthiswayorthatthespeechsounds:individualsounds,asinEnglishandFrenchasinJapanese.(2)Incontrasttospeech,spokenformoflanguage,writingaswrittencodes,giveslanguagenewscopeandusethatspeechdoesnothave.Firstly,78\nmessagescanbecarriedthroughspacesothatpeoplecanwritetoeachother.Secondly,messagescanbecarriedthroughtimethereby,sothatpeopleofourtimecanbecarriedthroughtimethereby,sothatpeopleofourtimecanreadBeowulf,SamuelJohnson,andEdgarA.Poe.Thirdly,oralmessagesarereadilysubjecttodistortion,eitherintentionalorunintentional(causingmisunderstandingormalentendu),whilewrittenmessagesallowandencouragerepeatedunalterablereading.(3)Mostmodernlinguisticanalysisisfocusedonspeech,differentfromgrammariansofthelastcenturyandtheretofore.1.23.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenthedescriptiveandtheprescriptiveapproaches?Alinguisticstudyis“descriptive”ifitonlydescribesandanalysesthefactsoflanguage,and“prescriptive”ifittriestolaydownrulesfor“correct”languagebehavior.Linguisticstudiesbeforethiscenturywerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlygrammarswerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlygrammarswerebasedon“high”(literaryorreligious)writtenrecords.Modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive,however.It(thelatter)believesthatwhateveroccursinnaturalspeech(hesitation,incompleteutterance,misunderstanding,etc.)shouldbedescribedintheanalysis,andnotbemarkedasincorrect,abnormal,corrupt,orlousy.These,withchangesinvocabularyandstructures,needtobeexplainedalso.1.24.Whatisthedifferencebetweenlangueandparole?F.DeSaussurerefers“langue”totheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandrefers“parole”totheactualoractualizedlanguage,ortherealizationoflangue.Langueisabstract,parolespecifictothespeakingsituation;languenotactuallyspokenbyanindividual,parolealwaysanaturallyoccurringevent;languerelativelystableandsystematic,paroleisamassofconfusedfacts,thusnotsuitableforsystematicinvestigation.Whatalinguistoughttodo,accordingtoSaussure,istoabstractlanguefrominstancesofparole,I.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethanthesubjectoflinguistics.Thelangue-paroledistinctionisofgreatimportance,whichcastsgreatinfluenceonlaterlinguists.1.25.Whatisthedifferencebetweencompetenceandperformance?(1)AccordingtoN.Chomsky,“competence”istheideallanguageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,and“performance”istheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances.Theformerenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompetence.(2)Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Inotherwords,theyshoulddiscoverwhatanidealspeaker78\nknowsofhisnativelanguage.(3)Chomsky’scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,F.deSaussure’slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofconventionsforacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.SussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanN.Chomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.1.26.Whatislinguisticpotential?Whatisactuallinguisticbehavior?M.A.K.Hallidaymadethesetwoterms,orthepotential-behaviordistinction,inthe1960s,fromafunctionalpointofview.Thereisawiderangeofthingsaspeakercandoinhisculture,andsimilarlytherearemanythingshecansay,forexample,tomanypeople,onmanytopics.Whatheactuallysays(i.e.his“actuallinguisticbehavior”)onacertainoccasiontoacertainpersoniswhathehaschosenfrommanypossibleinjusticeitems,eachofwhichhecouldhavesaid(linguisticpotential).1.27.Inwhatwaydolanguage,competenceandlinguisticpotentialagree?Inwhatwaydotheydiffer?Andtheircounterparts?Langue,competenceandlinguisticpotentialhavesomesimilarfeatures,buttheyareinnatelydifferent(see1.25).Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofspeakingconventions;competenceisapropertyorattributeofeachidealspeaker’smind;linguisticpotentialisallthelinguisticcorpusorrepertoireavailablefromwhichthespeakerchoosesitemsfortheactualutterancesituation.Inotherwords,langueisinvisiblebutreliableabstractsystem.Competencemeans“knowing”,andlinguisticpotentialasetofpossibilitiesfor“doing”or“performingactions”.TheyaresimilarinthattheyallrefertotheconstantunderlyingtheutterancesthatconstitutewhatSaussure,ChomskyandHallidayrespectivelycalledparole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehavior.Paole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehaviorenjoymoresimilaritiesthandifferences.1.28.Whatisphonetics?“Phonetics”isthesciencewhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofhumansound-making,especiallythosesoundsusedinspeech,andprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp39-40),speechsoundsmaybestudiedindifferentways,thusbythreedifferentbranchesofphonetics.(1)Articulatoryphonetics;thebranchofphoneticsthatexaminesthewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinateintheprocess.(2)Auditoryphonetics,thebranchofphoneticresearchfromthehearer’spointofview,lookingintotheimpressionwhichaspeechsoundmakesonthehearerasmediatedbytheear,theauditorynerveandthebrain.(3)Acousticphonetics:thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmittedbetweenmouthandear.Mostphoneticians,however,areinterestedinarticulatorphonetics.78\n1.29.Howarethevocalorgansformed?Thevocalorgans(seeFigure1,HuZhuanglinetal.,p41),orspeechorgans,areorgansofthehumanbodywhosesecondaryuseisintheproductionofspeechsounds.Thevocalorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts;theinitiatoroftheair-stream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.1.30.Whatisplaceofarticulation?Itreferstotheplaceinthemouthwhere,forexample,theobstructionoccurs,resultingintheutteranceofaconsonant.Whateversoundispronounced,atleastsomevocalorganswillgetinvolved.g.Lips,hardpalateetc.,soaconsonantmaybeoneofthefollowing(1)bilabial:[p,b,m];(2)labiodental:[f,v];(3)dental:[,];(4)alveolar:[t,d,l,n.s,z];(5)retroflex;(6)palato-alveolar:[,];(7)palatal:[j];(8)velar[k,g,];(9)uvular;(10)glottal:[h].Somesoundsinvolvethesimultaneoususeoftwoplacesofarticulation.Forexample,theEnglish[w]hasbothanapproximationofthetwolipsandthosetwolipsandthatofthetongueandthesoftpalate,andmaybetermed“labial-velar”.1.31.Whatisthemannerofarticulation?The“mannerofarticulation”literallymeansthewayasoundisarticulated.Atagivenplaceofarticulation,theairstreamsmaybeobstructedinvariousways,resultinginvariousmannersofarticulation,arethefollowing:(1)plosive:[p,b,t,d,k,g];(2)nasal:[m,n,];(3)trill;(4)taporflap;(5)lateral:[l];(6)fricative:[f,v,s,z];(7)approximant:[w,j];(8)affricate:[].1.32.Howdophoneticiansclassifyvowels?Phoneticians,inspiteofthedifficulty,groupvowelsin5types:(1)longandshortvowels,e.g.,[i:,];(4)roundedandunroundvowels,e.g.[,i];(5)pureandglidingvowels,e.g.[I,].1.33.WhatisIPA?Whendiditcomeintobeing?TheIPA,abbreviationof“InternationalPhoneticAlphabet”,isacompromisesystemmakinguseofsymbolsofallsources,includingdiacriticsindicatinglength,stressandintonation,indicatingphoneticvariation.Eversinceitwasdevelopedin1888,IPAhasundergoneanumberofrevisions.1.34.Whatisnarrowtranscriptionandwhatisbroadtranscription?Inhandbookofphonetics,HenrySweetmadeadistinctionbetween“narrow”and“broad”transcriptions,whichhecalled“NarrowRomic”.Theformerwasmeanttosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingeventhemostminuteshadesofpronunciationwhileBroadRomicortranscriptionwasintendedtoindicateonlythosesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguage.1.35.Whatisphonology?Whatisdifferencebetweenphoneticsandphonology?78\n(1)“Phonology”isthestudyofsoundsystems-theinventionofdistinctivespeechsoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternswhereintheyfall.Minimalpair,phonemes,allophones,freevariation,complementarydistribution,etc.,arealltobeinvestigatedbyaphonologist.(2)Phonetics,asdiscussedinI.28,isthebranchoflinguisticsstudyingthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Aphonetistismainlyinterestedinthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds,whereasaphonologiststudieswhathebelievesaremeaningfulsoundsrelatedwiththeirsemanticfeatures,morphologicalfeatures,andthewaytheyareconceivedandprintedinthedepthofthemindphonologicalknowledgepermitsaspeakertoproducesoundswhichfrommeaningfulutterances,torecognizeaforeign“accent”,tomakeupnewwords,toaddtheappropriatephoneticsegmentstofrompluralsandpasttenses,toknowwhatisandwhatisnotasoundinone’slanguage.1.36.Whatisaphone?Whatisaphoneme?Whatisanallophone?(1)A“phone”isaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Whenwehearthefollowingwordspronounced:[pit],[tip],[spit],etc.,thesimilarphoneswehaveheardare[p]foronething,andthreedifferent[p]’s,readilymakingpossiblethe“narrowtranscriptionordiacritics”.Phonesmayandmaynotdistinguishmeaning.A“phoneme”isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Asanabstractunit,aphonemeisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Forexample,thephoneme[p]isrepresenteddifferentlyin[pit],[tip]and[spit].(2)Thephonesrepresentingaphonemearecalledits“allophones”,i.e.,thedifferent(i.e.,phones)butdonotmakeonewordsophoneticallydifferentastocreateanewwordoranewmeaningthereof.Sothedifferent[p]’sintheabovewordsaretheallophonesofthesamephoneme[p].Howaphonemeisrepresentedbyaphone,orwhichallophoneistobeused,isdeterminedbythephoneticcontextinwhichitoccurs.Butthechoiceofanallophoneisnotrandom.Inmostcasesitisrule-governed;theserulesaretobefoundoutbyaphonologist.1.37.Whatareminimalpairs?Whentwodifferentphoneticformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestring,thetwoforms(i.e.,word)aresupposedtoforma“minimalpair”,e.g.,“pill”and“bill”,“pill”and“till”,“till”and“dill”,“till”and“kill”,etc.Allthesewordstogetherconstituteaminimalset.Theyareidenticalinformexceptfortheinitialconsonants.TherearemanyminimalpairsinEnglish,whichmakesitrelativelyeasytoknowwhatareEnglishphonemes.Itisofgreatimportancetofindtheminimalpairswhenaphonologistisdealingwiththesoundsystemofanunknownlanguage(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp65-66).78\n1.38.Whatisfreevariation?Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironmentdonotcontrast;namely,ifthesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotgenerateanewwordformbutmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword,thetwosoundsthenaresaidtobein“freevariation”.Theplosives,forexample,maynotbeexplodedwhentheyoccurbeforeanotherplosiveoranasal(e.g.,act,apt,goodmorning).Theminutedistinctionsmay,ifnecessary,betranscribedindiacritics.Theseunexplodedandexplodedplosivesareinfreevariation.Soundsinfreevariationshouldbeassignedtothesamephoneme.1.39.Whatiscomplementarydistribution?Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment,theyarein“complementarydistribution”.Forexample,theaspiratedEnglishplosivesneveroccurafter[s],andtheunsaturatedonesneveroccurinitially.Soundsincomplementarydistributionmaybeassignedtothesamephoneme.Theallophonesof[l],forexample,arealsoincomplementarydistribution.Theclear[l]occursonlybeforeavowel,thevoicelessequivalentof[l]occursonlyafteravoicelessconsonant,suchasinthewords“please”,“butler”,“clear”,etc.,andthedark[l]occursonlyafteravowelorasasyllabicsoundafteraconsonant,suchasinthewords“feel”,“help”,“middle”,etc.1.40.Whatistheassimilationrule?Whatisthedeletionrule?(1)The“assimilationrule”assimilatesonesegmenttoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonesmoresimilar.Thisruleaccountsfortheraringpronunciationofthenasal[n]thatoccurswithinaword.Theruleisthatwithinawordthenasalconsonant[n]assumesthesameplaceofarticulationasthefollowingconsonant.Thenegativeprefix“in-“servesasagoodexample.Itmaybepronouncedas[in],or[im]whenoccurringindifferentphoneticcontexts:e.g.,indiscrete-[](alveolar)inconceivable-[](velar)input-[‘imput](bilabial)The“deletionrule”tellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughisorthographicallyrepresented.Whiletheletter“g”ismutein“sign”,“design”and“paradigm”,itispronouncedintheircorrespondingderivatives:“signature”,“designation”and“paradigmatic”.Therulethencanbestatedas:deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.ThisaccountsforsomeoftheseemingirregularitiesoftheEnglishspelling(seeDaiWeidong,pp22-23).1.41.Whatissuprasegmentalphonology?Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?“Suprasegmentalphonology”referstothestudyofphonologicalpropertiesoflinguisticunitslargerthanthesegmentcalledphoneme,suchassyllable,wordandsentence.HuZhuanglinetal.,(p,73)includesstress,lengthandpitchaswhattheysupposetobe“principalsuprasegmentalfeatures”,callingtheconcurrentpatterningof78\nthree“intonation”.DaiWeidong(pp23-25)liststhreealso,buttheyarestress,toneandintonation.1.42.Whatismorphology?“Morphology”isthebranchofgrammarthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Itisgenerallydividedintotwofields:inflectionalmorphologyandlexical/derivationalmorphology.1.43.Whatisinflection/inflexion?“Inflection”isthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspect,andcase,whichdoesnotchangethegrammaticalclassoftheitemstowhichtheyareattached.1.44.Whatisamorpheme?Whatisanallomorph?(1)The“morpheme”isthesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitwhichcannotbedividedwithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Theword“boxes”,forexample,hastwomorphemes:“box”and“-es”,neitherofwhichpermitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisifwedon’twishtosacrificemeaning.Thereforeamorphemeisconsideredtheminimalunitofmeaning.(2)Allomorphs,likeallophonesvs.phones,arethealternateshapes(andthusphoneticforms)ofthesamemorphemes.Somemorphemes,though,havenomorethanoneinvariableforminallcontexts,suchas“dog”,“cat”,etc.Thevariantsoftheplurality“-s”maketheallomorphsthereofinthefollowingexamples:map-maps,mouse-mice,sheep-sheepetc.1.45.Whatisafreemorpheme?Whatisaboundmorpheme?A“freemorpheme”isamorphemethatconstitutesawordbyitself,suchas‘bed”,“tree”,etc.A“boundmorpheme”isonethatappearswithatleastanothermorpheme,suchas“-s”in“beds”,“-al”in“national”andsoon.Allmonomorphemicwordsarefreemorphemes.Thosepolymorphemicwordsareeithercompounds(combinationoftwoormorefreemorphemes)orderivatives(wordderivedfromfreemorphemes).1.46.Whatisaroot?Whatisastem?Whatisanaffix?A“root”isthebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Inotherwords,a“root”isthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.