语言学名词解释

语言学名词解释

Chapter1:Introduction1.Linguistics:Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.8.langue:Langereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.9.parole:Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.10.competence:Theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.11.performance:Theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.12.language:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.13.designfeatures:Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.14.arbitrariness:Arbitrarinessreferstonologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningandsound.15.productivity:Userscanunderstandandproducesentencesthattheyhaveneverheardbefore.16.duality:Languageconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,withlowerleverofsound,whichismeaningless,andthehigherleverofmeaning.17.displacement:Languagecanbeusedtorefertothecontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationofthespeakernomatterhowfarawayfromthetopicofconversationintimeorspace.18.culturaltransmission:Languageisculturallytransmitted.Itistaughtandlearnedfromonegenerationtothenext,ratherthanbyinstinct.Chapter2:Phonology1.phonicmedium:Themeaningfulspeechsoundinhumancommunication.2.phonetics:Thestudyofphonicmediumoflanguageanditisconcernedwithallsoundsintheworld’slanguages.3.articulatoryphonetics:Itstudiessoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview,i.e.haspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.4.auditoryphonetics:Thestudiessoundsfromthehearer’spointthoefview,i.e.howsoundsareperceivedbythehearer.5.acousticphonetics:Itstudiesthewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves,thephysicalmeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.6.voicing:thewaythatsoundsareproducedwiththevibrationofthevocalcords.7.voiceless:thewaythatsoundsareproducedwithnovibrationofthevocalcords.8.broadtranscription:Theuseoflettersymbolsonlytoshowthesoundsorsoundssequencesinwrittenform.9.narrowtranscription:Theuseoflettersymbol,togetherwiththediacriticstoshowsoundsinwrittenform.10.diacritics:Thesymbolsusedtoshowdetailedarticulatoryfeaturesofsounds.11.IPA:shortforInternationalPhoneticAlphabets,asystemofsymbolsconsistsoflettersanddiacritics,usedtorepresentthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguage.12.aspiration:Alittlepuffofairthatsometimesfollowsaspeechsound.13.mannerofarticulation:Themannerinwhichobstructioniscreated.14.placeofarticulation:Theplacewhereobstructioniscreated.15.consonant:aspeechsoundinwhichtheairstreamisobstructedinonewayoranother.\n1.vowel:aspeechsoundinwhichtheairstreamfromthelungmeetswithnoobstruction.2.monophthong:theindividualvowel.3.diphthong:Thevowelwhichconsistsoftwoindividualvowels,andfunctionsasasingleone.4.phone:Thespeechsoundweusewhenspeakingalanguage.5.phoneme:Thesmallestunitofsoundinalanguagewhichcandistinguishtwosounds.6.allophone:anydifferentformsofthesamephonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.7.phonology:Thedescriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctiontodistinguishmeaning.8.phonemiccontrast:twosimilarsoundsoccurinthesameenvironmentanddistinguishmeaning.9.complementarydistribution:allophonesofthesamephonemeandtheydon’tdistinguishmeaningbutcomplementeachotherindistribution.10.minimalpair:twodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptonesoundandoccursinthesameposition.Thetwosoundsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.11.sequentialrules:Therulestogovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.12.assimilationrule:Theruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherbycopyingafeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.13.deletionrule:Therulethatasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.14.suprasegmentalfeatures:Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentssyllable,word,sentence.15.tone:Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.16.intonation:Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Chapter1:Morphology1.morphology:Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandrulesforwordformation.2.openclass:Agroupofwords,whichcontainsanunlimitednumberofitems,andnewwordscanbeaddedtoit.3.closedclass:Arelativelyfewwords,includingconjunctions,prepositionsandpronouns,andnewwordsarenotusuallyaddedtothem.4.morpheme:Thesmallestunitofmeaningofalanguage.Itcannotbedividedwithoutalteringordestroyingitsmeaning.5.affix:aletteroragroupofletter,whichisaddedtoaword,andwhichchangesthemeaningorfunctionoftheword,includingprefix,infixandsuffix.6.suffix:Theaffix,whichisaddedtotheendofaword,andwhichusuallychangesthepartofspeechofaword.7.prefix:Theaffix,whichisaddedtothebeginningofaword,andwhichusuallychangesthemeaningofawordtoitsopposite.8.boundmorpheme:Morphemethatcannotbeusedalone,anditmustbecombinedwitothers.E.g.