语言学概论复习要点

语言学概论复习要点

复习要点Chapter1Introduction1.1Whatislinguistics?语言学的定义:2featuresLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.1)Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.2)Itisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,usingsomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.1.2Thescope/branchesoflinguistics语言学的研究范畴:7majorand3interdisciplinary1)Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics（普通语言学）.2)Thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics（语音学）.3)Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunicationiscalledphonology（音系学）.4)Thestudyofhowmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsiscalledmorphology（形态学）.5)Thestudyofhowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax（句法学）.6)Thestudyofmeaningconveyedbylanguageiscalledsemantics（语义学）.7)Thestudyofmeaningincontextoflanguageuseiscalledpragmatics（语用学）.8)Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsociolinguistics（社会语言学）.9)Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetopsychologyiscalled\npsycholinguistics（心理语言学）.1)Thestudyofapplicationsoflinguisticstudyisgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics（应用语言学）.Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.2)Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics（人类语言学）,neurologicallinguistics（神经语言学）,mathematicallinguistics（数字语言学）,andcomputationallinguistics（计算机语言学）.1.3Fiveimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念:prescriptivevs.descriptive,synchronicvs.diachronic,speechvs.writing,languevs.parole,competencevs.performance1)Prescriptivevs.descriptive规定与描写lIfalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.lModernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot. 2)Synchronicvs.diachronic共时和历时Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.3)Speechvs.writing口头语与书面语Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modern\nlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasnaturalorprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:①.Linguisticevolution②.Everydaycommunication③.Personalacquisition1)Languevs.parole语言和言语lmadebytheSwisslinguistF.deSaussureintheearly20thcenturylLanguereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.lSaussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscoverlangue,i.e.theregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.2)Competencevs.performance语言能力和语言运用lproposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.lHedefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.lHebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscovertheidealspeaker’scompetence.llanguevs.competence,parolevs.performance6)Traditionalgrammarvs.modernlinguistics传统语言学和现代语言学lDefinition:modernlinguisticsmarkedbySaussure’sbookintheearly20thcentury;thegeneralapproachtraditionallyformedtothestudyoflanguagebeforethatiscalledtraditionalgrammarlDifference:①.descriptivevs.prescriptive②.spokenvs.written\n①.Latin-basedframework1.4Whatislanguage?语言的定义:3featuresLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.1.5Designfeaturesoflanguage语言的识别特征:5features:arbitrariness,productivity,duality,displacement,culturaltransmissionDesignfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.AmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures,fiveofwhichwillbediscussedhere.1)Arbitrariness语言的随意性lArbitrarinessmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.lItisnotentirelyarbitrary:onomatopoeicwords,compoundwords.2)Productivity语言的创造性lLanguageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.lProductivityisuniquetohumanlanguage.3)Duality/doublearticulation语言的二重性Thedualitynatureoflanguagemeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.4)Displacement语言的移位性lDisplacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.\nlLanguageisfreefrombarrierscausedbyseparationintimeandplace.1)Culturaltransmission语言的文化传递性lLanguageisculturallytransmitted,notgeneticallytransmitted.lWhilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewerebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagehavetobetaughtandlearned.lItispasseddownfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.Chapter2Phonology2.1Thephonicmediumoflanguage语言的声音媒介lSpeechandwritingarethetwomediausedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.lOfthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.Speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Forlinguists,thestudyofsoundsisofgreaterimportancethanthatofwriting.lLinguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds,butonlythosewhichareproducedbyhumansthroughtheirspeechorgans,andwhicharemeaningfulincommunication.lThelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationarethephonicmediumoflanguage(语言的声音媒介).Theindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds（语音）.2.2Whatisphonetics?