“Internationalism”isafour-morphemederivativewhichkeepsitsfreemorpheme“nation”asitsrootwhen“inter-”,“-al”and“-ism”aretakenaway.A“stem”isanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichanaffixcanbeadded.Itmaybethesameas,andinothercases,differentfrom,aroot.Forexample,intheword“friends”,“friend”isboththerootandthestem,butintheword“friendships”,“friendships”isitsstem,“friend”isitsroot.Somewords(i.e.,compounds)havemorethanoneroot,e.g.,“mailman”,“girlfriend”,ect.78\nAn“affix”isthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeused,onlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes:prefix,suffixandinfix,e.g.,“mini-”,“un-”,ect.(prefix);“-ise”,“-tion”,ect.(suffix).1.47.Whatareopenclasses?Whatareclosedclasses?InEnglish,nouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbsmakeupthelargestpartofthevocabulary.Theyare“open–classwords”,sincewecanregularlyaddnewlexicalentriestotheseclasses.Theothersyntacticcategoriesare,forthemostpart,closedclasses,orclosed-classwords.Thenumberofthemishardlyalterable,iftheyarechangeableatall.1.48.Whatislexicon?Whatisword?Whatislexeme?Whatisvocabulary?Lexicon?Word?Lexeme?Vocabulary?“Lexicon”,initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.Initstechnicalsense,however,lexicondealswiththeanalysisandcreationofwords,idiomsandcollocations.“Word”isaunitofexpressionwhichhasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.Thisdefinitionisperhapsalittlevagueastherearedifferentcriteriawithregardtoitsidentificationanddefinition.Itseemsthatitishard,evenimpossible,todefine“word”linguistically.Nonethelessitisuniversallyagreedthatthefollowingthreesensesareinvolvedinthedefinitionof“word”,noneofwhich,though,isexpectedtocopewithallthesituations:(1)aphysicallydefinableunit,e.g.,[itiz‘w](phonological),“Itiswonder”(orthographic);(2)thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms(seewhatisthecommonfactorof“checks”,“checked”,“checking”,etc.);(3)agrammaticalunit(lookat(1)again;everywordplaysagrammaticalpartinthesentence).AccordingtoLeonardBloomfield,awordisaminimumfreeform(compare:asentenceisamaximumfreeform,accordingtoBloomfield).Thereareotherfactorsthatmayhelpusidentifywords:(1)stability(nogreatchangeoforthographicfeatures);(2)relativeuninterruptibility(wecanhardlyinsertanythingbetweentwopartsofawordorbetweentheletters).Tomakethecategoryclearerwecansubclassifywordsintoafewtypes:(1)variableandinvariablewords(e.g.,-mats,seldom-?);(2)grammaticalandlexicalwords(e.g.to,in,etc.,andtable,chair,ect.By“lexicalwords”wemeanthewordsthatcarryasemanticcontent,e.g.,nouns,verbs,adjectivesandmanyadverbs;(3)closed-classandopen-classwords(seeI.47).Inordertoreducetheambiguityoftheterm“word”,theterm“lexeme”ispostulatedastheabtractunitwhichreferstothesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.Alexemecanoccurinmanydifferentformsinactualspokenorwrittentexts.Forexample,“write”isthelexemeofthefollowingwords:“write”,“write”,“wrote”,“writing”,and“written.”“Vocabulary”usuallyreferstoallwordsorlexicalitemsapersonhasacquiredabouttechnicalor/anduntechnicalthings.Soweencourageourstudentstoenlargetheirvocabulary.“vocabulary”isalsousedtomeanwordlistorglossary.78\n1.49.Whatiscollocation?“Collocation”isatermusedinlexicologybysomelinguiststorefertothehabitualco-occurrencesofindividuallexicalitems.Forexample,wecan“read”a“book”;“correct”cannarrowlyoccurwith“book”whichissupposedtohavefaults,butnoonecan“read”a“mistake”becausewithregardtoco-occurrencethesetwowordsarenotcollocates.1.segregation[,segri'geiʃən]n.隔离，分离；种族隔离2.institutional[,insti'tju:ʃənəl]adj.制度的；制度上的；学会的3.external[ik'stə:nəl]adj.外部的；表面的；[药]外用的；外国的；外面的n.外部；外观；外面4.tend[tend]vi.趋向，倾向；照料，照顾vt.照料，照管5.participants[]n.参与者（participant的复数形式）6.pedagogical[pedə'gɔdʒikəl]adj.教育学的；教学法的7.elaboration[i,læbə'reiʃən]n.苦心经营，精巧；详细阐述8.auxiliary[ɔ:g'ziljəri]n.助动词；辅助者，辅助物；附属机构adj.辅助的；副的；附加的9.thereby[,ðεə'bai,'ðεəbai]adv.从而，因此；在那附近；在那方面10.hypothesize[hai'pɔθisaiz]vt.假设，假定vi.假设，假定11.directive[di'rektiv,dai-]n.指示；指令adj.指导的；管理的12.generation[,dʒenə'reiʃən]n.一代；产生；一代人；生殖13.substantial[səb'stænʃəl]adj.大量的；实质的；内容充实的n.本质；重要材料14.alternate[ɔ:l'tə:nət,'ɔ:ltə-,'ɔ:ltəneit]vi.交替；轮流vt.使交替；使轮流adj.交替的；轮流的n.替换物15.distinction[dis'tiŋkʃən]n.区别；差别；特性；荣誉、勋章16.essential[i'senʃəl]adj.基本的；必要的；本质的；精华的n.本质；要素；要点；必需品17.notion['nəuʃən]n.概念；见解；打算18.differentiate[,difə'renʃieit]vi.区分，区别vt.区分，区别19.respectively[ri'spektivli]78\nadv.分别地；各自地，独自地20.neutral['nju:trəl]adj.中立的，中性的；中立国的；非彩色的n.中立国；中立者；非彩色；齿轮的空档21.exemplification[ig,zemplifi'keiʃən]n.范例；模范22.evolution[,i:və'lu:ʃən,,ev-]n.演变；进化论；进展23.aspect['æspekt]n.方面；方向；形势；外貌24.native['neitiv]adj.本国的；土著的；天然的；与生俱来的；天赋的n.本地人；土产；当地居民25.masculine['mæskjulin]adj.男性的；阳性的；男子气概的n.男性；阳性，阳性词26.quality['kwɔləti]n.质量，[统计]品质；特性；才能27.reinforcement[,ri:in'fɔ:smənt]n.加固；增援；援军；加强28.unique[ju:'ni:k]adj.独特的，稀罕的；[数]唯一的，独一无二的n.独一无二的人或物29.vastly['va:stli]adv.极大地；广大地；深远地30.irrespective[,iri'spektiv]adj.无关的；不考虑的；不顾的31.perceive[pə'si:v]vt.察觉，感觉；理解；认知vi.感到，感知；认识到32.ignorance['ignərəns]n.无知，愚昧；不知，不懂33.interwine[]v.缠绕34.concerned[kən'sə:nd]adj.有关的；关心的v.关心（concern的过去时和过去分词）；与…有关35.inquiry[in'kwaiəri]n.探究；调查；质询36.recognize['rekəgnaiz]vt.认出，识别；承认vi.确认，承认；具结37.subtlety['sʌbtlti]n.微妙；敏锐；精明38.conversation[,kɔnvə'seiʃən]n.交谈；会话；社交39.stir[stə:]n.搅拌；轰动vt.搅拌；激起；惹起vi.搅动；传播；走动40.misplaced[,mɪs'plest]78\nadj.错位的；寄托错的v.错放（misplace的过去式）41.allophone['æləufəun]n.音位变体42.abbreviation[ə,bri:vi'eiʃən]n.缩写；缩写词43.nerve[nə:v]n.神经；勇气；[植]叶脉vt.鼓起勇气44.essentially[i'senʃəli]adv.本质上；本来45.register['redʒistə]vt.登记；注册；记录；挂号邮寄；把…挂号；正式提出vi.登记；注册；挂号n.登记；注册；记录；寄存器；登记簿46.accurately['ækjərɪtli]adv.精确地，准确地47.sequence['si:kwəns]n.[数][计]序列；顺序；续发事件vt.按顺序排好48.introduced[]v.介绍；引进（introduce的过去分词）adj.引进的；引种的49.mediation[,mi:di'eiʃən]n.调解；仲裁；调停50.interact[,intə'rækt]vt.互相影响；互相作用vi.互相影响；互相作用n.幕间剧；幕间休息51.gyrus['dʒaɪrəs]n.[解剖]脑回（形成大脑半球的组织）；回转52.coincide[,kəuin'said]vi.一致，符合；同时发生53.gratitude['grætitju:d]n.感谢的心情54.rehearsal[ri'hə:səl]n.排演；预演；练习；训练；叙述55.precisely[pri'saisli]adv.精确地；恰恰56.competent['kɔmpitənt]adj.胜任的；有能力的；能干的；足够的57.paradigm['pærədim]n.范例；词形变化表58.resultative[]adj.表示结果的n.结果短语59.entity['entəti]n.实体；存在；本质60.formulated[]按配方制造61.atypical[,ei'tipikəl,-ik]adj.非典型的；不合规则的78\n62.qualification[,kwɔlifi'keiʃən]n.资格；条件；限制；赋予资格63.diverge[dai'və:dʒ,di-]vi.分歧；偏离；分叉；离题vt.使偏离；使分叉64.estimated['estimetid]adj.估计的；预计的；估算的65.priority[prai'ɔrəti]n.优先；优先权；[数]优先次序；优先考虑的事66.composition[,kɔmpə'ziʃən]n.作文，作曲；[材]构成；合成物67.perspective[pə'spektiv]n.观点；远景；透视图adj.透视的68.devote[di'vəut]vt.致力于；奉献69.materialize[mə'tiəriəlaiz]vt.使具体化，使有形；使突然出现；使重物质而轻精神vi.实现，成形；突然出现70.seemingly['si:miŋli]adv.看来似乎；表面上看来71.spectrum['spektrəm]n.光谱；频谱；范围；余象72.label['leibl]vt.标注；贴标签于n.标签；商标；签条73.display[,dis'plei]n.显示；炫耀vt.显示；表现；陈列vi.[动]作炫耀行为adj.展览的；陈列用的74.code[kəud]n.代码，密码；编码；法典vt.编码；制成法典vi.指定遗传密码75.criticism['krɪtɪsɪzəm]n.批评；考证；苛求76.ghetto['getəu]n.犹太人区；贫民区vt.使集中居住77.utter['ʌtə]vt.发出，表达；发射adj.完全的；彻底的；无条件的78.rural['ruərəl]adj.农村的，乡下的；田园的，有乡村风味的79.virtually['və:tʃuəli]adv.事实上，几乎；实质上80.stutter['stʌtə]vi.结结巴巴地说话n.口吃，结巴vt.结结巴巴地说出81.disorder[dis'ɔ:də]n.混乱；骚乱vt.使失调；扰乱82.deficiency[di'fiʃənsi]n.缺陷，缺点；缺乏；不足的数额78\n83.contradict[kɒntrə'dɪkt]vt.反驳；否定；与…矛盾；与…抵触vi.反驳；否认；发生矛盾84.distinguish[dis'tiŋgwiʃ]vt.区分；辨别；使杰出，使表现突出vi.区别，区分；辨别85.restored[ri'stɔ:d]adj.精力充沛的；精力恢复的v.修复（restore的过去式）；恢复健康86.dysgraphia[]n.[医]书写困难；书写障碍87.measure['meʒə]n.测量；措施；程度；尺寸vt.测量；估量；权衡vi.测量；估量88.aristocrat[]n.贵族89.indication[,indi'keiʃən]n.指示，指出；迹象；象征90.contrastive[]adj.对比的91.evidence['evidəns]n.证据，证明；迹象；明显vt.证明92.erroneously[]adv.错误地；不正确93.stimulus['stimjuləs]n.刺激；激励；刺激物94.frozen['frəuzn]adj.冻结的；冷酷的v.结冰（freeze的过去分词）；凝固；变得刻板95.perceived[]v.感知；认为（perceive的过去分词）；领会adj.感知到的；感观的96.stimuli['stimjulai]n.刺激；剌激物；促进因素（stimulus的复数）97.uvula['ju:vjulə]n.[解剖]悬雍垂；[解剖]小舌98.negation[ni'geiʃən]n.否定，否认；拒绝99.wireless['waiəlis]adj.无线的；无线电的n.无线电vt.用无线电报与…联系；用无线电报发送vi.打无线电报；打无线电话100.gradual['grædʒuəl]adj.逐渐的；平缓的n.弥撒升阶圣歌集101.sequential[si'kwenʃəl]adj.连续的；相继的；有顺序的102.controversy['kɔntrə,və:si]n.争论；论战；辩论103.especially[i'speʃəli]adv.特别；尤其；格外104.generalization[,dʒenərəlai'zeiʃən,-li'z-]78\nn.概括；普遍化；一般化105.predominant[,pri'dɔminənt]adj.主要的；卓越的；支配的；有力的；有影响的106.emphasize['emfəsaiz]vt.强调，着重107.trauma['trɔ:mə;'trau-]n.[外科]创伤（由心理创伤造成精神上的异常）；外伤108.subsequence['sʌbsikwəns]n.后继；随后发生的事情109.fissure['fɪʃə]vi.裂开；分裂n.裂缝；裂沟（尤指岩石上的）vt.裂开；分裂110.assertion[ə'sə:ʃən]n.断言，声明；主张，要求；坚持111.theoretical[,θiə'retikəl,,θi:ə-]adj.理论的；理论上的；假设的；推理的112.transformation[,trænsfə'meiʃən,,trænz-,trɑ:n-]n.[遗]转化；转换；改革；变形113.syllable['siləbl]n.音节vt.划分音节vi.按音节发音；讲话114.authorize['ɔ:θəraiz]vt.批准，认可；授权给；委托代替115.entire[in'taiə]adj.全部的，整个的；全体的116.intimacy['intiməsi]n.性行为；亲密；亲昵行为；隐私117.categories[]n.类别（category的复数）；分类118.prominent['prɔminənt]adj.突出的，显著的；杰出的；卓越的119.peculiar[pi'kju:ljə]adj.特殊的；独特的；奇怪的；罕见的n.特权；特有财产120.govern['gʌv(ə)n]vt.管理；支配；统治；控制vi.居支配地位；进行统治121.clues[]n.线索，蛛丝马迹（clue的复数）v.提示（clue的第三人称单数）；暗示122.involve[in'vɔlv]vt.包含；牵涉；使陷于；潜心于123.convey[kən'vei]vt.传达；运输；让与124.obvious['ɔbviəs]adj.明显的；显著的；平淡无奇的125.norm[nɔ:m]n.规范，基准；定额，分配之工作量126.assault[ə'sɔ:lt]78\nn.攻击；袭击vt.攻击；袭击vi.袭击；动武127.voluntary['vɒlənt(ə)rɪ]adj.自愿的；志愿的；自发的；故意的n.志愿者；自愿行动128.capability[,keipə'biləti]n.才能，能力；性能，容量129.isolate['aɪsəleɪt]vt.使隔离；使孤立；使绝缘n.[生物]隔离种群vi.隔离；孤立adj.隔离的；孤立的130.substituting['sʌbstitju:tiŋ]n.取代；代入v.代替，取代（substitute的现在分词形式）131.occipital[ɒk'sɪpɪtəl]adj.枕骨的，枕部的n.枕骨132.identify[ai'dentifai]vt.确定；识别；使参与；把…看成一样vi.确定；认同；一致133.privacy['praivəsi,'pri-,'prai-]n.隐私；秘密；隐居；隐居处134.embody[im'bɔdi]vt.体现，使具体化；具体表达135.dominant['dɔminənt]adj.显性的；占优势的；支配的，统治的n.显性136.distribution[,distri'bju:ʃən]n.分布；分配137.inadequacy[in'ædikwəsi]n.不适当，不充分；不完全；不十分138.semivowel[]n.半元音（如w，j等）；半元音字（如y，ng等）139.criterion[krai'tiəriən]n.（批评判断的）标准；准则；规范；准据140.category['kætigəri]n.种类，分类；[数]范畴141.backcloth[]n.背景幕142.explicitly[ik'splisitli]adv.明确地；明白地143.proof[pru:f]n.证明；证据；校样；考验；验证；试验adj.防…的；不能透入的；证明用的；耐…的vt.试验；校对；使不被穿透144.intrinsically[in'trinsikəli]adv.本质地；内在地；固有地145.fiber['faibə]n.纤维；光纤（等于fibre）146.express[ik'spres]vt.表达；快递adj.明确的；迅速的；专门的n.快车，快递，专使；捷运公司147.acquisition[,ækwi'ziʃən]78\nn.获得物，获得148.analogous[ə'næləgəs]adj.类似的；[昆]同功的；可比拟的149.amytal['æmitæl]n.[药]阿米妥；异戊巴比妥150.bilingualism[]n.能用两种语言151.hierarchy['haiə,rɑ:ki]n.层级；等级制度152.construction[kən'strʌkʃən]n.建设；建筑物；解释；造句153.note[nəut]n.笔记；音符；票据；注解；纸币；便笺；照会；调子vt.注意；记录；注解154.portion['pɔːʃ(ə)n]n.部分；一份；命运vt.分配；给…嫁妆155.collectional[]collection的变形收集，采集；收取收集品，收藏品；(图书馆)藏书，馆藏(教堂礼拜时的)捐款，募捐，施舍物；募集的钱聚集；大量，大堆[用复数][英国英语]时装展览；展示的时装(马的)受衔姿势，正姿势156.criteria[krai'tiəriə]n.标准，条件（criterion的复数）157.focuses[]n.重点（focuse的复数）；焦点v.集中（focus的三单形式）；使聚焦；调节焦距158.ethical['eθɪk(ə)l]adj.伦理的；道德的；凭处方出售的n.处方药159.subconscious[,sʌb'kɔnʃəs]adj.潜意识的；下意识的n.潜在意识；下意识心理活动160.amenity[ə'mi:nəti,ə'men-]n.舒适；礼仪；愉快；便利设施161.enhancement[in'ha:nsmənt]n.增加；放大162.reserved[ri'zə:vd]adj.保留的，预订的；缄默的，冷淡的；包租的v.保留（reserve的过去分词）163.omission[əu'miʃən]n.疏忽，遗漏；省略；冗长164.focu[]焦点一种奇点165.clue[klu:]n.线索；（故事等的）情节vt.为…提供线索；为…提供情况166.efficiency[i'fiʃənsi]n.效率；效能；功效167.strengthen['streŋθən,'streŋkθən]vt.加强；巩固vi.变强；变坚挺78\n168.literally['litərəli]adv.照字面地；逐字地169.apply[ə'plai]vt.申请；涂，敷；应用vi.申请；涂，敷；适用；请求170.constrain[kən'strein]vt.驱使；强迫；束缚171.formulate['fɔ:mjuleit]vt.规划；用公式表示；明确地表达172.segment['segmənt,seg'ment,'segment]vi.分割n.段；部分vt.分割173.variation[,vεəri'eiʃən]n.变化；[生物]变异，变种174.proverb['prɔvə:b]n.谚语，格言；众所周知的人或事175.axial['æksɪəl]adj.轴的；轴向的176.rare[rεə]adj.稀有的；半熟的；稀薄的adv.非常；极其vi.用后腿站起；渴望177.request[ri'kwest]n.请求；需要vt.要求，请求178.presumption[pri'zʌmpʃən,pri:-]n.放肆，傲慢；推测179.argument['ɑ:gjumənt]n.论证；论据；争吵；内容提要180.restriction[ri'strikʃən]n.限制；约束；束缚181.designated['dezig,neitid]adj.指定的；特指的182.connotative['kɔnəuteitiv]adj.内涵的；隐含的；含蓄的183.mere[miə]adj.仅仅的；只不过的n.小湖；池塘184.scale[skeil]n.规模；比例；鳞；刻度；天平；数值范围vi.衡量；攀登；剥落；生水垢vt.测量；攀登；刮鳞；依比例决定185.illocutionary[]adj.[语言学]言外行为的；言之行言语行为的186.expansion[ik'spænʃən]n.膨胀；阐述；扩张物187.homograph['hɔməugrɑ:f,-græf]n.同形异义字188.randomly['rændəmli]adv.随便地，任意地；无目的，胡乱地；未加计划地189.heyday['heidei]78\nn.全盛期int.嘿！（表喜悦或惊奇等）190.articulation[ɑ:,tikju'leiʃən]n.关节；接合；清晰发音191.automatically[,ɔtə'mætɪkli]adv.自动地；机械地；无意识地adj.不经思索的192.ideology[,aidi'ɔlədʒi,,idi-]n.意识形态；思想意识；观念学193.utterance[]n.表达；说话；说话方式194.develop[di'veləp]vt.开发；进步；使成长；使显影vi.发育；生长；进化；显露195.denial[di'naiəl]n.否认；拒绝；节制；背弃196.derivational[,deri'veiʃənəl]adj.得来的；诱导的197.conjure['kʌndʒə,'kɔn-]vt.想象；念咒召唤；用魔法变出vi.以念咒召唤神灵；施魔法，变魔术198.lexicon['leksikən]n.词典，辞典199.attainment[ə'teinmənt]n.达到；成就；学识200.modify['mɔdifai]vt.修改，修饰；更改vi.修改201.hint[hint]n.暗示；线索vt.暗示；示意vi.示意202.instrument['instrumənt,'instrə-,-ment]n.仪器；工具；乐器；手段；器械203.illuminate[i'lju:mineit]vt.阐明，说明；照亮；使灿烂；用灯装饰vi.照亮204.infancy['infənsi]n.初期；婴儿期；幼年205.naked['neikid]adj.裸体的；无装饰的；无证据的；直率的206.identification[ai,dentifi'keiʃən]n.鉴定，识别；认同；身份证明207.scientific[,saiən'tifik]adj.科学的，系统的208.preoccupation[pri:,ɔkju'peiʃən]n.全神贯注，入神；当务之急；关注的事物；抢先占据；成见209.stem[stem]n.干；茎；船首；血统vt.阻止；除去…的茎；给…装柄vi.阻止；起源于某事物；逆行210.consistent[kən'sistənt]adj.始终如一的，一致的；坚持的78\n211.comprehension[,kɔmpri'henʃən]n.理解；包含212.technique[tek'ni:k]n.技巧，技术；手法213.maintain[mein'tein]vt.维持；继续；维修；主张；供养214.parietal[pə'raɪɪt(ə)l]adj.[解剖]腔壁的；颅顶骨的；（美）学院生活的n.顶骨，头顶骨215.ambiguity[,æmbi'gju:iti]n.含糊；不明确；暧昧；模棱两可的话216.omitted[əu'mitid]adj.省略了的；省去的v.遗漏，省略（omit的过去分词）217.neuro[]n.神经218.evident['evidənt]adj.明显的；明白的219.topography[tə'pɒgrəfɪ]n.地势；地形学；地志220.formerly['fɔ:məli]adv.以前；原来221.illegality[,ili:'gæləti]n.违法；[法]非法行为；犯规222.comprehensive[,kɔmpri'hensiv]adj.综合的；广泛的；有理解力的n.综合学校；专业综合测验223.bundle['bʌnd(ə)l]n.束；捆vt.捆vi.匆忙离开224.quantity['kwɔntəti]n.量，数量；大量；总量225.derive[di'raiv]vt.源于；得自vi.起源226.entirely[in'taiəli]adv.完全地，彻底地227.template['templit]n.模板，样板228.integrate['intigreit,'intigrit,-greit]vt.使…完整；使…成整体；求…的积分；表示…的总和vi.求积分；取消隔离；成为一体adj.整合的；完全的n.一体化；集成体229.static['stætɪk]adj.静态的；静电的；静力的n.静电；静电干扰230.scanning['skæniŋ]n.扫描；搜索，观测；扫掠adj.扫描的；观测的；搜索的；扫掠的v.扫描（scan的现在分词）；浏览231.dramatical[drə'mætik,-kəl]adj.剧烈的，戏剧的78\n232.adequate['ædikwit]adj.充足的；适当的；胜任的233.attendance[ə'tendəns]n.出席；到场；出席人数234.absurd[əb'sə:d]adj.荒谬的；可笑的n.荒诞；荒诞作品235.intermediate[,intə'mi:djət,-dieit]vi.起媒介作用adj.中间的，中级的n.[化学]中间物；媒介236.endowment[in'daumənt]n.