-ment.9.freemorpheme:amorphemethatcanstandaloneasaword.10.derivationalmorpheme:Boundmorpheme,whichcanbeaddedtoastemtoformanewword.11.inflectionalmorpheme:Akindofmorpheme,whichareusedtomakegrammaticalcategories,suchasnumber,tenseandcase.\n1.morphologicalrules:Thewayswordsareformed.Theserulesdeterminehowmorphemescombinetoformwords.2.compoundwords:Acombinationoftwoormorewords,whichfunctionsasasinglewords3.inflection:themorphologicalprocesswhichadjustswordsbygrammaticalmodification,e.g.inTherainscame,rainisinflectedforpluralityandcameforpasttense.Chapter1:Syntax1.syntax:Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.2.category:Itreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.6.phrase:syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrase,thecategoryofwhichisdeterminedbythewordcategoryaroundwhichthephraseisbuilt.8.head:Thewordroundwhichphraseisformedistermedhead.9.specifier:Thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsaresaidtofunctionasspecifiers.10.complement:Thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsarecomplements.11.phrasestructurerule:Thespecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule.14.coordination:Somestructuresareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasandoror.Suchphenomenonisknownascoordination.15.subcategorization:Theinformationaboutaword’scomplementisincludedintheheadandtermedsuncategorization.16.complementizer:Wordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementaretermedcomplementizer.17.complementclause:Thesentenceintroducedbythecomplementizeriscalledacomplementclause.18.complementphrase:theelements,includingacomplementizerandacomplementclauseiscalledacomplementphrase.19.matrixclause:thecontrusctioninwhichthecomplementphraseisembeddediscalledmatrixclause.20.modifier:theelement,whichspecifiesoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheadsiscalledmodifier.21.transformation:aspecialtypeofrulethatcanmoveanelementfromonepositiontoanother22.inversion:theprocessoftransformationthatmovestheauxiliaryfromtheInflpositiontoapositiontotheleftofthesubject,iscalledinversion.23.Doinsertion:Intheprocessofformingyes-noquestionthatdoesnotcontainanovertInfl,interrogativedoisinsertedintoanemptyInflpositontomaketransformationwork.24.deepstructure:AlevelofabstractsyntacticrepresentationformedbytheXPrule.25.surfacestructure:Alevelofsyntacticrepresentationafterapplyingthenecessarysyntacticmovement,i.e.,transformation,tothedeepstructure.(05)26.universalgrammar:theinnatenessprinciplesandpropertiesthatpertaintothegrammarsofallhumanlanguages.Chapter5:Semantics1.semantics:Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.3.sense:Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform.Itisabstractandde-contexturalized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.4.reference:Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld.Itdealswith\ntherelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.3.synonymy:Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.4.dialectalsynonyms:synonymsthatareusedindifferentregionaldialects.5.stylisticsynonyms:synonymsthatdifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.6.collocationalsynonyms:Synonymsthatdifferintheircolllocation,i.e.,inthewordstheygotogetherwith.7.polysemy:Thesamewordhasmorethanonemeaning.8.homonymy:Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.9.homophones:Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones.10.homographs:Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.11.completehomonymy:Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms.12.hyponymy:Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.13.superordinate:Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinate.14.co-hyponyms:Hyponymsofthesamesuperordinateareco-hyponyms.15.antonymy:Thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning.20.relationalopposites:Pairsifwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelationalopposites.Forexample,husband---wife,father---son,buy---sell,let---rent,above---below.21.entailment:therelationshipbetweentwosentenceswherethetruthofoneisinferredfromthetruthoftheother.E.g.Cindykilledthedogentailsthedogisdead.22.presupposition:Whataspeakerorwriterassumesthatthereceiverofthemassagealreadyknows.e.g.SometeahasalreadybeentakenisapresuppositionofTakesomemoretea.Chapter6:Pragmatics1.pragmatics:Thestudyofhowspeakersusessentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.2.context:Thegeneralknowledgesharedbythespeakersandthehearers.3.sentencemeaning:Themeaningofaself-containedunitwithabstractandde-contextualizedfeatures.4.utterancemeaning:Themeaningthataspeakerconveysbyusingaparticularutteranceinaparticularcontext.5.utterance:expressionproducedinaparticularcontextwithaparticularintention.6.SpeechActTheory:ThetheoryproposedbyJohnAustinanddeepenedbySearle,whichbelievesthatweareperformingactionswhenwearespeaking.7.constatives:Constativesarestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable.8.performatives:Performativesaresentencesthatdon’tstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.9.locutionaryact:Theactofconveyingliteralmeaningbyvirtueofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.10.illocutionaryact:Theactofexpressingthespeakerntentionandp’ersfoirmedinsayingsomething.11.perlocutionaryact:Theactresultingfromsayingsomethingandtheconsequenceorthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.\n1.representatives:Statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.2.directives:Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.17.cooperativePrinciple:Theprinciplethattheparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperateinmakingconversation,otherwise,itwouldbeimpossibletocarryonthetalk.18.conversationalimplicature:Theuseofconversationalmaximstoimplymeaningduringconversation.Chapter6:LanguageChange8.acronyms:Acronymsarewordsderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords.9.protolanguage:Theoriginalformofalanguagefamily,whichhasceasedtoexist.10.Languagefamily:Agroupofhistoricallyrelatedlanguagesthathavedevelopedfromacommonancestrallanguage.Chapter7:LanguageAndSociety1.sociolinguistics:Thesubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinsocialcontexts.2.speechcommunity:Agroupofpeoplewhoformacommunityandshareatleastonespeechvarietyaswellassimilarlinguisticnorms.3.speechvarieties:Itreferstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.4.regionaldialect:Avarietyoflanguageusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion.5.sociolect:Avarietyoflanguageusedbypeople,whobelongtoaparticularsocialclass.6.registers:Thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituation.7.idiolect:Aperson’dsialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselements,regardingregional,social,genderandagevariations.8.linguisticreportoire:Thetotalityoflinguisticvarietiespossessedbyanindividualconstituteshislinguisticrepertoire.9.registertheory:AtheoryproposedbyAmericanlinguistHalliday,whobelievedthatthreesocialvariablesdeterminetheregister,namely,fieldofdiscourse,tenorofdiscourseandmodeofdiscourse.10.fieldofdiscourse:thepurposeandsubjectmatterofthecommunicativebehavior..11.tenorofdiscourse:Itreferstotheroleofrelationshipinthesituationinquestion:whotheparticipantsinthecommunicationgroupsareandinwhatrelationshiptheystandtoeachother.12.modeofdiscourse:Itreferstothemeansofcommunicationanditisconcernedwithhowcommunicationiscarriedout.13.standarddialect:Asuperposedvarietyoflanguageofacommunityornation,usuallybasedonthespeechandwritingofeducatednativespeakersofthelanguage.14.formality:Itreferstothedegreeofformalityindifferentoccasionsandreflectstherelationshipandconversations.AccordingtoMartinJoos,therearefivestagesofformality,namely,intimate,casual,consultative,formalandfrozen.15.Pidgin:Ablendingofseverallanguage,developingasacontactlanguageofpeople,whospeakdifferentlanguages,trytocommunicationwithoneanotheronaregularbasis.16.Creole:Apidginlanguagewhichhasbecomethenativelanguageofagroupofspeakersusedinthisdailylife.17.bilingualism:Theuseoftwodifferentlanguagessidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay,andlanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.(07C)18.diaglossia:Asociolinguisticsituationinwhichtwodifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunity,\neachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.19.LinguaFranca:Avarietyoflanguagethatservesasamediumofcommunicationamonggroupsofpeople,whospeakdifferentnativelanguagesordialects20.code-switching:themovementbackandforthbetweentwolanguagesordialectswithinthesamesentenceordiscourse.Chapter10LanguageAcquisition1.languageacquisition:Itreferstothechild’sacquisitionofhismothertongue,i.e.howthechildcomestounderstandandspeakthelanguageofhiscommunity.2.languageacquisitiondevice(LAD):Ahypotheticalinnatemechanismeverynormalhumanchildisbelievedtobebornwith,whichallowthemtoacquirelanguage.3.UniversalGrammar:Atheorywhichclaimstoaccountforthegrammaticalcompetenceofeveryadultnomatterwhatlanguageheorshespeaks.4.motherese:Aspecialspeechtochildrenusedbyadults,whichischaracterizedwithslowrateofspeed,highpitch,richintonation,shorterandsimplersentencestructuresetc.