语音学的定义Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage；Itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。Threebranchesofphonetics: \nlArticulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）:fromthespeaker’spointofview,howaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds,hasthelongesthistorylAuditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）:fromthehearer’spointofview,howthesoundsareperceivedbyhehearerlAcousticphonetics（声学语音学）:bylookingatthesoundwaves,thephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother,spectrograghs2.3 Organsofspeech发音器官1)Thepharyngealcavity咽腔:thethroatlfromlungsthroughwindpipetoglottis（声门）lglottisisthefirstpointwheresoundmodificationmightoccurlvibrationleadingtovoicing（浊音化）:voicedvs.voiceless2)Theoralcavity口腔:themouthlthegreatestsourceofmodificationlthetongueisthemostflexible3)Thenasalcavity鼻腔:thenoselclosingofthevelumleadingtonasalization（鼻音化）lAllthevowelsaremostconsonantsinEnglisharenotnasalized.2.4 Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds语音的书写形式lIPA:InternationalPhoneticAlphabet（国际音标）lbroadtranscription(宽式音标):thetranscriptionwithletter-symbols(字母符号)only,dictionariesandtextbookslnarrowtranscription(窄式音标):thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics(变音符号),usedbythephoneticians实例：(1)对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：\nLeaf中l在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[li:f]Feel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号[~]Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号[~]Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音，在窄式音标中加变音符号[︹](2)对pit/spit中p音的比较：pit中的p是送气音(aspirated)，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：[phit]spit中的p是不送气音(unaspirated)，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[spit]2.5 ClassificationofEnglishconsonants英语辅音的分类1)bymannerofarticulation按发音方式分:6typeslStop/plosive塞音或爆破音lFricative擦音lAffricate塞擦音lLiquid流音lNasal鼻音lGlide滑音2)byplaceofarticulation按发音部位分:7typeslBilabial双唇音lLabiodental唇齿音lDental齿音lAlveolar齿龈音lPalatal硬腭音lVelar软腭音lGlottal声门音2.6 ClassificationofEnglishvowels英语元音的分类1)bypositionofthetongue按舌头在口中的位置分：3typeslFrontvowel前元音lCentralvowel中元音lBackvowel后元音 2)bytheopennessofthemouth按口形的大小分：4types\nlClosevowel闭元音lSemi-closevowellOpenvowel开元音lSemi-openvowel半开元音 3)bytheshapeofthelips按唇形是否为圆分:2typeslUnroundedvowel不圆唇元音:allthefrontandcentralvowelslRoundedvowel圆唇元音4)bythelength按语音的长短分:2typeslLongvowel长元音lShortvowel短元音5)monophthongs单元音vs.diphthong双元音2.7Phonologyvs.phonetics音系学和语音学Sameness:botharestudiesofspeechsoundsDifference:1)subject:generalvs.particular2)focus:soundsthemselvesvs.combinationandmeaning实例：单词leap和peel中的[l]音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但音的不同对意义的表达并无关联。所以，如果从语音学角度来说，这是两个不同的语音，而从音系学角度来说，这是同一基本实体的两个变体。音系学家对不引起意义区别的语音间的细微区别并不关注，但语音学家却要对所有的语音进行描述，不论它们之间的差别对表达意义有没有关系。 2.8Phone,phoneme,andallophone音素、音位、音位变体lphone:phoneticunit,actual,thespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage,doesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning语音是语音学研究的单位，是一个个具体的声音，它并不一定能区分意义,e.g.[p],[ph],[l]lphoneme:phonologicalunit,abstract,aphonemeisnotasound;itisacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures,alwaysdistinguishesmeaning音位是音系\n学研究的单位，是抽象的概念，每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意义的作用，按照惯例，音位被置于两斜线之间，如/p//t/，而语音被置于方括号内，如[p][t]。lallophones:actual,thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境里的具体体现，同一个音位在不同的语音环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音,e.g.[p][ph]lPhonemesaretheminimalsegments,butnotminimalelements.2.9Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair音位对立、互补分布、最小对立对1)phonemiccontrast:twodistinctivephonemes,canoccurinthesameenvironments,distinguishmeaning音位对立是指不同音位之间的关系，它们可以出现在不同的语音组合的同一位置，产生意义差别，如rope和robe中的/p/和/b/2)complementarydistribution:twoallophonesofthesamephoneme,onlyoccurindifferentenvironments互补分布是指音位变体之间的关系，同一个音位的不同变体永远不会出现在同一语音组合的相同位置上，它们没有区别意义的作用，如top中的送气的[ph]和stop中不送气的[p]3)minimalpairs/sets:twoormoresoundcombinationslAbasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotheroneresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.Aneasywaytodothisistofindtheminimalpairs.