捐赠；捐助；捐款；天资237.prerequisite['pri:'rekwizit]n.先决条件adj.首要必备的238.conscious['kɔnʃəs]adj.意识到的；故意的；神志清醒的239.articulatory[ɑ:'tikjulətəri]adj.关节的；分节的；发音清晰的240.interactionist[]interactionism的变形【行为学】互相作用说；交相感应说241.monolingual[]adj.单语的；仅用一种语言的；仅懂一种语言的n.只用一种语言的人242.press[pres]vt.压；按；逼迫；紧抱vi.压；逼；重压n.压；按；新闻；出版社；[印刷]印刷机243.complex['kɔmpleks]adj.复杂的；合成的n.复合体；综合设施244.coordination[kəu,ɔ:di'neiʃən]n.协调，调和；对等，同等245.superimpose[,sju:pərim'pəuz]vt.添加；重叠；附加；安装246.substance['sʌbstəns]n.物质；实质；资产；主旨247.designed[di'zaind]adj.有计划的，原意的；故意的v.设计；计划（design的过去分词）248.significant[sig'nifikənt]adj.重大的；有效的；有意义的；值得注意的；意味深长的n.象征；有意义的事物249.relevance['relivəns]n.关联；适当；中肯250.definitely['definitli]adv.清楚地，当然；明确地，肯定地251.sentimental[,senti'mentəl]adj.感伤的；感情脆弱的252.paralysis[pə'rælɪsɪs]n.麻痹；无力；停顿78\n253.coinage['kɔinidʒ]n.造币；[金融]货币制度；新造的字及其语等254.singular['siŋgjulə]adj.单数的；单一的；非凡的；异常的n.单数255.alter['ɔ:ltə]vt.改变，更改vi.改变；修改256.material[mə'tiəriəl]adj.重要的；物质的，实质性的；肉体的n.材料，原料；物资；布料257.exhibit[ig'zibit]vt.展览；显示；提出（证据等）n.展览品；证据；展示会vi.展出；开展览会258.wrinkle['rɪŋk(ə)l]n.皱纹vi.起皱vt.使起皱纹259.corpus['kɔ:pəs]n.[计]语料库；文集；本金260.presence['prezəns]n.存在；出席；参加；风度；仪态261.equally['i:kwəli]adv.同样地；相等地，平等地；公平地262.cognition[kɔg'niʃən]n.认识；知识；认识能力263.elementary[,eli'mentəri]adj.基本的；初级的；[化学]元素的264.reflect[ri'flekt]vt.反映；反射，照出；反省vi.反射，映现；深思265.proportion[prəˈpɔːʃ(ə)n]n.比例；部分；面积；均衡vt.使成比例；使均衡；分摊266.audibly['ɔ:dəbli]adv.可听见地267.auditory['ɔ:ditəri]n.听众；礼堂adj.听觉的；耳朵的268.stylistic[stai'listik]adj.体裁上的；格式上的；文体论的269.presuppose[]vt.假定；预料；以…为先决条件270.emission[ɪ'mɪʃ(ə)n]n.（光、热等的）发射，散发；喷射；发行271.audible['ɔ:dəbl]adj.听得见的272.subsequently['sʌbsikwəntli]adv.随后，其后；后来273.motherese[]n.妈妈语274.proclaim[prəu'kleim]78\nvt.宣告，公布；声明；表明；赞扬275.acoustic[ə'ku:stik]adj.声学的；音响的；听觉的n.原声乐器；不用电传音的乐器276.ignorant['ignərənt]adj.无知的；愚昧的277.aptitude['æptitju:d]n.天资；自然倾向；适宜278.formulation[,fɔ:mju'leiʃən]n.构想，规划；公式化；简洁陈述279.comply[kəm'plai]vi.遵守；顺从，遵从；答应280.deplore[di'plɔ:]vt.谴责；悲悼；哀叹；对…深感遗憾281.repetitive[ri'petətiv]adj.重复的282.mute[mjuːt]adj.哑的；沉默的；无声的vt.减弱……的声音；使……柔和n.哑巴；弱音器；闭锁音283.preeminence[,pri:'eminəns,pri-]n.卓越；杰出284.declaration[,deklə'reiʃən]n.（纳税品等的）申报；宣布；公告；申诉书285.select[si'lekt]vt.挑选；选拔adj.精选的；挑选出来的；极好的vi.挑选n.被挑选者；精萃286.explanation[,eksplə'neiʃən]n.说明，解释；辩解287.distinctness[dɪ'stɪŋktnɪs]n.不同；明显；有特殊性288.friction['frikʃən]n.摩擦，[力]摩擦力289.verifiable['veri,faiəbl]adj.可证实的；能作证的；可检验的290.preliminary[pri'liminəri]n.准备；预赛；初步措施adj.初步的；开始的；预备的291.vary['vεəri]vi.变化；变异；违反vt.改变；使多样化；变奏292.render['rendə]vt.致使；提出；实施；着色；以…回报vi.给予补偿n.打底；交纳；粉刷293.modified['mɔdifaid]adj.改进的，修改的；改良的v.修改；缓和（modify的过去分词）294.whereas[hwεə'æz]conj.然而；鉴于；反之295.failure['feiljə]n.失败；故障；失败者；破产78\n296.elusive[i'lju:siv,-səri]adj.难懂的；易忘的；逃避的；难捉摸的297.summarize['sʌməraiz]vt.总结；概述vi.作总结；作概括298.regulate['regjuleit]vt.调节，规定；控制；校准；有系统的管理299.attempt[ə'tempt]n.企图，试图；攻击vt.企图，试图；尝试300.assimilate[ə'simileit]vt.吸收；使同化；把…比作；使相似vi.吸收；同化301.formality[fɔ:'mæliti]n.礼节；拘谨；仪式；正式手续302.stability[stə'biliti]n.稳定性；坚定，恒心303.figureout[]解决；算出；想出；理解；断定304.angular['æŋgjʊlə]adj.[生物]有角的；生硬的，笨拙的；瘦削的305.autopsy['ɔ:təpsi]n.验尸；[病理][特医]尸体解剖；[病理][特医]尸体剖检306.dental['dentəl]adj.牙科的；牙齿的，牙的n.齿音307.sincerity[sin'serəti,-'siərəti]n.真实，诚挚308.postvocalic[]adj.元音后面的309.caretaker[]n.看管者；看门人；守护者adj.临时代理的310.performance[pə'fɔ:məns]n.性能；绩效；表演；执行311.arose[ə'rəuz]vi.出现（arise的过去式）；引发312.formation[fɔ:'meiʃən]n.形成；构造；编队313.beneath[bɪ'niːθ]prep.在…之下adv.在下方314.transmit[trænz'mit,træns-,trɑ:n-]vt.传输；传播；发射；传达；遗传vi.传输；发射信号315.regular['regjulə]adj.定期的；有规律的；合格的；整齐的n.常客；正式队员；中坚分子adv.定期地；经常地316.percentage[pə'sentidʒ]n.百分比；百分率，百分数317.thus[ðʌs]78\nadv.因此；从而；这样；如此conj.因此n.乳香318.imperialism[]n.帝国主义319.coincidence[kəu'insidəns]n.巧合；一致；同时发生320.manipulation[mə,nipju'leiʃən]n.操纵；操作；处理；篡改321.representative[,repri'zentətiv]adj.典型的，有代表性的；代议制的n.代表；典型；众议员322.immediate[i'mi:diət]adj.立即的；直接的；最接近的323.subtract[səb'trækt]vt.减去；扣掉324.complication[,kɔmpli'keiʃən]n.并发症；复杂；复杂化；混乱325.originally[ə'ridʒənəli]adv.最初，起初；本来326.charge[tʃɑ:dʒ]n.费用；电荷；掌管；控告；命令；负载vt.使充电；使承担；指责；装载；对…索费；向…冲去vi.充电；控告；索价；向前冲；记在账上327.regional['ri:dʒənəl]adj.地区的；局部的；整个地区的328.sensory['sens(ə)rɪ]adj.感觉的；知觉的；传递感觉的329.designate['dezigneit,'dezignit,-neit]vt.指定；指派；标出；把…定名为adj.指定的；选定的330.device[di'vais]n.装置；策略；图案331.usage['ju:zidʒ]n.使用；用法；惯例332.clarity['klærəti]n.清楚，明晰；透明333.actual['æktʃuəl]adj.真实的，实际的；现行的，目前的334.pretend[pri'tend,pri:-]vt.假装；假扮；伪称vi.假装；伪称adj.假装的335.assign[ə'sain]vt.分配；指派；[计][数]赋值vi.将财产过户（尤指过户给债权人）336.surface['sə:fis]n.表面；表层；外观adj.表面的，肤浅的vi.浮出水面vt.使浮出水面；使成平面337.articulate[ɑ:'tikjulət,ɑ:'tikjuleit]vt.清晰地发（音）；明确有力地表达；用关节连接；使相互连贯vi.发音；清楚地讲话；用关节连接起来adj.发音清晰的；口才好的；有关节的78\n338.imply[im'plai]vt.意味；暗示；隐含339.mechanism['mekənizəm]n.机制；原理，途径；进程；机械装置；技巧340.beyond[bi'jɔnd]prep.超过；越过；那一边；在...较远的一边adv.在远处；在更远处n.远处341.obscurity[əb'skjuriti]n.朦胧；阴暗；晦涩；身份低微；不分明342.labelled[leibəld]adj.贴上标签的v.贴上标签（label的过去式）343.significance[sig'nifikəns]n.意义；重要性；意思344.drive[draiv]vi.开车；猛击；飞跑vt.推动，发动（机器等）；驾驶（马车，汽车等）；驱赶n.驱动器；驾车；[心理]内驱力，推进力；快车道345.initiate[ɪ'nɪʃɪeɪt]vt.开始，创始；发起；使初步了解n.开始；新加入者，接受初步知识者adj.新加入的；接受初步知识的346.focus['fəukəs]n.焦点；中心；清晰；焦距vt.使集中；使聚焦vi.集中；聚焦；调节焦距347.loyalty['lɔiəlti]n.忠诚；忠心；忠实348.exchange[iks'tʃeindʒ]n.交换；交流；交易所；兑换vt.交换；交易；兑换vi.交换；交易；兑换349.exponent[ik'spəunənt]n.[数]指数；典型；说明者，说明物adj.说明的350.random['rændəm]adj.[数]随机的；任意的；胡乱的n.随意adv.胡乱地351.participant[pɑ:'tisipənt]adj.参与的；有关系的n.参与者；关系者352.syndrome['sɪndrəʊm]n.[临床]综合征；综合症状；并发症状；校验子；并发位353.closure['kləuʒə]n.关闭；终止，结束vt.使终止354.suffice[sə'fais]vt.使满足；足够…用；合格vi.足够；有能力355.appropriateness[]n.适当；适合356.emancipate[i'mænsipeit]vt.解放；释放357.range[reindʒ]n.范围；幅度；排；山脉vi.平行，列为一行；延伸；漫游；射程达到vt.漫游；放牧；使并列；归类于；来回走动358.complexity[kəm'pleksiti]78\nn.复杂，复杂性；复杂错综的事物359.constantly['kɔnstəntli]adv.不断地；时常地360.permeate['pə:mieit]vt.渗透，透过；弥漫vi.弥漫；透入；散布361.copula['kɔpjulə]n.介体；接合部；连系动词362.block[blɒk]n.块；街区；大厦；障碍物vt.阻止；阻塞；限制adj.成批的，大块的；交通堵塞的363.switch[switʃ]vt.转换；用鞭子等抽打vi.转换；抽打；[体]换防n.开关；转换；鞭子364.retrieval[ri'tri:vəl]n.检索；恢复；取回；拯救365.remarkable[ri'mɑ:kəbl]adj.卓越的；非凡的；值得注意的366.circumstance['sə:kəmstəns]n.环境，情况；事件；境遇367.dichotic[daɪ'kɒtɪk]adj.二重听觉的368.homonyms[]n.同形同音异义词；同音异义词（homonym的复数）369.capacity[kə'pæsəti]n.能力；容量；资格，地位；生产力370.commissive[]adj.许诺的371.artery['ɑːtərɪ]n.动脉；干道；主流372.paraphrase['pærəfreiz]n.释义；改述；演释曲vt.改述vi.释义；意译373.homonymy[]n.同音异义374.extreme[ik'stri:m]adj.极端的；极度的；偏激的；尽头的n.极端；末端；最大程度；极端的事物375.principally['prinsəpəli]adv.主要地；大部分376.prestigious[pre'stidʒəs,-'sti:-]adj.有名望的；享有声望的377.palatal['pælətl]n.上颚音adj.腭的；上颚的378.process['prəuses,'prɔ-]vt.处理；加工n.过程，进行；方法，步骤；作用；程序；推移vi.列队前进adj.经过特殊加工（或处理）的379.reptiles['rɛptl]78\nn.爬行动物（reptile的复数）；[脊椎]爬行类；爬虫类380.missionary['miʃənəri]adj.传教的；传教士的n.传教士381.underwent[,ʌndə'went]v.经验；遭遇（undergo的过去式）382.injury['indʒəri]n.伤害，损害；受伤处383.concur[kən'kə:]vi.同意；一致；互助384.despite[di'spait]prep.尽管，不管n.轻视；憎恨；侮辱385.cerebellum[,serɪ'beləm]n.[解剖]小脑386.elevate['eliveit]vt.提升；举起；振奋情绪等；提升…的职位387.unintelligible[,ʌnin'telidʒəbl]adj.莫明其妙的；无法了解的388.reflexive[ri'fleksiv]n.反身代词；反身动词adj.反身的；[物]反射的389.migrant['maigrənt]n.候鸟；移居者；随季节迁移的民工adj.移居的；流浪的390.equipped[i'kwipt]v.装备；预备（equip的过去分词）；整装391.preserve[pri'zə:v]vt.保存；保护；维持；腌；禁猎n.保护区；禁猎地；加工成的食品392.contrast[kən'trɑ:st,-'træst,'kɔntrɑ:st,-træst]vi.对比；形成对照vt.使对比；使与…对照n.对比；差别；对照物393.spinal['spainəl]adj.脊髓的；脊柱的；针的；脊骨的；尖刺的n.脊椎麻醉394.prolixity[prəu'liksəti]n.冗长；罗嗦395.chief[tʃi:f]n.首领；酋长；主要部分adj.首席的；主要的；主任的adv.主要地；首要地396.counterpart['kauntə,pɑ:t]n.副本；配对物；极相似的人或物397.contradiction[,kɔntrə'dikʃən]n.矛盾；否认；反驳398.status['steitəs,'stæ-]n.地位；状态；情形；重要身分399.mark[mɑ:k]n.标志；马克；符号；痕迹vi.作记号vt.标志；做标记于；打分数400.analogic[]adj.模拟的；类推的；类似的401.hyponymy[]78\nn.（词义之间的）下义关系；上下位关系402.cognitive['kɔgnitiv]adj.认知的，认识的403.telegraphy[ti'legrəfi,tə-]n.电信；电报学404.promulgation[,prɔməl'geiʃən,,prəumʌl-]n.颁布；公布；宣传；普及405.match[mætʃ]vt.使比赛；使相配；敌得过，比得上；相配；与…竞争vi.比赛；匹配；相配，相称；相比n.比赛，竞赛；匹配；对手；火柴406.lexical['leksikəl]adj.词汇的；[语]词典的；词典编纂的407.windpipe['windpaip]n.气管；嗓门408.senior['si:njə]adj.高级的；年长的；地位较高的；年资较深的，资格较老的n.上司；较年长者；毕业班学生409.exposure[ik'spəuʒə]n.暴露；曝光；揭露；陈列410.issue['iʃju:,'isju:]n.问题；流出；期号；发行物vt.发行，发布；发给；放出，排出vi.发行；流出；造成…结果；传下411.slices[]n.切片，切割（slice的复数形式）v.切成薄片（slice的三单形式）412.state[steit]n.国家；州；情形vt.规定；声明；陈述adj.国家的；州的；正式的413.attribute[ə'tribju:t,'ætribju:t]n.属性；特质vt.归属；把…归于414.interfere[,intə'fiə]vi.干涉；妨碍；打扰vt.冲突；介入415.complement['kɔmplimənt]n.补语；余角；补足物vt.补足，补助416.orderly['ɔ:dəli]adj.有秩序的；整齐的；值班的n.勤务兵；传令兵；护理员adv.顺序地；依次地417.adolescent[,ædəu'lesnt]adj.青春期的；未成熟的n.青少年adolescenthealth青少年健康adj.青春期的；未成熟的pubertal,hebeticn.[人类]青少年youths,teener418.dramatic[drə'mætik,-kəl]adj.戏剧的；引人注目的；激动人心的419.ecology[i:'kɔlədʒi]n.生态学；社会生态学420.resort[ri'zɔ:t]n.凭借，手段；度假胜地；常去之地vi.78\n求助，诉诸；常去；采取某手段或方法421.intelligible[in'telidʒəbl]adj.可理解的；明了的；仅能用智力了解的422.apparently[ə'pærəntli]adv.显然地；似乎，表面上423.judiciary[]n.司法部；法官；司法制度adj.司法的；法官的；法院的424.definition[,defi'niʃən]n.定义；[物]清晰度；解说425.degraded[di'greidid]adj.退化的；堕落的；被降级的v.分解（degrade的过去分词）；降低…的身份；削减426.interdependence[,intədi'pendəns,-dənsi]n.互相依赖427.potential[pəu'tenʃəl]n.潜能；可能性；[电]电势adj.潜在的；可能的；势的428.metaphor['metəfə]n.暗喻，隐喻；比喻说法429.neuron['njʊərɒn]n.[解剖]神经元，神经单位430.geographical[dʒiə'græfikəl]adj.地理的；地理学的431.decimal['desiməl]adj.小数的；十进位的n.小数432.locutionary[]adj.[语言学]言内行为的；言之说行为的433.deprive[di'praiv]vt.使丧失，剥夺434.address[ə'dres]vt.演说；从事；忙于；写姓名地址；向…致辞n.地址；演讲；致辞；说话的技巧435.dyslexia[dɪs'leksɪə]n.难语症；[医]诵读困难；阅读障碍436.quite[kwait]adv.很；相当；完全437.target['tɑ:git]n.目标；靶子vt.把……作为目标；规定……的指标；瞄准某物438.vividly['vividli]adv.生动地；强烈地439.fundamental[,fʌndə'mentəl]adj.基本的，根本的n.基本原理；基本原则440.fibre['faibə]n.纤维；纤维制品441.performative[pə'fɔ:mətiv]78\nadj.表述行为的n.述行成分，述行语442.reliable[ri'laiəbl]adj.可靠的；可信赖的n.可靠的人443.ebb[eb]n.衰退；退潮；衰落vi.衰退；减少；衰落；潮退444.purity['pjuəriti]n.[化学]纯度；纯洁；纯净；纯粹445.predicate['predikeit]vt.断定为…；使…基于vi.断言，断定n.谓语，述语adj.谓语的；述语的446.presupposition[,pri:sʌpə'ziʃən]n.假定；预想；臆测447.apricot['eiprikɔt]n.杏，杏子；[园艺]杏树；杏黄色adj.杏黄色的448.arithmetic[ə'riθmətik,,æriθ'metik]n.算术，算法449.evaluative[i'væljueitiv]adj.可估价的450.intact[ɪn'tækt]adj.完整的；原封不动的；未受损伤的451.discrimination[dis,krimi'neiʃən]n.歧视；区别，辨别；识别力452.attract[ə'trækt]vt.吸引；引起vi.吸引；有吸引力453.transmission[trænz'miʃən,træns-,trɑ:n-]n.传动装置，[机]变速器；传递；传送；播送454.pragmatic[præg'mætik]adj.实际的；实用主义的；国事的455.voltage['vəʊltɪdʒ;'vɒltɪdʒ]n.[电]电压456.origins[]n.品木宣言（品牌名）457.extroversion[,ekstrəu'və:ʃən]n.[心理]外向性；[医]外翻458.instrumental[,instru'mentəl,,instrə-]adj.乐器的；有帮助的；仪器的，器械的n.器乐曲；工具字，工具格459.antonymy[]n.反义词组；反义现象460.deserve[di'zə:v]vi.应受，应得vt.应受，应得461.superior[sju:'piriə,sju:pə-]adj.上级的；优秀的，出众的；高傲的n.上级，长官；优胜者，高手；长者462.indicate['indikeit]vt.表明；指出；预示；象征463.italicize[]78\nvt.在字下划横线；用斜体字排字；强调vi.用斜体字464.substitutable[]adj.可替换的465.modification[,mɔdifi'keiʃən]n.修改，修正；改变466.interplay['intəplei,,intə'plei,'in-]n.相互影响，相互作用vi.相互影响，相互作用467.domain[dəu'mein]n.领域；域名；产业；地产468.bear[bεə]vi.承受；结果实vt.忍受；具有；支撑n.熊469.monopoly[mə'nɔpəli]n.垄断；垄断者；专卖权470.elicit[i'lisit]vt.抽出，引出；引起471.compliment['kɔmplimənt]n.恭维；称赞；问候；致意；道贺vt.恭维；称赞472.whatsoever[,hwɔtsəu'evə]pron.无论什么473.exceptional[ik'sepʃənəl]adj.异常的，例外的n.超常的学生474.metaphorically[]adv.隐喻地；用比喻475.represent[,repri'zent]vt.代表；表现；描绘；回忆；再赠送vi.代表；提出异议476.insufficient[,insə'fiʃənt]adj.不足的，不充足的n.不足477.possession[pə'zeʃən]n.拥有；财产；领地；自制；着迷478.precede[pri:'si:d,pri-]vt.领先，在…之前；优于，高于vi.领先，在前面479.strung[strʌŋ]v.捆扎，系上（string的过去式和过去分词）；收紧480.invariably[in'vɛəriəbli]adv.总是；不变地；一定地481.striking['straikiŋ]adj.显著的，突出的，惊人的；打击的；罢工的v.打（strike的ing形式）482.obligation[,ɔbli'geiʃən]n.义务；职责；债务483.expose[ik'spəuz]vt.揭露，揭发；使曝光；显示484.aspirated['æspəreitid]adj.送气音的v.吸气（aspirate的过去式和过去分词形式）；送气发音485.approximately[ə'prɔksimitli]78\nadv.大约，近似地；近于486.capture['kæptʃə]vt.俘获；夺得n.捕获；战利品，俘虏487.consequence['kɔnsi,kwəns]n.结果；重要性；推论488.behaviourist[]n.（英）行为主义者489.grammatical[grə'mætikəl]adj.文法的；符合语法规则的490.cerebrum[]n.[解剖]大脑491.foregoing['fɔ:gəuiŋ]adj.前述的；前面的；在前的v.发生在…之前；走在…之前（forego的ing形式）492.measurement['meʒəmənt]n.测量；[计量]度量；尺寸；量度制493.colloquial[kə'ləukwiəl]adj.白话的；通俗的；口语体的494.semantically[]adv.语义地495.imitation[,imi'teiʃən]n.模仿，仿造；仿制品adj.人造的，仿制的496.comprise[kəm'praiz]vt.包含；由…组成497.tentative['tentətiv]adj.试验性的，暂定的；踌躇的n.假设，试验498.reflection[re'flekʃən]n.反射；沉思；映象499.sensation[sen'seiʃən]n.感觉；轰动；感动500.consensus[kən'sensəs]n.一致；舆论；合意501.former['fɔ:mə]adj.从前的，前者的；前任的n.模型，样板；起形成作用的人502.routine[ru:'ti:n]n.[计]程序；日常工作；例行公事adj.日常的；例行的503.plural['pluərəl]adj.复数的n.复数504.enhance[in'hɑ:ns,-hæns]vt.提高；加强；增加505.emphatic[im'fætik,-kəl]adj.着重的；加强语气的；显著的506.autism['ɔ:tizəm]n.[心理][内科]孤独症；自我中心主义78\n507.hypothesis[hai'pɔθisis]n.假设508.discipline['disiplin]n.学科；纪律；训练；惩罚vt.训练，训导；惩戒509.acculturation[ə,kʌltʃə'reiʃən]n.文化适应；文化移入；文化互渗（不同文化在频繁交流中的互相影响）510.consultative[kən'sʌltətiv]adj.咨询的511.manifestation[,mænife'steiʃən]n.表现；显示；示威运动512.etymology[,eti'mɔlədʒi]n.语源，[语]语源学513.correspondence[,kɔ:ris'pɔndəns]n.通信；一致；相当514.consolidate[kən'sɔlideit]vt.巩固，使固定；联合vi.巩固，加强515.diglossia[]n.使用两种语言或方言；双舌，舌裂516.culinary['kʌlinəri]adj.厨房的；烹调用的517.stimulate['stimjuleit]vt.刺激；鼓舞，激励vi.起刺激作用；起促进作用518.capable['keipəbl]adj.能干的，能胜任的；有才华的519.velum['vi:ləm]n.[生物]缘膜；菌膜；软腭520.shed[ʃed]vt.流出；摆脱；散发；倾吐vi.流出；脱落；散布n.小屋，棚；分水岭521.racial['reiʃəl]adj.种族的；人种的522.privilege['privilidʒ]n.特权；优待；基本权利vt.给与…特权；特免523.assumption[ə'sʌmpʃən]n.假定；设想；担任；采取524.approach[ə'prəutʃ]n.方法；途径；接近vt.接近；着手处理vi.靠近525.accompany[ə'kʌmpəni]vt.陪伴，伴随；伴奏vi.伴奏，伴唱526.observant[əb'zə:vənt]adj.善于观察的；机警的；严格遵守的527.respiration[,respə'reiʃən]n.呼吸；呼吸作用528.scorn[skɔ:n]n.轻蔑；嘲笑；藐视的对象vt.轻蔑；藐视；不屑做vi.表示轻蔑；表示鄙视78\n529.denotative[di'nəutətiv,'di:nəuteitiv]adj.外延的；指示的530.idiom['idiəm]n.成语，习语；土话531.concern[kən'sə:n]vt.涉及，关系到；使担心n.关系；关心；关心的事532.court[kɔ:t]n.法院；球场；朝廷；奉承vt.招致（失败、危险等）；向…献殷勤；设法获得vi.求爱533.ultimate['ʌltimət]adj.最终的；极限的；根本的n.终极；根本；基本原则534.impose[im'pəuz]vi.利用；欺骗；施加影响vt.强加；征税；以…欺骗535.impairment[im'pɛəmənt]n.损伤，损害536.integral['intigrəl]adj.积分的；完整的，整体的n.积分；部分；完整537.activate['æktɪveɪt]vt.刺激；使活动；使活泼；使产生放射性vi.激活；有活力538.inclusive[in'klu:siv]adj.包括的，包含的539.barrier['bæriə]n.障碍物，屏障；界线vt.把…关入栅栏540.spiritual['spiritjuəl,-tʃuəl]n.圣歌（尤指美国南部黑人的）adj.精神的，心灵的541.apparatus[,æpə'reitəs]n.装置，设备；仪器；器官542.approximate[ə'prɔksimit]vt.近似；使…接近；粗略估计vi.接近于；近似于adj.[数]近似的；大概的543.import[im'pɔ:t,'impɔ:t]n.进口，进口货；输入；意思，含义；重要性vt.输入，进口；含…的意思vi.输入，进口544.synthesis['sinθisis]n.综合，[化学]合成；综合体545.central['sentrəl]adj.中心的；主要的；中枢的n.电话总机546.frustration[frʌs'treiʃən]n.挫折547.limit['limit]n.限制；限度；界线vt.限制；限定548.duality[dju:'æləti]n.二元性；[物]二象性549.novelty['nɔvəlti]n.新奇；新奇的事物；新颖小巧而廉价的物品78\n550.threaten['θretən]vt.威胁；恐吓；预示vi.威胁；可能来临551.collocation[,kɔləu'keiʃən]n.搭配；配置；排列552.committee[kə'miti]n.委员会553.delay[di'lei]vi.延期；耽搁vt.延期；耽搁n.延期；耽搁；被耽搁或推迟的时间554.converge[kən'və:dʒ]vi.聚合；集中于一点vt.会聚；使聚集；使向一点会合555.gap[gæp]n.间隙；缺口；空白vi.裂开vt.使成缺口556.expert['ekspə:t,ek'spə:t]adj.熟练的；内行的；老练的n.专家；行家；能手vt.当专家；在…中当行家557.affective[ə'fektiv]adj.情感的；表达感情的558.gradually['grædjuəli]adv.逐步地；渐渐地559.merge[mə:dʒ]vt.合并；使合并；吞没vi.合并；融合560.sulcus['sʌlkəs]n.[动]沟，槽；裂缝561.manifest['mænifest]vt.证明，表明；显示vi.显示，出现n.载货单，货单；旅客名单adj.显然的，明显的；明白的562.lesion['li:ʒən]n.损害；身体上的伤害；机能障碍563.constraint[kən'streint]n.[数]约束；局促，态度不自然；强制564.proficiency[prəu'fiʃənsi]n.精通，熟练565.suffices[]vt.使满足；足够…用；合格vi.足够；有能力566.phonetics[fəu'netiks]n.发音学，语音学567.interpretation[in,tə:pri'teiʃən]n.解释；翻译；演出568.aphasia[]n.失语症（形容词aphasic）569.sessions['sɛʃəns]n.塞申斯（姓氏）570.appreciation[əpriːʃɪ'eɪʃ(ə)n;-sɪ-]n.欣赏，鉴别；增值；感谢571.simultaneous[,siməl'teiniəs]78\nadj.同时的；联立的；同时发生的n.同时译员572.subsequent['sʌbsɪkw(ə)nt]adj.后来的，随后的573.inaccurate[in'ækjurət]adj.错误的574.prejudice['predʒudis]n.偏见；侵害vt.损害；使有偏见575.ideal[ai'diəl]adj.理想的；完美的；想象的；不切实际的n.理想；典范576.illustrate['iləstreit]vt.阐明，举例说明；图解vi.举例577.extension[ik'stenʃən]n.延长；延期；扩大；伸展；电话分机578.piecemeal[]adv.零碎地；逐个地adj.零碎的；逐渐的n.片；块vt.粉碎579.route[ru:t,raut]vt.按某路线发送n.路线；航线；通道580.item['aitəm]n.条款，项目；一则581.attached[ə'tætʃt]adj.附加的；依恋的，充满爱心的v.附上（attach的过去分词）582.account[ə'kaunt]n.[会计]账户；解释；[会计]账目，账单；理由vi.解释；导致；报账vt.认为；把…视为583.puff[pʌf]vt.喷出，张开；使膨胀；夸张；使骄傲自满vi.膨胀；张开；鼓吹；夸张n.粉扑；泡芙；蓬松；一阵喷烟；肿块；吹嘘，宣传广告584.resemblance[ri'zembləns]n.相似；相似之处；相似物；肖像585.interpretative[ɪn'tɜːprɪtətɪv]adj.解释的；作为说明的586.reveal[ri'vi:l]vt.显示；透露；揭露；泄露n.揭露；暴露；门侧，窗侧587.individual[,indi'vidjuəl,-dʒəl]adj.个人的；个别的；独特的n.个人，个体588.integrity[in'tegrəti]n.完整；正直；诚实；廉正589.perlocutionary[]adj.言语表达效果的；语效性的590.subtle['sʌtl]adj.微妙的；精细的；敏感的；狡猾的；稀薄的591.level['levəl]n.水平；标准；水平面adj.水平的；平坦的；同高的vi.瞄准；拉平；变得平坦vt.使同等；对准；弄平78\n592.faulty['fɔ:lti]adj.有错误的；有缺点的593.underlying[,ʌndə'laiiŋ]adj.潜在的；根本的；在下面的；优先的v.放在…的下面；为…的基础；优先于（underlie的ing形式）594.contexts[]n.环境，上下文（context复数）595.investigation[in,vesti'geiʃən]n.调查；调查研究596.competence['kɔmpitəns]n.能力，胜任；权限；作证能力；足以过舒适生活的收入597.appropriate[ə'prəuprieit,ə'prəupriət]adj.适当的vt.占用；拨出598.humility[hju:'miləti]n.谦卑，谦逊599.surgically['sə:dʒikəli]adv.如外科手术般地600.revolve[ri'vɔlv,-'vɔ:lv]vi.旋转；循环出现；反复考虑vt.使…旋转；使…循环；反复考虑n.旋转；循环；旋转舞台601.correlation[,kɔ:ri'leiʃən]n.[数]相关，关联；相互关系602.statement['steitmənt]n.声明；陈述，叙述；报表，清单603.operate['ɔpəreit]vi.运转；动手术；起作用vt.操作；经营；引起；对…开刀604.release[ri'li:s]vt.释放；发射；让与；允许发表n.释放；发布；让与605.commonly['kɔmənli]adv.一般地；通常地；普通地606.virtue['və:tju:]n.美德；优点；贞操；功效607.focal['fəukəl]adj.焦点的，在焦点上的；灶的，病灶的608.equivalent[i'kwivələnt]adj.等价的，相等的；同意义的n.等价物，相等物609.accomplish[ə'kʌmpliʃ,ə'kɔm-]vt.完成；实现；达到610.concept['kɔnsept]n.观念，概念611.insight['insait]n.洞察力；洞悉612.drift[drift]n.漂流，漂移；趋势；漂流物vi.漂流，漂移；漂泊vt.78\n使…漂流；使…受风吹积613.stage[steidʒ]n.阶段；舞台；戏剧；驿站vt.举行；上演；筹划vi.举行；适于上演；乘驿车旅行614.prestige[pre'sti:ʒ,-'sti:dʒ,'prestidʒ]n.威望，声望；声誉615.ordinate['ɔ:dinət,-neit]n.纵座标；纵线616.jealously['dʒeləsli]adv.妒忌地；猜疑地617.mutually['mju:tʃuəli,-tjuəli]adv.互相地；互助618.extent[ik'stent]n.程度；范围；长度619.larynx['læriŋks]n.[解剖]喉；喉头620.anomalous[ə'nɔmələs]adj.异常的；不规则的；不恰当的621.haphazard[,hæp'hæzəd,'hæphæzəd]adj.偶然的；随便的；无计划的n.偶然；偶然事件adv.偶然地；随意地622.retention[ri'tenʃən]n.保留；扣留，滞留；记忆力；闭尿623.bilingual[bai'liŋgwəl]adj.双语的n.通两种语言的人624.receive[ri'si:v]vt.收到；接待；接纳vi.接收625.customary['kʌstə,məri]adj.习惯的；通常的n.习惯法汇编626.evolve[i'vɔlv]vt.发展，进化；进化；使逐步形成；推断出vi.发展，进展；进化；逐步形成627.acronym['ækrəunim]n.首字母缩略词628.declining[di'klainiŋ]adj.下滑的；衰退的；倾斜的v.下降；衰退；婉谢（decline的ing形式）629.asterisk['æstərisk]n.星号vt.注上星号；用星号标出630.esteem[i'sti:m]vt.尊敬；认为；考虑；估价n.尊重；尊敬631.rear[rɪə]vt.培养；树立；栽种vi.暴跳；高耸adv.向后；在后面adj.后方的；后面的；背面的n.后面；屁股；后方部队632.agency['eidʒənsi]n.代理，中介；代理处，经销处633.adequately['ædikwitli]78\nadv.充分地；足够地；适当地634.duration[djuə'reiʃən]n.持续635.removed[ri'mu:vd]adj.远离的；隔了...代的v.remove的变形636.sophistication[sə,fisti'keiʃən]n.复杂；诡辩；老于世故；有教养637.occupy['ɔkjupai]vt.占据，占领；居住；使忙碌638.interation[]n.交互图标，交互影响639.constitute['kɔnstitju:t]vt.组成，构成；建立；任命640.divergence[dai'və:dʒəns,di-]n.分歧641.animate['ænimeit,'ænimət]vt.使有生气；使活泼；鼓舞；推动adj.有生命的642.retardation[,ri:tɑ:'deiʃən]n.阻滞；迟延；妨碍643.advisable[əd'vaizəbl]adj.明智的，可取的，适当的644.dot[dɔt]n.点，圆点；嫁妆vi.打上点vt.加小点于645.associate[ə'səuʃieit,ə'səuʃiət,-eit]vi.交往；结交n.同事，伙伴；关联的事物vt.联想；使联合；使发生联系adj.副的；联合的646.pride[praid]n.自豪；骄傲；自尊心vt.使得意，以…自豪vi.自豪647.phenomenon[fi'nɔminən,fə-]n.现象；奇迹；杰出的人才648.imperative[im'perətiv]adj.必要的，势在必行的；命令的；紧急的n.需要；命令；祈使语气；规则649.causative[]adj.成为原因的；惹起…的n.使役动词650.iconic[ai'kɔnik]adj.图标的，形象的651.resistance[ri'zistəns]n.阻力；电阻；抵抗；反抗；抵抗力652.compose[kəm'pəuz]vt.构成；写作；使平静；排…的版vi.组成；作曲；排字653.option['ɔpʃən]n.[计]选项；选择权；买卖的特权654.attain[ə'tein]vt.达到，实现；获得；到达vi.达到；获得；到达n.成就78\n655.serve[sə:v]vt.招待，供应；为…服务；对…有用；可作…用vi.服役，服务；适合，足够；发球；招待，侍候n.发球，轮到发球656.disturbance[di'stə:bəns]n.干扰；骚乱；忧虑657.instinct['instiŋkt]n.本能，直觉；天性adj.充满着的658.terminology[,tə:mi'nɔlədʒi]n.术语，术语学；用辞659.pharynx['færiŋks]n.[解剖]咽660.available[ə'veiləbl]adj.有效的，可得的；可利用的；空闲的661.loan[ləun]n.贷款；借款vi.借出vt.借；借给662.declare[di'klεə]vt.宣布，声明；断言，宣称vi.声明，宣布663.investigate[in'vestigeit]v.调查；研究664.content['kɔntent]n.内容，目录；满足；容量adj.满意的vt.使满足665.biologically[baiə'lɔdʒikli]adv.生物学上，生物学地666.callosum[ka:'ləusəm]n.胼胝体667.specifying['spesifaiiŋ]n.说明v.指定；具体说明（specify的ing形式）668.sameness['seimnis]n.相同；千篇一律；单调669.collection[kə'lekʃən]n.采集，聚集；[税收]征收；收藏品；募捐670.metaphorical[,metə'fɔrik-'fɔ:,-kəl]adj.比喻性的，隐喻性的671.estimate['estimeit]vi.估计，估价n.估计，估价；判断，看法vt.估计，估量；判断，评价672.implicature[im'plikətʃə]n.含意；蕴意673.critical['kritikəl]adj.鉴定的；[核]临界的；批评的，爱挑剔的；危险的；决定性的；评论的674.document['dɔkjumənt,'dɔkjument]n.文件，公文；[计]文档；证件vt.用文件证明675.figure['figə]n.数字；人物；图形；价格；（人的）体形；画像vi.计算；出现；扮演角色vt.计算；认为；描绘；象征78\n676.fierce[fiəs]adj.凶猛的；猛烈的；暴躁的677.naturalized[]adj.归化的；入籍的；[动]自然化的；驯化的v.使自然化；接受…入国籍；采纳（naturalize的过去式和过去分词）678.possess[pə'zes]vt.控制；使掌握；持有；迷住679.assess[ə'ses]vt.评定；估价；对…征税680.civil['sivəl]adj.公民的；民间的；文职的；有礼貌的；根据民法的681.intrinsic[in'trinsik,-kəl]adj.本质的，固有的682.discourse['diskɔ:s,dis'kɔ:s]n.论述；谈话；演讲vi.演说；谈论；讲述vt.说出；演奏出683.extremely[ɪk'strimli]adv.非常，极其；极端地684.facilitate[fə'siliteit]vt.促进；帮助；使容易685.previous['pri:vjəs]adj.以前的；早先的；过早的adv.在先；在…以前686.plausible['plɔ:zəble]adj.貌似可信的，花言巧语的；貌似真实的，貌似有理的687.eventually[i'ventʃuəli]adv.最后，终于688.selection[si'lekʃən]n.选择，挑选；选集；精选品689.employ[im'plɔi]vt.使用，采用；雇用；使忙于，使从事于n.使用；雇用690.pattern['pætən]n.模式；图案；样品vt.模仿；以图案装饰vi.形成图案691.string[striŋ]n.线，细绳；一串，一行vt.扎，缚；使排成一列，串起；伸展，拉直vi.连成一串；排成一列692.reinforce[,ri:in'fɔ:s]vt.加强，加固；强化；补充vi.求援；得到增援；给予更多的支持n.加强；加固物；加固材料693.confirm[kən'fə:m]vt.确认；确定；证实；批准；使巩固694.respect[ri'spekt]n.尊敬，尊重；方面；敬意vt.尊敬，尊重；遵守695.minor['mainə]adj.未成年的；次要的；较小的；小调的；二流的n.未成年人；小调；副修科目vi.副修78\n696.simplification[,simplifi'keiʃən]n.简单化；单纯化697.encounter[in'kauntə]vt.遭遇，邂逅；遇到n.遭遇，偶然碰见vi.遭遇；偶然相遇698.abrupt[ə'brʌpt]adj.生硬的；突然的；唐突的；陡峭的699.affected[ə'fektid]adj.受到影响的；做作的；假装的vt.影响；假装；使…感动（affect的过去式和过去分词）700.hemisphere['hemi,sfiə]n.半球701.fundamentally[,fʌndə'mentli]adv.根本地，从根本上；基础地702.conservative[kən'sə:vətiv]adj.保守的n.保守派，守旧者703.expand[ik'spænd]vt.扩张；使膨胀；详述vi.发展；张开，展开704.gender['dʒendə]n.性；性别；性交vt.生（过去式gendered，过去分词gendered，现在分词gendering，第三人称单数genders，形容词genderless）705.instance['instəns]n.实例；情况；建议vt.举...为例706.signify['signifai]vt.表示；意味；预示vi.有重要性；要紧；冒充内行707.presupposes[]vt.假定；预料；以…为先决条件708.demonstrate['demənstreit]vt.证明；展示；论证vi.示威709.association[ə,səusi'eiʃən,ə,səuʃi'ei-]n.协会，联盟，社团；联合；联想710.spontaneously[spɔn'teniəsli]adv.自发地；自然地；不由自主地711.alternative[ɔ:l'tə:nətiv]adj.供选择的；选择性的；交替的n.二中择一；供替代的选择712.reduce[ri'dju:s,-'du:s]vt.减少；降低；使处于；把…分解vi.减少；缩小；归纳为713.consciously['kɔnʃəsli]adv.自觉地；有意识地714.comparative[kəm'pærətiv]adj.比较的；相当的n.比较级；对手715.enormously[]adv.巨大地，庞大地；非常地，在极大程度上716.passive['pæsiv]adj.被动的，消极的；被动语态的n.被动语态78\n717.previously['pri:vju:sli]adv.以前；预先；仓促地718.irregular[i'regjulə]n.不规则物；不合规格的产品adj.不规则的；无规律的；非正规的；不合法的719.empirical[]adj.经验主义的，完全根据经验的720.disciplinary['disiplinəri,disi'plinəri]adj.规律的；训练的；训诫的721.subsection['sʌb,sekʃən,sʌb's-]n.分段，分部；细分；小部分722.perception[pə'sepʃən]n.知觉；[生理]感觉；看法；洞察力；获取723.interpret[in'tə:prit]vt.说明；口译vi.解释；翻译724.elaborate[i'læbərət,i'læbəreit]adj.精心制作的；详尽的；煞费苦心的vt.精心制作；详细阐述；从简单成分合成（复杂有机物）vi.详细描述；变复杂725.companion[kəm'pænjən]n.同伴；朋友；指南；手册vt.陪伴726.definite['definit]adj.一定的；确切的727.constative[kən'steitiv]adj.表命令、计划、愿望等之假定的728.instruction[in'strʌkʃən]n.指令，命令；指示；教导；用法说明729.severe[si'viə]adj.严峻的；严厉的；剧烈的；苛刻的730.accent['æksənt,æk'sent]n.口音；重音；强调；特点；重音符号vt.强调；重读；带…口音讲话731.ethnic['eθnik]adj.种族的；人种的732.cerebral['serɪbr(ə)l;sə'riːbr(ə)l]adj.大脑的，脑的733.crucial['kru:ʃəl]adj.重要的；决定性的；定局的；决断的734.sincere[sin'siə]adj.真诚的；诚挚的；真实的735.expanding[ik'spændiŋ]adj.扩大的；扩展的v.扩大，扩展（expand的现在分词形式）；使膨胀，详述736.variety[və'raiəti]n.多样；种类；杂耍737.analogy[ə'nælədʒi]n.类比；类推；类似738.subsystem['sʌb,sistəm,sʌb's-]78\nn.子系统；次要系统739.praise[preiz]n.赞扬；称赞；荣耀；崇拜vt.赞美，歌颂；表扬vi.赞美；赞扬740.claim[kleim]vi.提出要求vt.要求；声称；需要；认领n.要求；声称；索赔；断言；值得741.halt[hɔːlt]vi.停止；立定；踌躇，犹豫n.停止；立定；休息vt.使停止；使立定742.brief[bri:f]adj.简短的，简洁的；短暂的，草率的n.摘要，简报；概要，诉书vt.简报，摘要；作…的提要743.chunk[tʃʌŋk]n.大块；矮胖的人或物744.examine[ig'zæmin]vt.检查；调查；检测；考试vi.检查；调查745.generalize['dʒenərəlaiz]vt.概括；推广；使...一般化vi.形成概念746.acquaintance[ə'kweintəns]n.熟人；相识；了解；知道747.tempo['tempəu]n.速度，发展速度；拍子748.technical['teknikəl]adj.工艺的，科技的；技术上的；专门的749.maintaining[mein'teiniŋ]n.维护；保养v.维持；保养（maintain的ing形式）750.prototype['prəutətaip]n.原型；标准，模范751.whether['weðə]conj.是否；不论752.distinct[dis'tiŋkt]adj.明显的；独特的；清楚的；有区别的753.course[kɔ:s]n.过程；进程；道路；一道菜vt.追赶；跑过vi.指引航线；快跑754.simultaneously[saiməl'teiniəsli]adv.同时地755.utterances[]n.表达；说话；说话方式756.propose[prəu'pəuz]vt.建议；打算，计划；求婚vi.建议；求婚；打算757.initial[i'niʃəl]adj.最初的；字首的vt.用姓名的首字母签名n.词首大写字母758.intimate['intimət]adj.亲密的；私人的；精通的；有性关系的n.知己；至交vt.暗示；通知；宣布759.undergo[,ʌndə'gəu]78\nvt.经历，经受；忍受[过去式underwent过去分词undergone现在分词undergoing]760.clarify['klærifai]vt.澄清；阐明vi.得到澄清；变得明晰；得到净化761.idiomatic[,idiə'mætik]adj.惯用的；符合语言习惯的；通顺的762.false[fɔ:ls]adj.错误的；虚伪的；伪造的adv.欺诈地763.affiliation[ə,fili'eiʃən]n.友好关系；加入；联盟；从属关系764.cohesion[kəu'hi:ʒən]n.凝聚；结合；[力]内聚力765.grasp[grɑ:sp,græsp]n.抓住；理解；控制vt.抓住；领会vi.抓766.plus[plʌs]n.正号，加号；好处；附加额adj.正的；附加的prep.加，加上767.form[fɔ:m]n.形式，形状；形态，外形；方式；表格vt.构成，组成；排列，组织；产生，塑造vi.形成，构成；排列768.exhausted[ig'zɔ:stid]adj.疲惫的；耗尽的v.耗尽；用尽；使…精疲力尽（exhaust的过去式）769.phonic['fəunik,'fɔ-]adj.有声的，浊音的；声音的，语音的；声学的770.interaction[,intər'ækʃən]n.相互作用；[数]交互作用771.concrete[kən'kri:t,'kɔnkri:t]adj.混凝土的；实在的，具体的；有形的vi.凝结vt.使凝固；用混凝土修筑n.具体物；凝结物772.violate['vaiəleit]vt.违反；侵犯，妨碍；亵渎773.causation[kɔ:'zeiʃən]n.原因；因果关系；出现774.obtain[əb'tein,ɔb-]vi.获得；流行vt.获得775.controversies[]n.争论；辩论（controversy的复数）776.objectivity[,ɔbdʒek'tivəti]n.客观；客观性777.correspond[,kɔ:ri'spɔnd]vi.符合，一致；相应；通信778.deprivation[,depri'veiʃən]n.剥夺；损失；免职779.contact['kɔntækt,kən'tækt]n.接触，联系vt.使接触vi.联系，接触78\n780.version['və:ʃən]n.版本；译文；倒转术781.probe[prəʊb]n.探针；调查vi.调查；探测vt.探查；用探针探测782.identity[ai'dentəti]n.身份；同一性，一致；特性；恒等式783.typical['tipikəl]adj.典型的；特有的；象征性的784.title['taitl]n.冠军；标题；头衔；权利；字幕vt.加标题于；赋予头衔；把…称为adj.冠军的；标题的；头衔的785.engage[in'geidʒ]vt.吸引，占用；使参加；雇佣；使订婚；预定vi.从事；答应，保证；交战；啮合786.componential[,kɔmpə'nenʃəl]adj.成分的；与成分有关的787.tendency['tendənsi]n.倾向，趋势；癖好788.specialization[,speʃəlai'zeiʃən,-li'z-]n.专门化；特殊化；特化作用789.modesty['mɔdisti]n.谦逊；质朴；稳重790.regardless[ri'gɑ:dlis,ri:-]adj.不管；不顾；不注意791.purely['pjuəli]adv.纯粹地；仅仅，只不过；完全地；贞淑地；清洁地792.trigger['trigə]vt.引发，引起；触发vi.松开扳柄n.扳机；[电子]触发器；制滑机793.progressive[prəu'gresiv]adj.进步的；先进的n.改革论者；进步分子794.monolithic[,mɔnəu'liθik]adj.整体的；巨石的，庞大的；完全统一的n.单块集成电路，单片电路795.establish[i'stæbliʃ]vt.建立；创办；安置vi.植物定植796.slip[slɪp]vi.滑动；滑倒；犯错；失足；减退vt.使滑动；滑过；摆脱；塞入；闪开n.滑，滑倒；片，纸片；错误；下跌；事故adj.滑动的；有活结的；活络的abbr.串行线路接口协议，是旧式的协议（SerialLineInterfaceProtocol）797.restricted[ri'striktid]adj.受限制的；保密的v.限制（restrict的过去式和过去分词）798.access['ækses,'æksəs,æk'ses]vt.使用；存取；接近n.进入；使用权；通路799.triggers['trigəz]n.触发器；触发物（trigger的复数）v.引起（trigger的单三形式）；引爆78\n800.orthographic[,ɔ:θəu'græfik]adj.正字法的；拼字正确的；直角的801.cortex['kɔ:teks]n.[解剖]皮质；树皮；果皮802.spontaneous[spɔn'teiniəs]adj.自发的；自然的；无意识的803.impact['impækt,im'pækt]vt.影响；撞击；冲突；压紧vi.冲击；产生影响n.影响；效果；碰撞；冲击力804.inextricably[,inik'strikəbli]adv.逃不掉地；解不开地；解决不了地805.integrative['intigreitiv]adj.综合的806.notoriously[nəu'tɔ:riəsli]adv.众所周知地；声名狼藉地；恶名昭彰地807.proper['prɔpə]adj.适当的；本身的；特有的；正派的adv.完全地808.positive['pɔzətiv,-zi-]adj.积极的；[数]正的，[化学][医]阳性的；确定的，肯定的；实际的，真实的；绝对的n.正数；[摄]正片809.neurolinguistics[,nʊrolɪŋ'gwɪstɪks]n.神经语言学810.aspirate['æspəreit,'æspərət]vt.送气发音；吸入adj.送气音的n.送气音；抽出物811.complicate['kɔmplikeit]vt.使复杂化；使恶化；使卷入812.encode[en'kəud]vt.[计]编码，译码813.implication[,impli'keiʃən]n.含义；暗示；牵连，卷入814.perpetuate[pə'petʃueit,-tju-]vt.使不朽；保持adj.长存的815.dialect['daiəlekt]n.方言，土话；同源语；行话；个人用语特征adj.方言的816.discover[dis'kʌvə]vt.发现；发觉vi.发现817.prevalent['prevələnt]adj.流行的；普遍的，广传的818.outperform[,autpə'fɔ:m]vt.胜过；做得比……好819.property['prɔpəti]n.性质，性能；财产；所有权820.marginal['mɑ:dʒinəl]adj.边缘的；临界的；末端的78\n821.properties[]n.性能；道具，内容（property的复数形式）822.withheld['wið'held]v.保留；扣留；抑制（withhold的过去式）823.mediate['mi:dieit]vi.调解；斡旋；居中vt.调停；传达adj.间接的；居间的824.program['prəugræm,-grəm]n.程序；计划；大纲vt.用程序指令；为…制订计划；为…安排节目vi.编程序；安排节目；设计电脑程式825.identical[ai'dentikəl]adj.同一的；完全相同的n.完全相同的事物826.verbalize['və:bəlaiz]vi.累赘；唠叨；以言语表述vt.使…变成动词；用言语表达827.evolved[]n.进化了的v.使逐步形成（evolve的过去分词）828.filter[filtə]vi.滤过；渗入；慢慢传开n.滤波器；[化工]过滤器；筛选；滤光器vt.过滤；渗透；用过滤法除去829.longitudinal[,lɒn(d)ʒɪ'tjuːdɪn(ə)l;,lɒŋgɪ-]adj.长度的，纵向的；经线的830.cohort['kəʊhɔːt]n.一群；步兵大队；支持者；同生群831.intention[in'tenʃən]n.意图；目的；意向；愈合832.specific[spi'sifik]adj.特殊的，特定的；明确的；详细的；[药]具有特效的n.特性；细节；特效药833.lobe[ləʊb]n.（脑、肺等的）叶；裂片；耳垂；波瓣834.bony['bəuni]adj.骨的；多骨的；瘦骨嶙峋的；似骨的835.isolation['aisə'leiʃən]n.隔离；孤立；[电]绝缘；[化学]离析836.rhythm['riðəm,'riθəm]n.节奏；韵律837.monument['mɔnjumənt]n.纪念碑；历史遗迹；不朽的作品vt.为…树碑838.requisite['rekwizit]adj.必备的，必不可少的；需要的n.必需品839.desire[di'zaiə]n.欲望；要求，心愿；性欲vt.想要；要求；希望得到…vi.渴望840.tumour['tju:mə]n.[肿瘤]瘤；肿瘤；肿块841.separation[,sepə'reiʃən]78\nn.分离，分开；间隔，距离；[法]分居；缺口842.origin['ɔridʒin,'ɔ:-]n.起源；原点；出身；开端843.strategy['strætidʒi]n.战略，策略844.domestic[dəu'mestik]adj.国内的；家庭的；驯养的；一心只管家务的n.国货；佣人845.term[tə:m]n.术语；学期；期限；条款vt.把…叫做846.mental['mentəl]adj.精神的；脑力的；疯的n.精神病患者847.regains[]vt.恢复；重新获得；收回vi.上涨n.收复；取回848.cluster['klʌstə]n.群；簇；丛；串vi.群聚；丛生vt.使聚集；聚集在某人的周围849.embodied[]v.呈现（embody的过去式及过去分词形式）；具体表达850.realization[,riəlai'zeiʃən,,ri:-,-li'z-]n.实现；领悟851.negative['negətiv]adj.[数]负的；消极的；否定的；阴性的n.否定；负数；[摄]底片vt.否定；拒绝852.literal['litərəl]adj.