又叫childdirectedspeech，caretakertalk.5.CriticalPeriodHypothesis:Thehypothesisthatthetimespanbetweenearlychildhoodandpubertyisthecriticalperiodforlanguageacquisition,duringwhichchildrencanacquirelanguagewithoutformalinstructionsuccessfullyandeffortlessly.6.under-extension:Useawordwithlessthanitsusualrangeofdenotation.7.over-extension:Extensionofthemeaningofawordbeyonditsusualdomainofapplicationbyyoungchildren.8.telegraphicspeech:Children’searlymultiwordspeechthatcontainscontentwordsandlacksfunctionwordsandinflectionalmorphemes.9.contentword:Wordsreferringtothings,quality,stateoraction,whichhavelexicalmeaningusedalone.10.functionword:Wordswithlittlemeaningontheirownbutshowgrammaticalrelationshipsinandbetweensentences.11.taboo:Wordsknowntospeakersbutavoidedinsomecontextsofspeechforreasonsofreligion,politenessetc.12.atypicaldevelopment:Someacquisitionoflanguagemaybedelayedbutfollowthesamerulesoflanguagedevelopmentduetotraumaorinjury.Chapter11:SecondLanguageAcquisition1.secondlanguageacquisition:Itreferstothesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.2.targetlanguage:Thelanguagetobeacquiredbythesecondlanguagelearner.3.secondlanguage:Asecondlanguageisalanguagewhichisnotanativelanguageinacountrybutwhichiswidelyusedasamediumofcommunicationandwhichisusuallyusedalongsideanotherlanguageorlanguages.4.foreignlanguage:Aforeignlanguageisalanguagewhichistaughtasaschoolsubjectbutwhichisnotusedasamediumofinstructioninschoolsnorasalanguageofcommunicationwithinacountry.5.interlanguage:Atypeoflanguageproducedbysecondandforeignlanguagelearners,whoareintheprocessoflearningalanguage,andthistypeoflanguageusuallycontainswrongexpressions.6.fossilization:Insecondorforeignlanguagelearning,thereisaprocesswhichsometimesoccursin\nwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.14.overgeneralization:Theuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituations,inwhichtheyareunacceptable.15.cross-association:somewordsaresimilarinmeaningaswellasspellingandpronunciation.Thisinternalinterferenceiscalledcross-association.16.error:theproductionofincorrectformsinspeechorwritingbyanon-nativespeakerofasecondlanguage,duetohisincompleteknowledgeoftherulesofthattargetlanguage.17.mistake:mistakes,definedaseitherintentionallyorunintentionallydeviantformsandself-corrigible,suggestfailureinperformance.18.input:languagewhichalearnerhearsorreceivesandfromwhichheorshecanlearn.19.intake:theinputwhichisactuallyhelpfulforthelearner.20.InputHypothesis:AhypothesisproposedbyKrashen,whichstatesthatinsecondlanguagelearning,it’snecoerstshaerylefarnertounderstandinputlanguagewhichcontainslinguisticitemsthatareslightlybeyondthelearner’prsesentlinguisticcompetence.Eventuallytheabilitytoproducelanguageissaidtoemergenaturallywithoutbeingtaughtdirectly.21.acquisition:Acquisitionisaprocesssimilartothewaychildrenacquiretheirfirstlanguage.Itisasubconsciousprocesswithoutminutelearningofgrammaticalrules.Learnersarehardlyawareoftheirlearningbuttheyareusinglanguagetocommunicate.Itisalsocalledimplicitlearning,informallearningornaturallearning.23.comprehensibleinput:Inputlanguagewhichcontainslinguisticitemsthatareslightlybeyondthelearnersen’tlisngpureisticcompetence.24.languageaptitude:thenaturalabilitytolearnalanguage,notincludingintelligence,motivation,interest,etc.25.motivation:motivationisdefinedasthelearner’sattitudesandaffectivestateorlearningdrive.26.instrumentalmotivation:themotivationthatpeoplelearnaforeignlanguageforinstrumentalgoalssuchaspassingexams,orfurtheringacareeretc.27.integrativemotivation:thedrivethatpeoplelearnaforeignlanguagebecauseofthewishtoidentifywiththetargetculture.28.resultativemotivation:thedrivethatlearnerslearnasecondlanguageforexternalpurposes.29.intrinsicmotivation:thedrivethatlearnerslearnthesecondlanguageforenjoymentorpleasurefromlearning.Chapter12:LanguageAndBrain1.neurolinguistics:Itisthestudyofrelationshipbetweenbrainandlanguage.Itincludesresearchintohowthestructureofthebraininfluenceslanguagelearning,howandinwhichpartsofthebrainlanguageisstored,andhowdamagetothebrainaffectstheabilitytouselanguage.2.psycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguageprocessing.Itisconcernedwiththeprocessesoflanguageacqisition,comprehensionandproduction.7.aphasia:Itreferstoanumberofacquiredlanguagedisordersduetothecerebrallesionscausedbyatumor,anaccidentandsoon.\n13.spoonerism:aslipoftongueinwhichthepositionofsounds,syllables,orwordsisreversed,forexample,Let’shavechishandfipsinstendofLet’shavefishandch14.priming:theprocessthatbeforetheparticipantsmakeadecisionwhetherthestringoflettersisawordornot,theyarepresentedwithanactivatedword.15.frequencyeffect:Subjectstakelesstimetomakejudgementonfrequentlyusedwordsthantojudgelesscommonlyusedwords.Thisphenomenoniscalledfrequencyeffect.16.lexicaldecision:anexperimentthatletparticipantsjudgewhetherastringofletterisawordornotatacertaintime.18.primingeffect:Sincethementalrepresentationisactivatedthroughtheprime,whenthetargetispresented,responsetimeisshorterthatitotherwisewouldhavebeen.Thisiscalledtheprimingeffect.