确定一种语言的音位的一个基本途径是，看如果用一个语音代替另一个是否会产生不同的意义。如果产生了，那么这两个语音就代表不同的音位。为此，一个简单的办法就是找出最小对立对。lWhentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.最小对立对是指除了出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合，如[pen]和[ben]。2.10Threerulesinphonology三条音系规则\n1)  sequentialrules系列规则:governsthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage2) assimilationrules同化规则:assimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar3)deletionrules省略规则:tellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.2.11 Suprasegmentalfeatures超切分特征:stress,tone,intonation重音、声调和语调suprasegmentalfeatures:thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments出现在切分层面之上的音系特征叫做超切分特征，即音节、单词和句子等语言单位的音系特征1) stress重音:wordstressvs.sentencestress2)tone声调:onthewordlevel,Englishisnotatonelanguage3)intonation语调:onthesentencelevel,fourbasictypesofintonationinEnglishChapter3Morphology\n3.1Openclassandclosedclasswords开放词类和封闭词类1)openclasswords:contentwords,newwordscanberegularlyaddedto,e.g.n.v.adj.adv.2)closedclasswords:grammatical/functionalwords,newwordsarenotregularlyaddedto,e.g.conj.,prep.,art.,pron.3.2Whatismorphology?形态学的定义morphology: thestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandwordformation3.3Whatismorpheme?语素的定义ltheminimal/mostbasicelement/unitofmeaninglthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguagelthemeaningmorphemesconveymaybeoftwokinds:lexicalmeaningandgrammaticalmeaning语素表达的意义有两种：词汇意义和语法意义3.4Classificationofmorphemes语素的分类3.4.1freemorphemes自由语素:independentunitsofmeaning,canbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesorincombinationwithothermorphemes自由语素是独立的意义单位，能够独自自由使用，当然也可以和其它语素结合使用3.4.2boundmorphemes黏着语素:cannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword黏着语素是那些不能单独使用，而必须和其它语素－自由语素或黏着语素－结合在一起以形成一个单词的语素Boundmorphemesincludetwotypes:rootsandaffixes1）root词根:isoftenseenaspartofword,itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword词根被看作是词的一部分，它有清楚、明确的意思，但不能单独存在，它必须和另一个词根或词缀组合构成单词。2)affix词缀:prefixvs.suffix前缀和后缀,inflectionalvs.derivational屈折词缀和派生词缀3.5Derivationalandinflectionalmorphemes\n曲折词缀和派生词缀1)Derivationalmorphemes/affixes派生词缀/语素:createanewword,suchawayofword-formationiscalledderivation,notnecessarilychangethegrammaticalclass加在一个原有的单词上以构成一个新词，这是英语中的一个很常见的构成新词的方式，这样的方式叫派生法，用派生法构成的新词叫派生词，不一定改变词性2)Inflectionalmorphemes/affixes屈折词缀/语素:donotcreateanewword,donotchangethegrammaticalclass,manifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase不能构成新词，不能改变词性，表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如：数、时态、形容词和副词的级和格TheEnglishinflectionalaffixesinclude:l-(e)s,indicatingpluralityofnouns表示名词复数l-(e)s,indicatingthirdpersonsingular,presenttense表示现在时的第三人称单数l-(e)d,indicatingpasttenseforallthreepersons表示过去时l-ing,indicatingprogressiveaspect表示进行时l-er,indicatingcomparativedegreeofadj.andadverbs表示形容词和副词比较级l-est,indicatingsuperlativedegreeofadj.andadverbs表示形容词和副词最高级l-’s,indicatingthepossessivecaseofnouns表示名词的所有格3.6Morphologicalrules形态学规则(productive)morphologicalrules:therulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypesofstemtoformanewword形态学规则主要指英语中通过派生方式构成新词的构词规则，即将词缀加到词干上去构成新词的规则。学习者必须掌握这些规则，但又要注意不能过分概括这些规则，以免生造出不存在的单词。 3.7Compound合成词\nfeaturesofcompounds: 1)Orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasonewordwithorwithoutahypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords.在拼写上，复合词既可以写成一个词，中间加连字符或不加连字符，也可以分开写。如armchair,follow-up,thunderbird2)  Syntactically,thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement.在语法上，复合词的词性一般取决于复合词中第二个成分的词性。如icy-cold是形容词，head-strong也是形容词，greenhouse是名词。而例外的情况有：follow-up,crackdown,kickoff都是名词而不是副词，而toothpick,snowfall,facelift都是名词而不是动词。3)Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.在语音上，复合词的重音总是在第一个构成成分上，而次重音在第二个构成成分上。这一点可以帮助我们用来区分两种-ing的形式，一种是作为名词前修饰语的-ing形式，另一种是作为复合词的前一部分。如runningdog重音在running上，表示“走狗”这一-ing形式＋名词的复合词。如重音在dog上，则表示running用来修饰dog，意为“还在跑的狗”。4)Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningofitscomponents.在语意上，复合词的意义具有习语特性，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分的意义的总和。如hotdog,greenhouse等。Chapter4Syntax4.1WhatisSyntax?