文字的；逐字的；无夸张的自考“英语语言学”资料（1）1.1.Whatislanguage？　　Languageissystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Itisasystem，sincelinguisticelementsarearrangedsystematically，ratherthanrandomly.Arbitrary，inthesensethatthereisusuallynointrinsicconnectionbetweenawork（likebook）andtheobjectitrefersto.Thisexplainsandisexplainedbythefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentbooks：bookinEnglish，livreinFrench，inJapanese，inChinese，checkinKorean.Itissymbolic，becausewordsareassociatedwithobjects，actions，ideasetc.bynothingbutconvention.Namely，peopleusethesoundsorvocalformstosymbolizewhattheywishtoreferto.Itisvocal，becausesoundorspeechistheprimarymediumforallhumanlanguages，developedornew。Writingsystemscamemuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Thefactthatsmallchildrenlearnandcanonlylearntospeak（andlisten）beforetheywrite（andread）alsoindicatesthatlanguageisprimarilyvocal，ratherthanwritten.Thetermhumaninthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishumanspecific.　1.2.Whataredesignfeaturesoflanguage？　　Designfeatureshererefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethat78\ntellthedifferencebetweenhumanlanguageandanysystemofanimalcommunication.Theyarearbitrariness，duality，productivity，displacement，culturaltransmissionandinterchangeability　　1.3.Whatisarbitrariness？　　By“arbitrariness”，wemeanthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds（seeI.1）Adogmightbeapigifonlythefirstpersonorgroupofpersonshaduseditforapig.Languageisthereforelargelyarbitrary.Butlanguageisnotabsolutelyseemtobesomesound-meaningassociation，ifwethinkofechowords，like“bang”，“crash”，“roar”，whicharemotivatedinacertainsense.Secondly，somecompounds（wordscompoundedtobeoneword）arenotentirelyarbitraryeither.“Type”and“write”areopaqueorunmotivatedwords，while“type-writer”islessso，ormoretransparentormotivatedthanthewordsthatmakeit.Sowecansay“arbitrariness”isamatterofdegree.　　1.4.Whatisduality？　　Linguistsrefer“duality”（ofstructure）tothefactthatinalllanguagessofarinvestigated，onefindstwolevelsofstructureorpatterning.Atthefirst，higherlevel，languageisanalyzedintermsofcombinationsofmeaningfulunits（suchasmorphemes，wordsetc.）；atthesecond，lowerlevel，itisseenasasequenceofsegmentswhichlackanymeaninginthemselves，butwhichcombinetoformunitsofmeaning.AccordingtoHuZhanglinetal.（p.6），languageisasystemoftwosetsofstructures，oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.Thisisimportantfortheworkingsoflanguage.Asmallnumberofsemanticunits（words），andtheseunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences（notethatwehavedictionariesofwords，butnodictionaryofsentences！）Dualitymakesitpossibleforapersontotalkaboutanythingwithinhisknowledge.Noanimalcommunicationsystemenjoysthisduality，orevenapproachesthishonour.　　1.5.Whatisproductivity？　　Productivityreferstotheabilitytotheabilitytoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinone'snativelanguage，includingthosethathasneverheardbefore，butthatareappropriatetothespeakingsituation.Noonehaseversaidorheard“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthesmallhotelbedwithanAfricangibbon”，buthecansayitwhennecessary，andhecanunderstanditinrightregister.Differentfromartisticcreativity，though，productivitynevergoesoutsidethelanguage，thusalsocalled“rule-boundcreativity”（byN.Chomsky）。　1.6.Whatisdisplacement？　“Displacement”，asoneofthedesignfeaturesofthehumanlanguage，referstothefactthatonecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent，aseasilyashedoesthingspresent.Inotherwords，onecanrefertorealandunrealthings，thingsofthepast，ofthepresent，ofthefuture.Languageitselfcanbetalkedabouttoo.Whenaman，forexample，iscryingtoawoman，aboutsomething，itmightbesomethingthathadoccurred，orsomethingthatisoccurring，orsomethingthatisto78\noccur.Whenadogisbarking，however，youcandecideitisbarkingforsomethingoratsomeonethatexistsnowandthere.Itcouldn'tbebow-wowingsorrowfullyfordomelostloveorabonetobelost.Thebee’ssystem，nonetheless，hasasmallshareof“displacement”，butitisanunspeakabletinyshare.　　1.7.Whatisculturaltransmission？　　Thismeansthatlanguageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration，butthatthedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Itistruethatthecapacityforlanguageinhumanbeings（N.Chomskycalledit“languageacquisitiondevice”，orLAD）hasageneticbasis，buttheparticularlanguageapersonlearnstospeakisaculturaloneotherthanageneticonelikethedog‘sbarkingsystem.Ifahumanbeingisbroughtupinisolationhecannotacquirelanguage.TheWolfChildrearedbythepackofwolvesturnedouttospeakthewolf'sroaring“tongue”whenhewassaved.Helearnedthereafter，withnosmalldifficulty，theABCofacertainhumanlanguage.　　1.8.Whatisinterchangeability？　　（1）Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.Wecansay，andonotheroccasionscanreceiveandunderstand，forexample，“Pleasedosomethingtomakemehappy.”Thoughsomepeople（includingme）suggestthatthereissexdifferentiationintheactuallanguageuse，inotherwords，menandwomenmaysaydifferentthings，yetinprinciplethereisnosound，orwordorsentencethatamancanutterandawomancannot，orviceversa.Ontheotherhand，apersoncanbethespeakerwhiletheotherpersonisthelistenerandastheturnmovesontothelistener，hecanbethespeakerandthefirstspeakeristolisten.Itisturn-takingthatmakessocialcommunicationpossibleandacceptable.　　（2）Somemalebirds，however，uttersomecallswhichfemalesdonot（orcannot？），andcertainkindsoffishhavesimilarhapsmentionable.Whenadogbarks，alltheneighbouringdogsbark.Thenpeoplearoundcanhardlytellwhichdog（dogs）isare“speaking”andwhichlistening.　　1.9.Whydolinguistssaylanguageishumanspecific？　　Firstofall，humanlanguagehassix“designfeatures”whichanimalcommunicationsystemsdonothave，atleastnotinthetruesenseofthem（seeI.2-8）Let'sborrowC.F.Hocket'sChartthatcompareshumanlanguagewithsomeanimals'systems，fromWangGang（1998，p.8）。　　Secondly，linguistshavedonealottryingtoteachanimalssuchaschimpanzeestospeakahumanlanguagebuthaveachievednothinginspiring.Washoe，afemalechimpanzee，wasbroughtuplikeahumanchildbyBeatniceandAlanGardner.Shewastaught“AmericansignLanguage”，andlearnedalittlethatmadetheteachershappybutdidmotmakethelinguisticscirclehappy，forfewbelievedinteachingchimpanzees.　　Thirdly，ahumanchildrearedamonganimalscannotspeakahumanlanguage，notevenwhenheistakenbackandtaughttolotoso（seethe“WolfChild”inI.7）　1.10.Whatfunctionsdoeslanguagehave？78\n　　Languagehasatleastsevenfunctions：phatic，directive，Informative，interrogative，expressive，evocativeandperformative.AccordingtoWangGang（1988，p.11），languagehasthreemainfunctions：atoolofcommunication，atoolwherebypeoplelearnabouttheworld，andatoolbywhichpeoplelearnabouttheworld，andatoolbywhichpeoplecreateart.M.A.K.Halliday，representativeoftheLondonschool，recognizesthree“Macro-Functions”：ideational，interpersonalandtextual（see！11-17；seeHUZhuanglinetal.，pp10-13，pp394-396）。自考“英语语言学”资料（2）1.11Whatisthephaticfunction？　　The“phaticfunction”referstolanguagebeingusedforsettingupacertainatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontacts（ratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas）Greetings，farewells，andcommentsontheweatherinEnglishandonclothinginChineseallservethisfunction.Muchofthephaticlanguage（e.g“Howareyou？”“Fine，thanks.”）isinsincereiftakenliterally，butitisimportant.Ifyoudon'tsay“Hello”toafriendyoumeet，orifyoudon'tanswerhis“Hi”，youruinyourfriendship.　　1.12.Whatisthedirectivefunction？　　The“directivefunction”meansthatlanguagemaybeusedtogetthehearertodosomething.Mostimperativesentencesperformthisfunction，e.g“Tellmetheresultwhenyoufinish.”Othersyntacticstructuresorsentencesofothersortscan，accordingtoJ.AustinandJ.Searle's“indrectspeechacttheory”（seeHuZhuanglinetal.，pp271-278）atleast，servethepurposeofdirectiontoo，e.g.“IfIwereyou，Iwouldhaveblushedtothebottomofmyears！”　　1.13.Whatistheinformativefunction？　　Languageservesan“informationalfunction”whenusedtotellsomething，characterizedbytheuseofdeclarativesentences.Informativestatementsareoftenlabelledastrueorfalse（falsehood）AccordingtoP.Grice's“CooperativePrinciple”（seeHuZhuanglinetal.，pp282-283），oneoughtnottoviolatethe“MaximofQuality”，whenheisinformingatall.　　1.14.Whatistheinterrogative[ˌɪntəˈrɔɡətiv]function？Whenlanguageisusedtoobtaininformation，itservesan“interrogativefunction”Thisincludesallquestionsthatexpectreplies，statements，imperativesetc，accordingtothe“indirectspeechacttheory”，mayhavethisfunctionaswell，e.g.“I'dliketoknowyoubetter.”Thismaybringforthalotofpersonalinformation.Notethatrhetoricalquestionsmakeanexception，sincetheydemandnoanswer，atleastnotthereader's/listener'sanswer　　1.15.Whatistheexpressivefunction？　　The“expressivefunction”istheuseoflanguagetorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsorattitudesofthespeaker.Subconsciousemotionalejaculationsaregoodexamples，like“Goodheavens”“MyGod”Sentenceslike“I'msorryaboutthedelay”canserveasgoodexamplestoo，thoughinasubtleway.Whilelanguageisusedfortheinformativefunctiontopassjudgementonthetruthorfalsehoodof78\nstatements，languageusedfortheexpressivefunctionevaluates，appraisesorassertsthespeaker'sownattitudes.　　1.16.Whatistheevocative[iˈvɔkətiv]function？adj.引起…记忆的,唤起…感情的The“evocativefunction”istheuseoflanguagetocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimis，forexample，toamuse，startle，antagonize，soothe，worryorplease.Jokes（notpracticaljokes，though）aresupposedtoamuseorentertainthelistener；advertisingtourgecustomerstopurchasecertaincommodities；propagandatoinfluencepublicopinion.Obviously，theexpressiveandtheevocativefunctionsoftengotogether，i.e.youmayexpress，forexample，yourpersonalfeelingsaboutapoliticalissuebutendupbyevokingthesamefeelingin，orimposingiton，yourlistener.That'salsothecasewiththeotherwayround.　　1.17.Whatistheperformativefunction？　　Thismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings”orperformactions.Oncertainoccasionstheutteranceitselfasanactionismoreimportantthanwhatwordsorsoundsconstitutetheutteredsentence.WhenaskedifathirdYangtzebridgeoughttobebuiltinWuhan，themayormaysay“OK”,whichmeansmorethanspeech,andmorethananaveragesocialindividualmaydofortheconstruction.Thejudge'simprisonmentsentence,thepresident'swarorindependencedeclaration,etc，areperformativesaswell（seeJ.Austin'sspeechActTheory，HuZhuanglin，ecal.，pp271-278）。　　1.18.Whatislinguistics？　“Linguistics”isthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonesociety，butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.Alinguist，though，doesnothavetoknowandusealargenumberoflanguages，buttoinvestigatehoweachlanguageisconstructed.Heisalsoconcernedwithhowalanguagevariesfromdialecttodialect，fromclasstoclass，howitchangesfromcenturytocentury，howchildrenacquiretheirmothertongue，andperhapshowapersonlearnsorshouldlearnaforeignlanguage.Inshort，linguisticsstudiesthegeneralprincipleswhereuponallhumanlanguagesareconstructedandoperateassystemsofcommunicationintheirsocietiesorcommunities（seeHuZhuanglinetal.，pp20-22）　　1.19.Whatmakeslinguisticsascience？　　Sincelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage，itoughttobaseitselfuponthesystematic，investigationoflanguagedatawhichaimsatdiscoveringthetruenatureoflanguageanditsunderlyingsystem.Tomakesenseofthedata，alinguistusuallyhasconceivedsomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure，tobecheckedagainsttheobservedorobservablefacts.Inordertomakehisanalysisscientific,alinguistisusuallyguidedbyfourprinciples:exhaustiveness，consistency，andobjectivity.Exhaustivenessmeansheshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevanttothestudyandgivethemanadequateexplanation，inspiteofthecomplicatedness.Heistoleavenolinguistic“stone”unturned.Consistencymeansthereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement.Economymeansalinguistshouldpursuebrevityintheanalysiswhenitispossible.Objectivityimpliesthatsincesomepeoplemaybesubjectiveinthe78\nstudy，alinguistshouldbe（orsoundatleast）objective，matter-of-face，faithfultoreality，sothathisworkconstitutespartofthelinguisticsresearch.　　1.20.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics？　　Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguisticse.g.HuZhuanglinetal.,1988;WangGang,1988Butalinguistsometimesisabletodealwithonlyoneaspectoflanguageatatime,thustheariseofvariousbranches:phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,sociolinguistics,appliedlinguistics,pragmatics,psycholinguistics,lexicology,lexicography,etymology,etc.自考“英语语言学”资料（3）1.21.Whataresynchronicanddiachronicstudies？　　Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime（asifitstoppeddeveloping）isasynchronystudysynchrony.Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy（diachronic）.Anessayentitled“OntheUseofTHE”，forexample，maybesynchronic，iftheauthordoesnotrecallthepastofTHE，anditmayalsobediachronicifheclaimstocoveralargerangeorperiodoftimewhereinTHEhasundergonetremendousalteration（seeHuZhuanglinetal.，pp25-27）。　　1.22.Whatisspeechandwhatiswriting？　　（1）Nooneneedstherepetitionofthegeneralprincipleoflinguisticanalysis，namely，theprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Speechisprimary，becauseitexistedlonglongbeforewritingsystemscameintobeing.Geneticallychildrenlearntospeakbeforelearningtowrite.Secondly，writtenformsjustrepresentinthiswayorthatthespeechsounds:individualsounds，asinEnglishandFrenchasinJapanese.　　（2）Incontrasttospeech,spokenformoflanguage,writingaswrittencodes,giveslanguagenewscopeandusethatspeechdoesnothave.Firstly,messagescanbecarriedthroughspacesothatpeoplecanwritetoeachother.Secondly,messagescanbecarriedthroughtimethereby，sothatpeopleofourtimecanbecarriedthroughtimethereby，sothatpeopleofourtimecanreadBeowulf，SamuelJohnson，andEdgarA.Poe.Thirdly，oralmessagesarereadilysubjecttodistortion，eitherintentionalorunintentional（causingmisunderstandingormalentendu），whilewrittenmessagesallowandencouragerepeatedunalterablereading.　　（3）Mostmodernlinguisticanalysisisfocusedonspeech，differentfromgrammariansofthelastcenturyandtheretofore.　　1.23.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenthedescriptiveandtheprescriptiveapproaches？　　