句法学的定义Syntax:studieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentences,andtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences 4.2Word-levelcategories词汇类型lThemostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories. \n1)majorlexicalcategories(N,V,A,P)vs.minorlexicalcategories(Det,Deg,Qual,Aux,Con)2)threecriteriatodetermineaword’scategory①.meaning:nounshumanbeingsandobjects,verbswithaction,sensationsandstates,adjectiveswiththepropertiesorattributesoftheentitiesdenotedbynouns,adverbswiththepropertiesandattributesoftheactions,sensationsandstates;aword’scategorycannotbetoldstraightforwardfromitsmeaning②.inflection:somewordsdonottakeinflections③.distribution:morereliablecriterion4.3Phrasalcategories词组类型lFourphrasalcategoriesarecommonlyrecognizedanddiscussed,namely,nounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),prepositionalphrase(PP),andadjectivephrase(AP).通常讨论的词组类型有四种，分别是：名词词组，动词词组，介词词组和形容词词组。lPhrasescontainoneormorewords:NPjustcontainsanoun,VPjustcontainsaverb,PPjustcontainsaprepositionandAPjustcontainsanadjective.词组由一个或更多的单词组成。一个名词词组只包含一个名词，一个动词词组只包含一个动词，一个介词词组只包含一个介词，一个形容词词组只包含一个形容词。lNPandVPareessentialcomponentsofasentence,comprisingthesubjectandpredicate.名词词组和动词词组是句子中最重要的词组，因为它们构成了句子的主语和谓语。l(specifier标志语+)head中心语(+complement补足语)4.4Phrasalstructurerules短语结构规则Phrasestructurerule:grammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphrase1)XPrule:XP→(specifier)X(complement),X=N/V/A/P,P=phrase2)X—Theory:X—istheintermediatelevelbetweenthewordlevelandthe\nphraselevel3)Coordinationrule:X→X*ConX,X=acategoryatanystructurallevel4.5Phrasalelements短语成分1)Specifier指示语:havebothsemanticandsyntacticroles,syntacticcategoryofthespecifierdiffersdependingonhecategoryofthehead2)Complement补足语:arethemselvesphrases,provideinformationaboutentitiesandlocations,subcategorization次范畴化lXP→(specifier)X(complement*)lMatrixclause主句,complementphrase补语短语=complementizer补语化成分+complementclause补语从句3)Modifier修饰语:specifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads,APforNs,PP/AdvPforVslXP→(specifier)(modifier)X(complement*)(modifier)4.6D-structureandS-structure 深层结构和表层结构Twolevelsofsyntacticstructure:D-structure:formedbytheXPrule+subcategorizationS-structure:formedbyD-structure+transformation位移Chapter5Semantics5.1Whatissemantics？什么是语义学？Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.\n语义学可定义为对语言意义的研究。5.2Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning语义研究的几种主要理论1)Thenamingtheory命名论ItwasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.命名论是最原始的语义理论，是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的。该理论把词看作是该词所指事物的名称或标记。2)Theconceptualistview意念论Theconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。3)Contextualism语境论Contextualismisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.语境论以这样的假设为基础：人们可以从显而易见的语境中推知或归纳出语义。语境有两种：情景语境和语言语境。语境论认为语言的意义离不开使用语言的语境，语义不是抽象的，它存在于语境之中，它来自语境，取决于语境。 4) Behaviorism行为主义论Behavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.”Thistheory,somewhatclosetocontextualism,islinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.语义的行为主义论和语义的语境论有相似之处，它也把语义放到语境中去研究，但它更注重人的心理活动，认为语言的意义存在于语言使用者在交际过程中对听到话语的反应。\n5.3Senseandreference意义和所指Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.它们是词汇意义的既相互联系又有所不同的两个方面。1) Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompliersareinterestedin.意义关心的是语言形式的内在意义。它是语言形式所有特征的总和，它是抽象且脱离语境的。它是词典编写者们所感兴趣的语义方面。简单地说，意义是词汇内在的，抽象的，游离于语境之外的意义。2) Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandnon-linguisticworldofexperience.所指是语言形式在现实世界中所指称的东西；涉及语言成分和非语言的经验世界的关系。简单地说，所指是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。5.4Majorsenserelations主要意义关系1）Synonymy同义关系Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.同义现象指的是语义的相同或相近。词义相近的词叫同义词。Accordingtothewaytheydiffer,synonymscanbedividedintothefollowinggroups: ①Dialectalsynonyms–synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects.方言同义词－用在不同地域方言中的同义词。BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglisharethetwomajorgeographicalvarietiesoftheEnglishlanguage.英国英语和美国英语是英语的两大地理变体。示例：英国英语                   美国英语autumn                      falllift                           elevator\nflat                           departmentwindscreen               windshieldtorch                          flashlight②Stylisticsynonyms–synonymsdifferinginstyle.文体同义词－在文体上有差异的同义词。Wordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.Inotherwords,somewordstendtobemoreformal,otherscasual,andstillothersneutralinstyle.有同样意义的词可能在文体上，或者在正式程度上有所不同。也就是说，有些往往比较正式，有些比较随意，有些在问题上则是中性的。示例：Oldman,daddy,dad,father,maleparentStart,begin,commenceKid,child,offspring③Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning情感意义或评价意义有所不同的同义词。Therearewordsthatbearthesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser,indicatingtheattitudeorbiasoftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout.有着相同的意义却表达了使用者的不同情感的词语，这些词暗示使用者对他所谈论的事情的态度或倾向。