Alinguisticstudyis“descriptive”ifitonlydescribesandanalysesthefactsoflanguage，and“prescriptive”ifittriestolaydownrulesfor“correct”languagebehavior.Linguisticstudiesbeforethiscenturywerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlygrammarswerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlygrammarswerebasedon“high”（literaryorreligious）writtenrecords.Modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive，however.thelatterbelievesthatwhateveroccursinnaturalspeech（hesitation，incompleteutterance，misunderstanding，etc.）shouldbe78\ndescribedintheanalysis，andnotbemarkedasincorrect，abnormal，corrupt，orlousy.These，withchangesinvocabularyandstructures，needtobeexplainedalso.　　1.24.Whatisthedifferencebetweenlangueandparole？　　F.deSaussurerefers“langue”totheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandrefers“parole”totheactualoractualizedlanguage，ortherealizationoflangue.Langueisabstract，parolespecifictothespeakingsituation；languenotactuallyspokenbyanindividual，parolealwaysanaturallyoccurringevent；languerelativelystableandsystematic，paroleisamassofconfusedfacts，thusnotsuitableforsystematicinvestigation.Whatalinguistoughttodo,accordingtoSaussure,istoabstractlanguefrominstancesofparole，i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethanthesubjectoflinguistics.Thelangue-paroledistinctionisofgreatimportance，whichcastsgreatinfluenceonlaterlinguists.　　1.25.Whatisthedifferencebetweencompetenceandperformance？　　（1）AccordingtoN.Chomsky,“competence”istheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage，and“performance”istheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances.Theformerenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker'scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker'sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompetence.　　（2）Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence，ratherthanperformance.Inotherwords，theyshoulddiscoverwhatanidealspeakerknowsofhisnativelanguage.　　（3）Chomsky'scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas，thoughsimilarto,F.deSaussure'slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofconventionsforacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.SussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanN.Chomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.　　1.26.Whatislinguisticpotential？Whatisactuallinguisticbehaviour？　　Thesetwoterms,orthepotential-behaviordistinction，weremadebyM.A.K.Hallidayinthe1960s，fromafunctionalpointofview.Thereisawiderangeofthingsaspeakercandoinhisculture，andsimilarlytherearemanythingshecansay，forexample，tomanypeople，onmanytopics.Whatheactuallysays（i.e.his“actuallinguisticbehavior”）onacertainoccasiontoacertainpersoniswhathehaschosenfrommanypossibleinjusticeitems，eachofwhichhecouldhavesaid（linguisticpotential）。　　1.27.Inwhatwaydolanguage，competenceandlinguisticpotentialagree？Inwhatwaydotheydiffer？Andtheircounterparts？　　Langue，competenceandlinguisticpotentialhavesomesimilarfeatures,buttheyareinnatelydifferent（see1.25）Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofspeakingconventions;competenceisapropertyorattributeofeachidealspeaker'smind；linguisticpotentialisallthelinguisticcorpusorrepertoireavailablefrom78\nwhichthespeakerchoosesitemsfortheactualutterancesituation.Inotherwords，langueisinvisiblebutreliableabstractsystem.Competencemeans“knowing”,andlinguisticpotentialasetofpossibilitiesfor“doing”or“performingactions”.TheyaresimilarinthattheyallrefertotheconstantunderlyingtheutterancesthatconstitutewhatSaussure，ChomskyandHallidayrespectivelycalledparole，performanceandactuallinguisticbehavior.Paole，performanceandactuallinguisticbehaviorenjoymoresimilaritiesthandifferences.　　1.28.Whatisphonetics？　“Phonetics”isthesciencewhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofhumansound-making，especiallythosesoundsusedinspeech,andprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription，classificationandtranscription（seeHuZhuanglinetal，pp39-40）,speechsoundsmaybestudiedindifferentways，thusbythreedifferentbranchesofphonetics.（1）Articulatoryphonetics；thebranchofphoneticsthatexaminesthewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinateintheprocess.（2）Auditoryphonetics，thebranchofphoneticresearchfromthehearer'spointofview，lookingintotheimpressionwhichaspeechsoundmakesonthehearerasmediatedbytheear,theauditorynerveandthebrain.（3）Acousticphonetics：thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmittedbetweenmouthandear.　　Mostphoneticians，however，areinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.　　1.29.Howarethevocalorgansformed？　　Thevocalorgans（seeFigure1，HuZhuanglinetal.，p41），orspeechorgans，areorgansofthehumanbodywhosesecondaryuseisintheproductionofspeechsounds.Thevocalorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts；theinitiatoroftheair-stream，theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.　　1.30.Whatisplaceofarticulation？　　Itreferstotheplaceinthemouthwhere,forexample,theobstructionoccurs,resultingintheutteranceofaconsonant.Whateversoundispronounced，atleastsomevocalorganswillgetinvolved，e.g.lips，hardpalateetc.，soaconsonantmaybeoneofthefollowing（1）bilabial：[p,b,m]（2）labiodental：[f,v]（3）dental：[,]（4）alveolar:[t,d,l,n.s,z]（5）retroflex（6）palato-alveolar：[,]（7）palatal：[j]（8）velar[k,g,]（9）uvular（10）glottal：[h].　　Somesoundsinvolvethesimultaneoususeoftwoplacesofarticulation.Forexample，theEnglish[w]hasbothanapproximationofthetwolipsandthattwolipsandthatofthetongueandthesoftpalate，andmaybetermed“labial-velar”。自考“英语语言学”资料（4）1.31.Whatisthemannerofarticulation？　　The“mannerofarticulation”literallymeansthewayasoundisarticulated.Atagivenplaceofarticulation，theairstreammaybeobstructedinvariousways，resultinginvariousmannersofarticulation，arethefollowing：（1）plosive：[p,b,t,d,k,g]（2）nasal：[m,n]（3）trill（4）taporflap（5）lateral：[l]（6）fricative：[f,v,s,z]（7）approximant：[w,j]（8）affricate　　1.32.Howdophoneticiansclassifyvowels？78\n　　Phoneticians，inspiteofthedifficulty，groupvowelsin5types：（1）longandshortvowels，e.g.[i]（4）roundedandunroundvowels，e.g.[i]（5）pureandglidingvowels，e.g.[I].　　1.33.WhatisIPA？Whendiditcomeintobeing？　　TheIPA，abbreviationof“InternationalPhoneticAlphabet”,isacompromisesystemmakinguseofsymbolsofallsources,includingdiacriticsindicatinglength,stressandintonation,indicatingphoneticvariation.Eversinceitwasdevelopedin1888，IPAhasundergoneanumberofrevisions.　　1.34.Whatisnarrowtranscriptionandwhatisbroadtranscription？Inhandbookofphonetics，HenrySweetmadeadistinctionbetween“narrow”and“broad”transcriptions，whichhecalled“NarrowRomic”.Theformerwasmeanttosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds，includingeventhemostminuteshadesofpronunciationwhileBroadRomicortranscriptionwasintendedtoindicateonlythosesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguage.　　1.35.Whatisphonology？Whatisdifferencebetweenphoneticsandphonology？　　（1）“Phonology”isthestudyofsoundsystems-theinventionofdistinctivespeechsoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternswhereintheyfall.Minimalpair，phonemes，allophones，freevariation，complementarydistribution，etc.，arealltobeinvestigatedbyaphonologist.　　（2）Phonetics，asdiscussedinI.28，isthebranchoflinguisticsstudyingthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription，classificationandtranscription.Aphonetistismainlyinterestedinthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds，whereasaphonologiststudieswhathebelievesaremeaningfulsoundsrelatedwiththeirsemanticfeatures，morphologicalfeatures，andthewaytheyareconceivedandprintedinthedepthofthemindphonologicalknowledgepermitsaspeakertoproducesoundswhichfrommeaningfulutterances，torecognizeaforeign“accent”，tomakeupnewwords，toaddtheappropriatephoneticsegmentstofrompluralsandpasttenses，toknowwhatisandwhatisnotasoundinone'slanguage.　　1.36.Whatisaphone？Whatisaphoneme？Whatisanallophone？　　（1）A“phone”isaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Whenwehearthefollowingwordspronounced：[pit]，[tip]，[spit]，etc.，thesimilarphoneswehaveheardare[p]foronething，andthreedifferent[p]'s，readilymakingpossiblethe“narrowtranscriptionordiacritics”.Phonesmayandmaynotdistinguishmeaning.A“phoneme”isaphonologicalunit；itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Asanabstractunit，aphonemeisnotanyparticularsound，butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Forexample，thephoneme[p]isrepresenteddifferentlyin[pit]，[tip]and[spit].　　（2）Thephonesrepresentingaphonemearecalledits“allophones”，i.e.thedifferent（i.e.phones）butdonotmakeonewordsophoneticallydifferentastocreateanewwordoranewmeaningthereof.Sothedifferent[p]'sintheabove78\nwordsaretheallophonesofthesamephoneme[p].Howaphonemeisrepresentedbyaphone，orwhichallophoneistobeused，isdeterminedbythephoneticcontextinwhichitoccurs.Butthechoiceofanallophoneisnotrandom.Inmostcasesitisrule-governed；theserulesaretobefoundoutbyaphonologist.　　1.37.Whatareminimalpairs？　　Whentwodifferentphoneticformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestring，thetwoforms（i.e.，word）aresupposedtoforma“minimalpair”，e.g.“pill”and“bill”,“pill”and“till”，“till”and“dill”，“till”and“kill”，etc.Allthesewordstogetherconstituteaminimalset.Theyareidenticalinformexceptfortheinitialconsonants.TherearemanyminimalpairsinEnglish，whichmakesitrelativelyeasytoknowwhatareEnglishphonemes.Itisofgreatimportancetofindtheminimalpairswhenaphonologistisdealingwiththesoundsystemofanunknownlanguage（seeHuZhuanglinetal.，pp65-66）。　　1.38.Whatisfreevariation？　　Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironmentdonotcontrast；namely，ifthesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotgenerateanewwordformbutmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword，thetwosoundsthenaresaidtobein“freevariation”.Theplosives，forexample，maynotbeexplodedwhentheyoccurbeforeanotherplosiveoranasal（e.g，act，apt，goodmorning）.Theminutedistinctionsmay，ifnecessary，betranscribedindiacritics.Theseunexplodedandexplodedplosivesareinfreevariation.Soundsinfreevariationshouldbeassignedtothesamephoneme.　　1.39.Whatiscomplementarydistribution？　　Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment,theyarein“complementarydistribution”.Forexample，theaspiratedEnglishplosivesneveroccurafter[s],andtheunsaturatedonesneveroccurinitially.Soundsincomplementarydistributionmaybeassignedtothesamephoneme.Theallophonesof[l],forexample,arealsoincomplementarydistribution.Theclear[l]occursonlybeforeavowel,thevoicelessequivalentof[l]occursonlyafteravoicelessconsonant,suchasinthewords“please”,“butler”,“clear”,etc.,andthedark[l]occursonlyafteravowelorasasyllabicsoundafteraconsonant，suchasinthewords“feel”,“help”,“middle”,etc.　　1.40.Whatistheassimilationrule？Whatisthedeletionrule？　　（1）The“assimilationrule”assimilatesonesegmenttoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme，thusmakingthetwophonesmoresimilar.Thisruleaccountsfortheraringpronunciationofthenasal[n]thatoccurswithinaword.Theruleisthatwithinawordthenasalconsonant[n]assumesthesameplaceofarticulationasthefollowingconsonant.Thenegativeprefix“in-”servesasagoodexample.Itmaybepronouncedas[in]，[i]or[im]whenoccurringindifferentphoneticcontexts：e.g.，indiscrete-[]（alveolar）inconceivable-[]（velar）input-['imput]（bilabial）　　（2）The“deletionrule”tellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughisorthographicallyrepresented.Whiletheletter“g”ismutein“sign”,“design”and78\n“paradigm”itispronouncedintheircorrespondingderivatives:“signature”,“designation”and“paradigmatic”.Therulethencanbestatedas：deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.ThisaccountsforsomeoftheseemingirregularitiesoftheEnglishspelling（seeDaiWeidong，pp22-23）。自考“英语语言学”资料（5）1.41.Whatissuprasegmentalphonology？Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures？　“Suprasegmentalphonology”referstothestudyofphonologicalpropertiesoflinguisticunitslargerthanthesegmentcalledphoneme，suchassyllable，wordandsentence.　　HuZhuanglinetal.,（p，73）includesstress,lengthandpitchaswhattheysupposetobe“principalsuprasegmentalfeatures”，callingtheconcurrentpatterningofthree“intonation”.DaiWeidong（pp23-25）liststhreealso，buttheyarestress，toneandintonation.　　1.42.Whatismorphology？　“Morphology”isthebranchofgrammarthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwords，andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Itisgenerallydividedintotwofields：inflectionalmorphologyandlexical/derivationalmorphology.　　1.43.Whatisinflection/inflexion？　“Inflection”isthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes，suchasnumber，person，finiteness，aspect，andcase，whichdoesnotchangethegrammaticalclassoftheitemstowhichtheyareattached.　　1.44.Whatisamorpheme？Whatisanallomorph？　　（1）The“morpheme”isthesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent，aunitwhichcannotbedividedwithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning，whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Theword“boxes”，forexample，hastwomorphemes：“box”and“-es”，neitherofwhichpermitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisifwedon'twishtosacrificemeaning.Thereforeamorphemeisconsideredtheminimalunitofmeaning.　　（2）Allomorphs，likeallophonesvs.phones，arethealternateshapes（andthusphoneticforms）ofthesamemorphemes.Somemorphemes，though，havenomorethanoneinvariableforminallcontexts，suchas“dog”，“cat”，etc.Thevariantsoftheplurality“-s”maketheallomorphsthereofinthefollowingexamples：map-maps，mouse-mice，sheep-sheepetc.　　1.45.Whatisafreemorpheme？Whatisaboundmorpheme？　　A“freemorpheme”isamorphemethatconstitutesawordbyitself，suchas'bed“，”tree“，etc.A”boundmorpheme“isonethatappearswithatleastanothermorpheme，suchas”-s“in”beds“，”-al“in”national“andsoon.Allmonomorphemicwordsarefreemorphemes.Thosepolymorphemicwordsareeithercompounds（combinationoftwoormorefreemorphemes）orderivatives（wordderivedfromfreemorphemes）。　　1.46.Whatisaroot？Whatisastem？Whatisanaffix？　　A“root”isthebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Inotherwords，a“root”isthatpartofthewordleftwhenall78\ntheaffixesareremoved.“Internationalism”isafour-morphemederivativewhichkeepsitsfreemorpheme“nation”asitsrootwhen“inter-”，“-al”and“-ism”aretakenaway.　　