示例：Collaborator合作者/Accomplice同谋者，帮凶Like,love,admire,adore,worshipEconomical,frugal,thrifty,mean,miserly,stingy④Collocationalsynonyms–synonymsdifferingintheircollocation.搭配同义词－同义词在其搭配上各不相同，即能和这些不同的同义词相配的词各不相同。Somesynonymsdifferintheircollocation,i.e.,inthewordstheygotogetherwith.Thisisamatterofusage.示例：Accuse…of   charge…with   rebuke…for\n⑤Semanticallydifferentsynonyms–synonymsthatdifferslightlyinwhattheymean.语义上不同的同义词－同义词的意义非常接近，但却有细微差别。示例：Amaze暗示困惑和迷惑   astound暗示难以置信Escape意味逃离不愉快或者危险的事    flee意味匆匆离开2）Polysemy多义关系Thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecallpolysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.Thefactisthemorecommonlyusedawordis,themorelikelyithasacquiredmorethanonemeaning.同一个单词可能有一个以上的意义，这就是我们所说的一词多义，这样的词叫多义词。一个词越常用，它就越可能获得一个以上的意义。示例：Table一词最初只有一个意义，很可能指一块石板或木板，这叫做其原始意义。后来它逐渐获得了它现在所指称的其它意义。 3）Homonymy同音/同形异义关系Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordhavingdifferentmeaninghavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.同形异义是指意义不同的词有着相同的语言形式的现象，即不同的词发音上或拼写上，或者两个方面都相同。lWhentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones.两个单词在发音上相同时，叫同音异义词。lWhentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.两个单词在拼写上相同时，叫同形异义词。lWhentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms.两个单词在发音和拼写上都相同时，叫完全同形异义词。示例：同音异义词：rain/reign;night/knight;piece/peace同形异义词：bowv./bown.;tearv./tearn.;leadv./leadn.完全同形异义词：fastadj./fastv.;scalen./scalev.\n4）Hyponymy上下义关系Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneralmoreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuper-ordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuper-ordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother.上下义关系是指一个具有一般性、包容性的词与一个更为具体的词之间的意义关系。意义更具有一般性的词叫上义词，意义更为具体的词叫下义词。同一个上义词的多个下义词叫并列下义词。示例：上义词：flower下义词：rose（玫瑰花）,tulip（郁金香）,carnation（康乃馨）,lily（百合花）,morningglory（牵牛花）上义词：animal下义词：dog,cat,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fax,bear 5）Antonymy反义关系 Thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning,wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.反义关系用以指意义的相反。意义上相反的词叫反义词。①Gradableantonyms分级反义词Someantonymsaregradablebecausethereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair.Soitisamatterofdegree.一些反义词是级别上的对立，因为一对这样的反义词中间常有其它表示程度的词。意义相反实际上只是程度问题。示例：Old和young是反义词，但它们代表两个极端，中间还存在着代表年老和年轻的不同程度的其它语言形式，如middle-aged,mature,elderly.② Complementaryantonyms互补反义词Apairofcomplementaryantonymsischaracterizedbythefeaturethatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.\n互补反义词具有这样的特征，否定其中一个就意味着肯定另一个。也就是说，是一个非此即彼、非彼即此的问题。示例：Male/female  alive/dead③Relationalopposites关系反义词Pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelationalopposites.在意义上现实出逆向关系的一对词语叫关系反义词。示例：wife/husband father/son  teacher/pupil doctor/patient buy/sell above/below5.5Senserelationsbetweensentences句子间的意义关系1)XissynonymouswithY.  X和Y是同义关系示例：X:Heisabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevermarriedallhislife.如果X是真的，Y也是真的，如果X是假的，Y也是假的。2) XisinconsistentwithY.X和Y是前后矛盾关系示例：X:Johnismarried.Y:Johnisabachelor.如果X是真的，Y就是假的，如果X是假的，Y就是真的。3)XentailsY(YisanentailmentofX)X蕴涵Y(Y是X的蕴涵)示例：X:Johnmarriedablondheiress(女继承人).Y:Johnmarriedablond.蕴涵是一种包含关系。如果X蕴涵Y，X的意义就为Y所包含。4)XpresupposesY.(YisaprerequisiteofX)X预示Y(Y是X的先决条件)示例：X:John’sbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Johnhasabike.5)Xisacontradiction.X是个矛盾句示例：X:Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtobachelor.X句子本身自相矛盾，它永远是假的。 6)Xissemanticallyanomalous.句子X在语义上反常\n示例：X:Thetablehasbadintentions.X在语义上反常，它就是荒唐的。5.6Analysisofmeaning语义分析1)  Componentialanalysis–awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning语义成分分析法－一种词义分析法Theapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Plusandminussignsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemanticfeatureispresentorabsentinthemeaningofaword,andthesefeaturesymbolsareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters.一个单词的意义可以分析为被称作语义特征的意义成分。用加减号来表示某一语义特征在一个词义中是存在还是省缺，这些特征符号通常用大写字母来表示。 Oneadvantageofcomponentialanalysisisthatbyspecifyingthesemanticfeaturesofcertainwords,itwillbepossibletoshowhowthesewordsarerelatedinmeaning.成分分析的一个好处是，通过列出某些单词的语义特征，就可能显示这些单词在意义上有什么联系。示例：Man和woman这两个单词有＋HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE这些共同的特征，但在MALE这一特征上不同。Man和boy这两个单词有＋HUMAN,+ANIMATE,+MALE这些共同的特征，但在ADULT这一特征上不同。2)  Predicationanalysis–awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning述谓结构分析－一种句义分析法Linguistshaveproposeddifferentwaystoanalyzethemeaningofsentences.Theymightdifferintheirframeworkofanalysis,buttheysharetheaimtoabstractthemeaningofsentences.WhatwearegoingtointroducebrieflyisthepredicationanalysisproposedbythelinguistGLeech.语言学家们提出了不同的分析句子意义的方法。他们的分析基准体系可能有所不同，但他们的目标都是使句子意义抽象化。我们现在要介绍的是英国语言学家G里奇提出的述谓结构分析法。\nIngrammaticalanalysis,thesentenceistakentobethebasicunit,anditisanalyzedintosuchgrammaticalcomponentsassubject,predicate,andattribute.对句子进行语法分析时，句子被视为基本单位，它被分析谓诸如主谓语和定语这样的语法成分。Insemanticanalysisofasentence,thebasicunitiscalledpredication,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Thisappliestoallformsofsentence,includingstatements,imperativeandinterrogativeforms.对句子进行意义分析时，基本单位称为述谓，这是对句子意义的抽象化。这一方法适用于所有句式，包括陈述句、祈使句和疑问句。Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelement(s)inasentence.Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsnasentence.一个述谓由一个或数个论元和一个谓词组成。一个论元是一个述谓的一个逻辑参与者，与一个句子中的一个或数个名词性成分大体一致。一个谓词是关于论元的陈述，或者说明一个句子的论元间的逻辑关系。句子的语法形式不影响其语义述谓，下列所有句子具有同样的述谓：Tomsmokes.Tomissmoking.Tomhasbeensmoking.Tom,smoke!DoesTomsmoke?这是同一语义述谓TOM(SMOKE)在语法上的多种体现。Accordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,weclassifythepredicationsintotwo-placepredication(containingtwoarguments),one-placepredication(containingoneargument),andno-placepredication(containingnoargument).\n根据一个述谓中所包含的论元的数目，我们把述谓结构分为两位述谓结构（包含两个论元）、单位述谓结构（包含一个论元）和零位述谓结构（没有论元）示例：Thebuildingisnexttothelibrary.(Two-placepredication)Heissnoring.(One-placepredication)Itislate.(No-placepredication)Chapter6Pragmatics6.1  Whatispragmatics?什么是语用学？Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。Astheprocessofcommunicationisessentiallyaprocessofconveyingmeaninginacertaincontext,pragmaticscanalsoberegardedasakindofmeaningstudy.Itplacesthestudyofmeaninginthecontextinwhichlanguageisused.由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。6.2Pragmaticsandsemantics语用学和语义学Pragmaticsandsemanticsarebothlinguisticstudiesofmeaning,buttheyaredifferent.Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaning,thecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisrestrictedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。6.3Context语境Contextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.\n语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。Contextdeterminesthespeaker’suseoflanguage,andalsothehearer’sinterpretationofthespeaker’slanguage.语境决定了说话人的语言使用，以及听话人对对方所说语言的理解。6.4Sentencemeaningandutterancemeaning句子意义和话语意义Themeaningofasentenceisabstract,andde-contextualized,whileutterancemeaningisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。6.5Speechacttheory言语行为理论Speechacttheoryisanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.ItwasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherJohnAustininthelate50’softhe20thcentury.言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。Accordingtospeechacttheory,weareperformingactionswhenwearespeaking.根据言语行为理论，我们说话的同时是在实施某种行为。 Accordingtospeechacttheory,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,andperlocutionaryact.根据言语行为理论，说话者说话时可能同时实施三种行为：言内行为，言外行为和言后行为。1) Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntaxlexiconandphonology.言内行为是说出词、短语和分句的行为，它是通过句法、词汇和音位来表达字面意义的行为。2) Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itisthe\nactperformedinsayingsomething.言外行为是表达说话者的意图的行为，它是在说某些话时所实施的行为。3)Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtabouttheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.言后行为是通过某些话所实施的行为，或讲某些话所导致的行为，它是话语所产生的后果或所引起的变化，它是通过讲某些话所完成的行为。 Americanphilosopher-linguistJohnSearleclassifiedillocutionaryactsintofivegeneraltypes.Eachtypehasacommon,generalpurpose.美国的哲学语言学家约翰.舍尔把言外行为分为五类，每一类行为都有一个共同的、普遍的目的。这五大类是： 1)representatives:statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue阐述类：陈述或描述说话者认为是真实的情况示例：Ihaveneverseenthemanbefore./Theearthisglobe.2)directives:tryingtogetthehearertodosomething指令类：试图使听话者做某些事情示例：Openthewindow! /Wouldyouliketogotothepicnicwithus?3)commissives:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction承诺类：说话者自己承诺未来要有一些行为。示例：Ipromisetocome./Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.4)expressives:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate表达类：表达对某一现状的感情和态度。示例：I’msorryforthemessIhavemade./It’sreallykindofyoutohavethoughtofme.5) declarations:bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething宣告类：通过说话引起骤变。示例：Inowdeclarethemeetingopen./Ifireyou.lImportantremark:Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposeorthesameillocutionarypoint,buttheydifferintheir\nstrengthorforth.