A“stem”isanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichanaffixcanbeadded.Itmaybethesameas，andinothercases，differentfrom，aroot.Forexample，intheword“friends”,“friend”isboththerootandthestem，butintheword“friendships”,“friendships”isitsstem,“friend”isitsroot.Somewords（i.e.，compounds）havemorethanoneroot，e.g.，“mailman”,“girlfriend”，ect.　　An“affix”isthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeused，onlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme（therootorstem）.Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage，andaregenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes:prefix,suffixandinfix，e.g.，“mini-”，“un-”，ect.（prefix）；“-ise”，“-tion”，ect.（suffix）。　　1.47.Whatareopenclasses？Whatareclosedclasses？　　InEnglish，nouns，verbs，adjectives，andadverbsmakeupthelargestpartofthevocabulary.Theyare“open–classwords”，sincewecanregularlyaddnewlexicalentriestotheseclasses.Theothersyntacticcategoriesare，forthemostpart，closedclasses，orclosed-classwords.Thenumberofthemishardlyalterable，iftheyarechangeableatall.　　1.48.Whatislexicon？Whatisword？Whatislexeme？Whatisvocabulary？Lexicon？Word？Lexeme？Vocabulary？　“Lexicon”，initsmostgeneralsense，issynonymouswithvocabulary.Initstechnicalsense，however，lexicondealswiththeanalysisandcreationofwords，idiomsandcollocations.“Word”isaunitofexpressionwhichhasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers，whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.Thisdefinitionisperhapsalittlevagueastherearedifferentcriteriawithregardtoitsidentificationanddefinition.Itseemsthatitishard，evenimpossible，todefine“word”linguistically.Nonethelessitisuniversallyagreedthatthefollowingthreesensesareinvolvedinthedefinitionof“word”，noneofwhich，though，isexpectedtocopewithallthesituations：（1）aphysicallydefinableunit，e.g.，[itiz'w]（phonological），“Itiswonder”（orthographic）（2）thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms（seewhatisthecommonfactorof“checks”,“checked”,“checking”etc.）（3）agrammaticalunit（lookat（1）again；everywordplaysagrammaticalpartinthesentence）。　　AccordingtoLeonardBloomfield，awordisaminimumfreeform（compare：asentenceisamaximumfreeform，accordingtoBloomfield）.Thereareotherfactorsthatmayhelpusidentifywords：（1）stability（nogreatchangeoforthographicfeatures）；（2）relativeuninterruptibility（wecanhardlyinsertanythingbetweentwopartsofawordorbetweentheletters）.Tomakethecategoryclearerwecansubclassifywordsintoafewtypes：（1）variableandinvariablewords（e.g.，-mats，seldom-？）；（2）grammaticalandlexicalwords（e.g.to，in，etc.，andtable，chair，ect.By“lexicalwords”wemeanthewordsthatcarryasemanticcontent，e.g.，nouns，verbs，adjectivesandmanyadverbs78\n；（3）closed-classandopen-classwords（seeI.47）。　　Inordertoreducetheambiguityoftheterm“word”，theterm“lexeme”ispostulatedastheabtractunitwhichreferstothesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.Alexemecanoccurinmanydifferentformsinactualspokenorwrittentexts.Forexample，“write”isthelexemeofthefollowingwords：“write”，“write”，“wrote”，“writing”，and“written.”　“Vocabulary”usuallyreferstoallwordsorlexicalitemsapersonhasacquiredabouttechnicalor/anduntechnicalthings.Soweencourageourstudentstoenlargetheirvocabulary.“vocabulary”isalsousedtomeanwordlistorglossary.　　1.49.Whatiscollocation？　“Collocation”isatermusedinlexicologybysomelinguiststorefertothehabitualco-occurrencesofindividuallexicalitems.Forexample，wecan“read”a“book”；“correct”cannarrowlyoccurwith“book”whichissupposedtohavefaults，butnoonecan“read”a“mistake”becausewithregardtoco-occurrencethesetwowordsarenotcollocates.　　1.50.Whatissyntax？　“Syntax”isthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysinwhichwords，wordgroupsandphrasesarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage，orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweensententialelements.自考“英语语言学”资料（6）1.51.Whatisasentence？　　L.Bloomfielddefines“sentence”asanindependentlinguisticformnotincludedbysomegrammaticalmarksinanyotherlinguisticfrom，i.e.，itisnotsubordinatedtoalargerlinguisticform，itisastructurallyindependentlinguisticform.Itisalsocalledamaximumfreeform.　　1.52.Whataresyntacticrelations？　“Syntacticrelations”refertothewaysinwhichwords，wordgroupsorphrasesformsentences；hencethreekindsofsyntacticrelations：positionalrelations，relationsofsubstitutabilityandrelationsofco-occurrence.　　（1）“Positionalrelation”，or“wordorder”，referstothesequentialarrangementtowordsinalanguage.ItisamanifestationofacertainaspectofwhatF.deSaussurecalled“syntagmaticrelations”，orofwhatotherlinguistscall“horizontalrelations”or“chainrelations”。　　（2）“Relationsofsubstitutability”refertoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsamesentencestructures.Saussurecalledthem“associativerelations”.Otherpeoplecallthem“paradigmatic/vertical/choicerelations”。　　（3）By“relationsofco-occurrence”，onemeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermitorrequiretheoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Thusrelationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelationsandpartlytoparadigmaticrelations.　　1.53.WhatisICanalysis？Whatareimmediateconstituents（andultimate78\nconstituents）？　“ICanalysis”isanewapproachofsentencestudythatcutsasentenceintotwo（ormore）segments.Thiskindofpuresegmentationissimplydividingasentenceintoitsconstituentelementswithoutevenknowingwhattheyreallyare.Whatremainofthefirstcutarecalled“immediateconstituents”，andwhatareleftatthefinalcutarecalled“ultimateconstituents”.Forexample，“Johnleftyesterday”canbethussegmented：“John|left||yesterday”.Wegettwoimmediateconstituentsforthefirstcut（|），andtheyare“John”and“leftyesterday”.Furthersplit（||）thissentencegeneratesthree“ultimateconstituents”：“John”，“left”and“yesterday”。　　1.54.Whatareendocentricandexocentricconstructons？　“Endocentricconstruction”isonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents，i.e.，awordoragroupofwords，whichservesasadefinable“centre”or“head”.Usuallynounphrases，verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetothehead.“Exocentricconstruction”，oppositeofendocentricconstruction，referstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupaswhole；thatistosay，thereisnodefinablecentreorheadinsidethegroup.Exocentricconstructionusuallyincludesbasicsentence，prepositionalphrase，predicate（verb+object）construction，andconnective（be+complement）construction.　　1.55.Whatisasubject？Apredicate？Anobject？　　（1）Insomelanguage，an“subject”referstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase，suchas“pater”inthefollowingexample："paterfiliumamat"（putliterallyinEnglish：thefatherthesonloves）.InEnglish，a“grammaticalsubject”referstoanounwhichcanestablishcorrespondencewiththeverbandwhichcanbecheckedbyatag-questiontest，e.g.，“Heisagoodcook（isn'the？）。”　　（2）A“predicate”referstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectareconsideredtogether.e.g.,inthesentenceThemonkeyisjumping,isjumpingisthepredicate.　　（3）Traditionally“object”referstothereceiverorgoalofanaction，anditisfurtherclassifiedintotwokinds：directobjectandindirectobject.Insomeinflectinglanguages，anobjectismarkedbycaselabels：the“accusativecase”fordirectobject，andthe“dativecase”fordirectobject，andthe“dativecase”forindirecttowordorder（aftertheverbandpreposition）andbyinflections（ofpronouns）.E.g.，inthesentence“Johnkissedme”，“me”istheobject.Modernlinguistssuggestthatanobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomeasubjectinpassivetransformation.　　1.56.Whatiscategory？　　Theterm“category”insomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense，e.g.，noun，verb，subject，predicate，nounphrase，verbphrase，etc.Morespecificallyitreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneral78\nunits：thecategoriesofthenoun，forexample，includenumber，gender，caseandcountability；andoftheverb，forexample，tense，aspect，voice，etc.　　1.57.Whatisnumber？Whatisgender？Whatiscase？　　（1）“Number”isagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular，dual，plural，etc.InEnglish，numberismainlyobservedinnouns，andthereareonlytwoforms：singularandplural.Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs.　　（2）“Gender”displayssuchcontrastsas"masculine","feminine","neuter"or"animate"and"inanimate",etc.fortheanalysisofwordclasses.Whenworditemsrefertothesexofthereal-worldentities，wenaturalgender（theoppositeisgrammaticalgender）。　　（3）“Case”identifiesthesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.InLatingrammar，casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword，andaregiventheterms"accusative","nominative","dative",etc.InEnglish，thecasecategoryisrealizedinthreeways：byfollowingaprepositionandbywordorder.　　1.58.Whatisconcord？Whatisgovernment？　“Concord”maybedefinedasrequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallbecharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategoryorcategories，e.g.“manruns”,“menrun”.“Government”requiresthatonewordofaparticularclassinagivensyntacticclassshallexhibittheformofaspecificcategory.InEnglish，governmentappliesonlytopronounsamongthevariablewords，thatis，prepositionsandverbsgovernparticularformsoftheparadigmsofpronounsaccordingtotheirsyntacticrelationwiththem，e.g.“Ihelpedhim；hehelpedme.”　　1.59.Whatisaphrase？Whatisaclause？　　（1）A“phrase”isasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword，andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalof“clauses”Traditionally,itisseenaspartofastructuralhierachy,fallingbetweenaclauseandword,e.g.“thethreetallestgirls”（nominalphrase）.Thereisnowatendencytomakeadistinctionbetweenwordgroupsandphrases.A“wordgroup”isanextensionofawordofaparticularclassbywayofmodificationwithitsmainfeaturesoftheclassunchanged.Thuswehavenominalgroup，verbalgroup，adverbialgroup，conjunctiongroupandprepositiongroup.　　（2）A“clause”isgroupofwordswithitsownsubjectandpredicateincludedinalargersubject-verbconstruction，namely，inasentence.Clausescanalsobeclassifiedintotwokinds：finiteandnon-finiteclauses，thelatterreferringtowhataretraditionallycalledinfinitivephrase，participlephraseandgerundialphrase.（For“sentence”，seeI.51.）　　1.60.Whatisconjoining？Whatisembedding？Whatisrecursiveness？　“Conjoining”referstoaconstructionwhereoneclauseisco-ordinatedorconjoinedwithanother，e.g.“Johnboughtacatandhiswifekilledher.”“Embedding”referstotheprocessofconstructionwhereoneclauseisincludedin78\nthesentence（ormainclause）insyntacticsubordination，e.g.“Isawthemanwhohadkilledachimpanzee.”By“recursiveness”wemeanthatthereistheoreticallynolimittothenumberoftheembeddedclausesinacomplexsentence.Thisistruealsowithnominalandadverbialclauses，e.g.“Isawthemanwhokilledacatwho…aratwhich…that…”自考“英语语言学”资料（7）　1.61.Whatishypotacticrelation？Whatisparatacticrelation？　“Hypotacticrelation”referstoaconstructionwhereconstituentsarelinkedbymeansofconjunction，e.g.“Heboughteggsandmilk.”“Paratacticrelation”referstoconstructionswhichareconnectedbyjuxtaposition，punctuationorintonation，e.g.，“Heboughttea，coffee，eggsandmilk”（payattentiontothefirstthreenounsconnectedwithout“and”）。　　1.62.Whatissemantics？　“Semantics”referstothestudyofthecommunicationofmeaningthroughlanguage.Orsimply，itisthestudyofmeaning.　　1.63.Whatismeaning？　　Thoughitisdifficulttodefine，“meaning”hasthefollowingmeaning：（1）anintrinsicproperty；（2）theconnotationofaword；（3）thewordsputafteradictionaryentry；（4）thepositionanobjectoccupiesinasystem；（5）whatthesymboluseractuallyrefersto；（6）whatthesymbolusershouldreferto；（7）whatthesymboluserbelievesheisreferringto；（8）whatthesymbolinterpreterrefersto；（9）whatthesymbolinterpreterbelievesitrefersto；（10）whatthesymbolinterpreterbelievestheuserrefersto…linguistsarguedabout“meaningofmeaning”fiercelyintheresultof“realism”，“conceptualism/mentalism”，“mechanism”，“contextualism”，“behaviorism”，“functionalism”，etc.（seeHuZhuanglinetal.，pp140-142）.Mentionoughttobemadeofthe“SemanticTriangleTheory”ofOgden&Richards.Weuseawordandthelistenerknowswhatitreferstobecause，accordingtothetheory，theyhaveacquiredthesameconcept/referenceofthewordusedandoftheobject/referent.　　1.64.Whatisthedifference¬；¬；¬；¬；¬；¬；¬；betweenmeaning，concept，connotation，sense，implication，denotation，notation，reference，implicatureandsignification？　　（1）“Meaning”referstotheassociationoflanguagesymbolswiththerealword.（2）“Concept”or“notion”istheimpressionofobjectsinpeople'smind.（3）“connotation”istheimpliedmeaning，similarto“implication”and“implicature”.（4）“Sense”isthelexicalpositioninwhichawordfindsitself.（5）“Denotation”，like“sense”，isnotdirectlyrelatedwithobjects，butmakestheabstractassumptionoftherealworld.（6）“Reference”istheword-objectrelationship.（7）“Implicature”，initsnarrowsense，referstoconversationalimplicatureachievedbyintentionallyviolatingoneofthefourCPmaxims（seeI.122-123）.（8）“Signification”，incontrastwith“value”，meanthemeaningofsituationmaynothaveanycommunicativevalue，like“What'sthis？”　　1.65.WhatistheSemantic/SemioticTriangle？　　OgdenandRichardspresentedtheclassic“SemanticTriangle”asmanifested78\ninthefollowingdiagram，inwhichthe“symbol”or“form”referstothelinguisticelements（word，sentence，etc.），the“referent”referstotheobjectintheworldofexperience，and“thought”or“reference”referstoconceptornotion.Thus，thesymbolawordsignifies“things”byvirtueofthe“concept”，associatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindofthespeakerofthelanguage.The“concept”thusconsideredismeaningoftheword.　　1.66.Whatiscontextualism？　“Contextualism”isbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfrom，orreduceitto，observablecontext：the“situationalcontext”andthe“linguisticcontext”.Everyutteranceoccursinaparticularspatio-temporalsituation，asthefollowingfactorsarerelatedtothesituationalcontext：（1）thespeakerandthehearer；（2）theactionstheyareperformingatthetime；（3）variousexternalobjectsandevents；（4）deicticfeatures.　　The“linguisticcontext”isanotheraspectofcontextualism.Itconsiderstheprobabilityofoneword'sco-occurrenceorcollocationwithanother，whichformspartofthemeaning，andanimportantfactorincommunication.　　1.67.Howmanykindsofmeaningdidlinguistsfindandstudy？　　