每一类中的行为都有同样的目的，但具有同样目的的言外行为可能具有不同程度的言外之力。6.6Principleofconversation会话原则AmericanphilosopherPaulGriceconcludedthatnaturallanguagehaditsownlogic.Hisideaisthatinmakingconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate.ThisgeneralprincipleiscalledtheCooperativePrinciple(CP).美国哲学家保罗.格赖斯提出的会话原则旨在解释会话意义。他提出自然语言有其独特的逻辑关系。他认为会话的最高原则是合作，称为合作原则。Tobemorespecific,therearefourmaximsunderthisgeneralprinciple:在最高原则，即合作原则下，人们在交际中要遵守如下四个准则：1) Themaximofquantity数量准则Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange).使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。2)Themaximofquality质量准则Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.不要说自己认为不真实的话。Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。3)Themaximofrelation关联准则Berelevant.说话要贴切，有关联。4)Themaximofmanner方式准则Avoidobscurityofexpression.避免晦涩的词语。Avoidambiguity.避免歧义。Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).说话要简要（避免累赘）。Beorderly.说话要有条理。ItisinterestingandimportanttonotethatwhileconversationparticipantsnearlyalwaysobservetheCP,theydonotalwaysobservethesemaxims\nstrictly.Forvariousreasonsthesemaximsareoftenviolated,or“flouted”.MostoftheseviolationsgiverisetowhatGricecalls“conversationalimplicature”.Inotherword,whenweviolateanyofthesemaxims,ourlanguagebecomesindirect.虽然会话参与者几乎总是遵守合作原则的，但并非严格遵守。由于种种原因，这些原则经常被违反，尔对合作原则的违反则导致产生格赖斯所说的“会话含意”。也就是说，对任何一种合作原则的违反，都会使语言变得间接。 示例1：DoyouknowwhereMr.Xlives?Somewhereinthesouthernsuburbsofthecity.违反数量准则示例2：Wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?I’mafraidI’mnotfeelingsowelltoday.违反质量准则示例3：Thehostessisanawfulbore.Don’tyouthink?Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,aren’tthey?违反关联准则示例4：Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.违反方式准则Chapter7LanguageChange7.1MajorperiodsinthehistoryofEnglish英语历史发展的主要阶段1) OldEnglish(450-1100)古英语阶段:OldEnglishdatesbacktothemid-fifthcenturywhenAnglo-SaxonsinvadedtheBritishIslesfromnorthernEurope.古英语源自欧洲大陆的盎格鲁撒克逊民族所操的语言。2)   MiddleEnglish(1100-1500)中古英语阶段:MiddleEnglishbeganwiththearrivaloftheNormanFrenchinvadersinEngland.MiddleEnglishhadbeen\ndeeplyinfluencedbyNormanFrenchinvocabularyandgrammar.中古英语深受诺曼底占领者所操的法语的影响。词汇和语法等均受其影响。3)   ModernEnglish(1500-今)现代英语阶段:ModernEnglishisseparatedwithMiddleEnglishwithEuropeanrenaissancemovement.现代英语是英语自身发展和欧洲文艺复兴运动渗透结合的产物，很多词汇是外来语。AsBritishinfluencereachedothercontinents,the“BritishEmpire”establishedEnglish-speakingcoloniesinmanypartsoftheworld.EnglishisnowthenativelanguageintheUnitedStates,Canada,AustraliaandNewZealand.英帝国的兴起及其移民化过程的成功使现代英语的使用遍布全球。以现代英语为母语的国家包括英国、美国、加拿大、澳大利亚和新西兰等。Languagechangeisessentiallyamatterofchangeinthegrammar.Werefertothechangeinthegrammarofalanguageaslinguisticchange.Linguisticchangeoccursinallcomponentsofthegrammar,includingchangesinthesound,morphological,syntactic,lexicalandsemanticsystems.语言变化实质上是语法变化。我们把一种语言的语法变化称为语言变化。语言变化包括语音系统、形态系统、句法系统、词汇系统和语义系统等部分的变化。7.2Soundchange语音变化示例：l古英语中/x/在现代英语中已不存在。如：古英语nicht(night)读做/nixt/，而现代英语读做/nait/ l古英语和中古英语中有/kn/，都发音，在现代英语中/k/不发音了。如：knight/knee在古英语中字母k是发音的，而在现代英语中不发音l古英语中有一类名词的复数形式不是在词尾加/s/音，而是加/i/这个音，现在没有了。如：goose的复数形式在古英语中的发音是/go:si/l现代英语中出现了位于词尾的元音音段的省略现象，称为词尾音脱落。如：name/love在古英语中发音为/na:ma:/和/lufu/，在中古英语中发音为/na:mə/和/luvə/，而在现代英语中的发音为/neim/和/lΛv/。词尾音脱落还影响了某些词的拼写。如：古英语单词helpe随着词尾音的消失，在中古英语和现代英语中拼写成了help\nl古英语中bridd/hros在现代英语中变成了bird/horse7.3Morphologicalandsyntacticchange形态和句法变化1）Changein“agreement”rule一致规则的变化2）Changeinnegationrule否定规则的变化3）Processofsimplification简化过程4）Lossofinflections屈折形式的消失7.3Vocabularychange词汇变化1)Addictionofnewwords词汇增加ThehistoryofEnglishlexicalexpansionisonethatischaracterizedwithheavyborrowingandwordformation.英语词汇增加的历史特点是大量地借用外来词和通过构词法构成新词。AlthoughEnglishhasborrowedmostheavilyfromFrench,otherlanguagesasLatinandGreekhavealsomadetheircontributions.虽然英语从法语中借来的词数目最多，其它语言，如拉丁语和希腊语也做出了贡献。Inadditiontoborrowing,newwordshavemadetheirentryintoEnglishviawordformationrulessuchascompounding,derivation,acronymformation,blending,abbreviation,clipping,back-formation,andcoinage.除了借用外，英语还通过复合法、派生法、词首字缩略法、混合法、缩写法、逆向构词法和创新词法等构词规则参数新词。2)Lossofwords词汇消失3)Changesinthemeaningofwords词义变化①.Wideningofmeaning②.Narrowingofmeaning③.Meaningshift7.4Somecurrenttrends7.5CausesoflanguagechangesChapter8Languageandsociety\n8.1Whatissocio-linguistics?什么是社会语言学？Sociolinguisticsisthesub-disciplineoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety/languageinsocialcontexts.社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究语言与社会的关系/社会环境中的语言。8.2Therelationbetweenlanguageandsociety语言与社会的关系1)Languageisnotonlyusedtocommunicatemeaning,butalsotoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.语言影响社会2)Socialbackgroundaffectsthewaypeopleuselanguage.社会影响语言3)Languagereflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironmentsofasociety.语言反映社会8.3Languagevariation语言变异1)  Speechcommunity言语社团Insociolinguisticstudies,speakersaretreatedasmembersofsocialgroups.Thesocialgroupisolatedforanygivenstudyiscalledspeechcommunity.社会语言学研究中，说话者被当作是社会群体的成员。分离出来用于任何特定研究的社会群体称作言语社区。lForgenerallinguistics:sharethesamelanguagelForsociolinguistics:havetheopportunitytointeract;sharenotonlyalanguagebutalsoattitudes2)Speechvariety言语变体lSpeechvarietyreferstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakerorgroupofspeakers.言语变体是指具有可辨别的特征，并且被一个或一群说话者所使用的一种语言形式。lAspeechvarietymaybelexical,phonological,morphological,syntactic,oracombinationoflinguisticfeatures.lTwobroadtypesofspeechvariety:dialect方言变体vs.register语域变体lThreemostimportanttypesofspeechvariety:regionaldialects,\nsociolectsorsocialdialects,andregisters 8.4Dialectalvarieties方言变体1)Regionaldialect地域方言Regionaldialectisalinguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion.Reasonsleadingtoregionaldialectinclude:①.Geographicalbarriers②.Loyaltytoone’snativelanguage③.Physicalandpsychologicalresistancetochange2)Sociolect社会变体Sociolectisthelinguisticvarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialclass.3)Genderdialect性别变体:phonologicalandlexical4)Agedialect年龄变体:lexical5)Idiolect个人语言Idiolectisapersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,genderandagevariation.个人语言是说话者的个人方言，它综合了地域、社会、性别和性别各方面变异的特征6)Ethnicdialect种族方言Ethnicdialectisasocialdialectmainlyspokenbyalessprivilegedpopulation.8.5Register语域变体RegisteristhetypeoflanguagewhichisappropriatetothetypeofsituationThreevariablesofthecontextofsituationthatdeterminetheregister:①.Field语场:subject-matter;whyandaboutwhat②.Tenor语旨:relationship;towhom③.Mode语式:means:how8.5Standarddialect/variety标准变体3features:①.Basedonthelocalspeechofthenation’spoliticalandcommercialcenter②.Superimposed,taughtandlearntinschools,notnaturallyacquiredby\nchildren①.Hassomespecialfunctions,esp.officialpurposes8.6PidginandCreole洋泾浜与克里奥语/混合语1)3featuresofpidgin:①.mixesorblendslanguages②.forrestrictedpurposes③.alimitedvocabularyandareducedgrammaticalstructure2)Creole:whenapidginbecomestheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andchildren’snativelanguage8.7Bilingualismanddiglossia双语现象与双语制1)Bilingualism双语现象:twolanguages,languageswitching2)Diglossia双语制:twovarieties(thehighvarietyvs.thelowvariety),eachwithadefiniterolelThehighvariety高层次变体,orH-variety,isusedformoreformalorseriousmatter,suchasspeechesmadeingovernment,themedia,school,orchurch.高层次变体具有文言文的特征，用于正式场合和书面语，多用于政府机关、大众传媒、教育部门、宗教团体等。lThelowvariety低层次变体,orL-variety,isusedincolloquialandotherinformalsituations,suchasconversationswithfamilyorfriends,orinstructionsgiventoservants,waiters,orworkmen.低层次变体用于口头交谈，常见于家庭成员或朋友之间的交谈，也被高身份者用以对低身份者发布指示等。Chapter9Languageandculture语言与文化9.1Whatisculture?什么是文化？1)Culture文化:lInabroadsense:thetotalwayoflifeofapeoplelInanarrowsense:localorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms\n2)twotypesofculture:Materialculture物质文化:concrete,substantialandobservableSpiritualculture精神文化:abstract,ambiguousandhidden3)3featuresofculture:①.Inclusive,influencingeveryaspectsofhumanlife,includingpeople’slinguisticbehavior②.Canbegrownandnurtured③.Changesslowlywiththedevelopmentofthesociety9.2Therelationshipbetweenlanguageandculture语言和文化之间的关系①.Languageexpressesandembodiesculturalreality,andthechangesinlanguageusesreflecttheculturalchanges.语言表达和体现文化，语言的变化反映出文化的变化。②.Languagemakespeopleformcommonwaysofviewingtheworld,andthusresultsindiscoursecommunity.语言促使人们形成相似的世界观，促使话语社区的产生。③.Languagemaintainsculture,especiallyinprintform.语言，尤其是书面语，使文化得以保存。④.Cultureisawidersystemthatcompletelyincludeslanguage.文化包含语言。9.3Sapir-WhorfHypothesis萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设SWH:theinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtlThestrongversion:determinelTheweakversion:influence9.4Linguisticevidenceofculturaldifferences文化区别的语言证据3typesofmeaning:denotativemeaning指示意义,connotativemeaning暗涵意义,andiconicmeaning图像意义9.5Thesignificanceofculturalteachingandlearning\n语言教学的重要性Acculturation同化过程:Whenlearningaforeign/secondlanguage,wenotonlylearnthelanguageitself,butalsothelanguage’sculturesothatweachievenotonlythelinguisticcompetence,butalsothecommunicativecompetence.9.6Culturaloverlapanddiffusion文化重叠与文化扩散9.7Intercultural/Cross-culturalcommunication跨文化交际