（1）C.C.Fries（1952）makesatraditionaldistinctionbetweenlexicalmeaningandstructuralmeaning.Theformerisexpressedbythose“meaningful”partsofspeech，suchasnouns，verbs，adjectives，andadverbs，andisgiveninthedictionaryassociatedwithgrammar.Thelatterexpressesthedistinctionbetweenthesubjectandtheobjectofasentence，oppositionsofdefiniteness，tensethenumber，andthedifferencebetweenstatements，questionsandrequests.Inaword，“thetotallinguisticmeaningofanyutteranceconsistsofthelexicalmeaningoftheseparatewordsplussuchstructuralmeaning…”　　（2）G.Leech（1981）categorizessevenkindsofmeaning，fiveofwhicharebroughtunderthe“associativemeaning”（seethefollowingchart）。　　（3）Differentfromthetraditionalandthefunctionalapproach，F.R.Palmer（1981）andJ.Lyons（1977）suggestwedrawadistinctionbetweensentencemeaningandutterancemeaning，theformerbeingdirectlypredictablefromthegrammaticalandlexicalfeaturesofthesentence，whilethelatterincludesallthevarioustypesofmeaningnotnecessarilyassociatedthereto.　　1.68.Whatissynonymy？　“Synonymy”isusedtomeansamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Dictionarymakers（lexicographers）relyontheexistenceofsynonymyfortheirdefinitions.Somesemanticiansmaintain，however，thattherearenorealsynonyms，becausetwoormorewordsnamedsynonymsareexpectedwithoutexceptiontodifferfromoneanotherinoneofthefollowingaspects：　　（1）Inshadesofmeaning（e.g.，finish，complete，close，conclude，terminate，finalize，end，etc.）；　　（2）Instylisticmeaning（see1.67）；　　（3）Inemotivemeaning（oraffectivemeaning，see1.67）；　　（4）Inrangeofuse（orcollocativemeaning，see1.67）；　　（5）InBritishandAmericanEnglishusages[e.g.，autumn（BrE），fall78\n（AmE）].　　SimeonPottersaid，“Languageislikedress.Wevaryourdresstosuittheoccasion.Wedonotappearatafriend'ssilver-weddinganniversaryingardeningclothes，nordowegopuntingontheriverinadinner-jacket.”Thismeansthelearninglfsynonymsisimportanttoanyonethatwishestousehislanguagefreelyandwell.　　1.69.WhatisAntonymy？Howmanykindsofantonymsarethere？　　Theterm“antonymy”isusedforoppositionsofmeaning；wordsthatstandoppositeinmeaningarecalled“antonyms”，oropposites，whichfallintherecategories1）gradableantonyms（e.g，good-bad）；（2）complementaryantonyms（e.g.，single-mar-ried）；（3）relationalantonyms（e.g.，buy-sell）。　　1.70.Whatishyponymy？Whatisahyponym？Whatissuperordinate？　“Hyponymy”involvesusinthenotionofmeaninginclusion.Itisamatterofclassmembership.Thatistosay，whenXidakindofY，thelowertermXisthe“hyponym”，andtheuppertermYisthe“superordinate”.Twoormorehyponymssharingthesameonesuperordinatearecalled“co-hyponyms”.Forexample，“flower”isthesuperordinateof“tulip”，“violet”and“rose”，whicharetheco-hyponymsof“flower”。自考“英语语言学”资料（8）　1.71.Whatispolysemy？Whatishomonymy？　“Polysemy”referstothesemanticphenomenonthatawordmayhavethanonemeaning.Forexample，“negative”，means（1）astatementsayingormeaning“no”，（2）arefusalordenial，（3）oneofthefollowingwordsandexpressions：no，not，nothing，never，notatall，etc.，（4）anegativephotographorfilm.Butwecansometimeshardlytellifaformhasseveralmeaningsoritisadifferentwordtakingthisform；hencethedifferencebetweenpolysemyandhomonymy.　　1.72.Whatisentailment？　“Entailment”canbeillustratedbythefollowingtwosentences，withSentenceAentailingSentenceB：　　A：Hemarriedablondeheiress.　　B：Hemarriedablonde.　　Intermsoftruthvalue，thefollowingrelationshipsexistbetweenthesetwosentences（1）WhenAistrue，Bisnecessarilytrue；（2）WhenBisfalse，too；（3）whenAisfalse，Bmaybetrueorfalse；（4）WhenBistrue，Amaybetrueorfalse.Entailmentisbasicallyasemanticrelationorlogicalimplication，butwehavetoassumeco-referenceof“He”insentenceAandsentenceB，beforewehaveAentailB.　　1.73.Whatispresupposition？　　Similartoentailment，“presupposition”isasemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.Theabove-mentioned“WhenphraseNo.1”isalsotruewithpresupposition.Forexample：　　A：Thegirlhemarriedwasanheiress.　　B：Hemarriedagirl.　　Butthereisanimportantdifference：Presuppositionisnotsubjectto78\nnegation，i.e.，whenAisfalse，Bisstilltrue.Otherstatementsaboutthetruthvalueinpresuppositionare（1）WhenBistrue，Acaneitherbetrueorfalse；（2）WhenBisfalse，Ahasnotruthvalueatall.Presuppositiondoesnothavetobefoundbetweentwopropositions.Anexampleinpointis：“Whendidyoustopbeatingyourwife？”Thispresupposesthathehasbeenbeatinghiswife.　　1.74.Whatiscomponentialanalysis？　“Componentialanalysis”definesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents.Forexample，wemay“clip”thefollowingwords“Man”，“Woman”，“Boy”and“Girl”sothatwehaveonlyseparatepartsofthem.　　Man：+Human+Adult+Male　　Woman：+Human+Adult-Male　　Boy：+Human-Adult+Male　　Girl：+Huamn-Adult-Male　　1.75.Whatispredicationanalysis？Whatisaone-placepredicate？Whatisatwo-placepredicate？Whatisano-placepredicate？Whataredown-gradedpredications？　“Predicationanalysis”isanewapproachforsententialmeaninganalysis.“Predication”isusuallyconsideredanimportantcommoncategorysharedbypropositions，questions，commands，etc.Predicationistobreakdownthesentenceintotheirsmallerconstituents：argument（logicalparticipant）andpredicate（relationelement）.The“predicate”isthemajororpivotalelementgoverningtheargument.Wemaynowdistinguisha“two-placepredicate”（whichgovernstwoarguments，e.g.subjectandobject），a“one-placepredicate”（whichgovernsoneargument，i.e.，subject）anda“no-placepredicate”thathassimplynoargument（norealsubjectorobject）。　　1.76.Whatisalogicaloperator？　　（1）“Logicaloperator”makeonlyonekindofthe“logicalfactors”or“logicalmeans”，othersbeing“definiteness”，“coreference”，“tense”and“time”，sincepredicationisnotthewholeofasentenceorproposition.Allthesefactorsplayapartinprepositionalactualizationofthepredication——thepiningofapredicationdownaclaimaboutreality.　　（2）Exampleoflogicaloperatorsare“not”，“and”，“or”，“some”，“if”，“false”，etc.Theterm“logicaloperation”reflectsthefactthatthesemeaningelementsareoftenthoughtofasperformingoperations，controllingelementsofthesemanticsystem，sotospeak.　　1.77.Whyiswritingimportant？Whyisspeechconsideredpriortowriting？　　（1）Languagecantaketheformofspeechorwriting，theformerusingsoundasmediumandthelatteremployingvisualsymbols.Noonecouldtellwhenmankindfirstspoke;norcouldpeopletellwhenmankinddevelopedthefirstwriting.Awritingsystemconsistsofagraphemespluscharacteristicfeaturesoftheiruse，resultinginthediversionofthewritingforms；wordwriting，syllabicwritingandsoundwriting.　　（2）Itiswidelyconsideredthatspeechistheprimarymedium，andwritingthesecondarymedium.Butthiscomparativediminutiondoesnotmeanthat78\nwritingisunimportant.Withtheshot-livedmemoryandthefinitecapacityofinformationstoring，writingisused，partlyforcompensationandpartlyforbettercommunication.Wecannottrustthenegotiationcounterpartsoweturntothewritingandsigningofanagreement.Writingleadspeopletotheacmeofscience，studyandresearch，andtotheultimatejoyofliterature　　1.78.Whatisapictogram？Whatisanideogram？　　（1）A“pictogram”referstoaninscriptionrepresentingthefeaturesofaphysicalobject.TheHebrewandtheChineseorthographystillreflectstracesoftheirpictorialorigin.Forinstance，theletter“a”（aleph）imitatestheheadofanoxandtheletter“b”（beth）imitatesahorse.And“niú”，“mǎ”，“hǔ”andhundredsmoreofChinesewordsderivedfrom，andstillkeepthepictorialresemblanceto，theshapesofthethingsorobjects.　　（2）Theadvantageofpictogramsisthattheycanbeeasilyunderstoodbyanyone.Thatexplainswhyinternationalroadsignsandpublic-toiletsignsmakeawideuseofthem.　　（3）An“ideogram”meansanideapictureorideawriting.Inordertoexpresstheattributeofanobjectorconceptsassociatedwithit，thepictogram'smeaninghadtobeextended.Forinstance，apictureofthesundoesnotnecessarilyrepresenttheobjectitself，butconnotes“warmth”，“heat”，“light”，“daytime”，etc.Inspiteofitsdisadvantages，thelaterformofideogramsturnedouttobelinguisticsymbols，symbolsforthesoundsoftheseobjects.Theprocessiscalledthe“RebusPrinciple”indicatingthatwritingislikeariddlecomposedofwordsorsyllablesdepictedbysymbolsorpicturesthatsuggestthesoundofthewordsorsyllablestheyrepresent.　　1.79.Whatiswordwriting？Whatissoundwriting？Whatissyllabicwriting？　　（1）Wordwritingreferstothewritingsystembasedonideogramsand/orpictograms，likeChinese（see1.78）。“Soundwriting”or“alphabeticwriting”，whichdominatestheworld，derivedformtheLatinalphabetwithmildadjustments.MostoftheEuropeanalphabetsbelongtothesoundwritingsystem，e.g.，Spanish，German，French，English，etc.　　（2）“Syllabicwriting”isaword-syllabuswriting，developedbytheEgyptians.Japaneseisatypicalsyllabic-writinglanguage，thoughderivedfromChinese，aSino-Tibetanlanguage.TheJapanesemodifiedtheChinesecharacterstheyhadborrowedfromancientChinasothattheJapanesesyllables（tothenumberoffifty）wereeachrepresented，eitherbywhatiscalled“hiragana”orbywhatisname“katakana”。　　1.80.Whatisanalphabet？Whatisasyllabary？　　An“alphabet”referstothelettersorsignsrepresentingspeechsoundsusedinwritingalanguage，arrangedinaconventionalorder.A“syllabary”referstoasetortableorsystemofwrittencharactersrepresentingsyllablesratherthanindividualsounds.自考“英语语言学”资料（9）1.81.Whatisagrapheme？Whatisorthography？　　（1）A“grapheme”istheminimalconstructiveunitinthewritingsystemofa78\nlanguage.TheEnglishgraphemeAisrepresentedbyA，α，aetc.　　（2）Orthographymeanscorrectspelling，spellingrulesorattemptstoimprovespelling.　　1.82.Whatisreference？　“Reference”，asfaraswritingisconcerned，meansthatinasoundwritingsystemthegraphemesandthephonemesareexpectedtobuildupandtokeepupco-reference.Forinstance，theReferenceoftheEnglishgraphemeBgenerallyis“b”andthatofthegraphemeXis“ks”.Theproblemwithreferenceisthatmorethanonephonemecanberepresentedbyonesingleletterorgrapheme.ThegraphemeO，forexample，canrepresentitsitsdifferentcorrespondingphonemesasin：so[]，money[]，together[]，sob[].　　Forreferenceusedinthesenseof“sense”or“meaning”，placereferbackto1.64.　　1.83.Whatisaffixation，conversionandcompounding？　　（1）“Affixation”isthemorphologicalprocesswherebygrammaticaloflexicalinformationisaddedtothebase（rootorstem）.Ithasbeentheoldestandthemostproductiveword-formationmethodintheEnglishlanguageandsomeotherEuropeanlanguages.“Prefixation”meansadditionofaprefixtomakeanewword，while“suffixation”meansaddingasuffixtoaword.Theword“unfaithful”isresultofbothprefixationandsuffixation.　　（2）“Conversion”（calledsometimes“fullconversion”）isaword-formationprocessbywhichawordisalteredfromonepartofspeechintoanotherwithouttheaddition（ordeletion）ofanymorpheme.“Partialconversion”isalsoalterationwhenawordofoneword-classappearsinafunctionwhichischaracteristicofanotherword-class，e.g.，“thewealthy”（=wealthypeople）。　　（3）“Compounding”issocomplexaword-formationprocessasfarasEnglishisconcernedthatthereisnoformalcriterionthatcanbeusedforthedefinitionofit，thoughitmaymeansimplythattwowordsormorecometogetherusedasonelexicalitem，like“dustbin”。　　1.84.Whatisblending，abbreviationandbackformation？　　（1）“Blending”isarelativelycomplexformofcompoundinginwhichtworootsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstrootandthefinalpartofthesecondroot，orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetworoots，e.g.，smog→smoke+fog，boatel→boat+hotel，etc.　　（2）“Abbreviation”，alsocalledinsomecases“clipping”，meansthatawordthatseemsunnecessarilylongisshortened，usuallybyclippingeitherthefrontorthebackpartofit，e.g.，telephone→phone，professor→prof.，etc.　　Broadlyspeaking，abbreviationincludesacronymsthataremadeupfromthefirstlettersofthelongnameofanorganization，e.g.，WorldBank→WB，EuropeanEconomicCommunity→EEC，etc.Otherexamplesofacronymscanbefoundwithterminologies，tobereadlikeoneword，e.g.，radiodetectingandranging→radar[].TestofEnglishasaForeignLanguage→TOEFL[]，etc.　　（3）“Back-formation”referstoanabnormaltypeofword-formationwhere78\nashorterwordisderivedbydetectinganimaginedaffixfromalongerformalreadypresentinthelanguage.Itisaspecialkindofmetanalyais，combinedwithanalogicalcreation（see1.85），e.g.，editor→edit，enthusiasm→enthuse，etc.　　1.85.Whatisanalogicalcreation？Whatisborrowing？　　Theprocessof“analogicalcreation”，asoneoftheEnglishtendenciesinEnglishword-formation，referstothephenomenonthatanewwordoranewphraseiscoinedbyanalogybetweenanewlycreatedoneandanexistingone.Forexample，“marathon”appearedattheFirstOlympicGamesandbyanalogymodernEnglishcreatedsuchwordsas“telethon”，“talkthon”，etc.Analogymaycreatesinglewords（e.g.，sunrise-moonrise，earthrise，etc.；earthquake-starquake，youthquake，etc.）andphrases（e.g.，environmentalpollution-soundpollution，airpollution，culturalpollution，etc.）。　“Borrowing”meanstheEnglishlanguageborrowedwordsfromforeignlanguages，whichfallinfourcategories：aliens，denizens，translation-loansandsemanticborrowings.　“Aliens”areforeignloansthatstillkeeptheiralienshapes，i.e.，morphologicalandphonologicalfeatures，e.g.，“elite”，“coupdétat”，“coupé”，etc.（fromFrench）。“Deniens”，alsoforeignwords，havetransformedtheirforeignappearance，i.e.，theyhavebeenAngolcized（orAmericanized），e.g.，“get”（aScandinavianborrowing），“theater”（aFrenchloan），etc.“Hybrids”arealsodenizens，becausetheyarewordsmadeupoftwopartsbothfromforeignsoil，suchas“sociology”（“socio-”fromFrenchand–logyfromGreek）。　“Translation-loans”arewordsimportedbywayoftranslation，e.g.，“blackhumor”fromFrench（“humornoir”），“foundobject”formFrench，too（“objecttrouve”），etc.Finally，semanticborrowingshaveacquirednewmeaningundertheinfluenceoflanguageorlanguagesotherthanthesourcetongue.Forexample，“gift”mean“thepriceofawife”inOldEnglish（450-1150AD），andafterthesemanticborrowingofthemeaningof“giftorpresent”oftheScandinavianterm“gipt”，itmeantandstillmeans“gift”inthemodernsenseofit.　　1.86.Whatisassimilation，dissimilationandmetathesis？　　（1）“Assimilation”referstochangeofasoundastheresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound，whichiscalled“contact”or“contiguous”assimilation.Theassimitativeprocessesatwordinlanguagecouldbeexplainedbythe“theoryofleasteffort”，i.e.，inspeakingwetendtoexertaslittleeffortaspossiblesothatwedonotwanttovarytoooftenplacesofarticulationinutteringasequenceofsounds.Assimilationtakesplaceinquickspeechveryoften.Inexpressionssuchas“immobile”，“illegal”，etc.，thenegativeprefixesshouldbeorhavebeen“in-”etymologically.　　（2）“Dissimilation”，oppositeofassimilation，istheinfluenceexercisedbyonesoundsegmentuponthearticulationofanothersound，sothatthesoundsbecomelessalikethanexpected.Astherearetwo[r]soundsintheLatinword“peregrines”，forinstance，thefirstsegmenthadtodissimilateinto[l]，hencetheEnglishword“pilgrim”78\n　　（3）“Metathesis”isaprocessinvolvinganalterationinthesequenceofsounds.Metathesishadoriginallybeenaperformanceerror，whichwasoverlookedandacceptedbythespeechcommunity.Forinstance，theword“bird”was“bird”inOldEnglish.Theword“ask”usedtobepronounced[ask]inOldEnglish，asstilloccursinsomeEnglishdialects.78