语言学的课件

语言学的课件

morphologyInflectionalmorphologyLexical/derivationalmorphologyInflectionscompoundderivationnumber,tense,degreeandcaseWord-formationRelationsbetweenlexicalwords.Relationbetweenstemsandaffixes\nmorphemegrammaticalmeaning;lexicalmeaningfreemorphemesboundmorphemesrootsaffixesInflectionalaffixesderivationalaffixesprefixsuffixstemFreemorphemederivativeBoundroot\nExercisesJustasaphonemeisthebasicunitinthestudyofphonology,soisamorphemethebasicunitinthestudyofmorphology.Thesmallestmeaningfulunitsthatcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesarefreemorphemes.Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem,whichcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.Prefixesusuallymodifythepartofspeechoftheoriginalword,notthemeaningofit.Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthesecondelement,whilethefirstelementreceivessecondarystress.TTTFF\nExercisesTheaffix“-ish”inthewordboyishconveysag__________meaning.B____morphemesarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.D_______affixesareaddedtoaformtocreatewords.Therulesgoverningwhichaffixareaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformnewwordsarem___________rules.Intermsofmorphemicanalysis,c___________canbeviewedasthecombinationoftwoormorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.rammaticalounderivativeorphologicalompounding\nExercisesThemorpheme“vision”inthecommonword“television”isa(n)___.A.boundmorphemeB.boundformC.inflectionalmorphemeD.freemorphemeThepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechof___.A.thefirstelementB.thesecondelementC.eitherthefirstorthesecondelementD.boththefirstandthesecondelement____isabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.A.PhoneticsB.PhonemeC.MorphologyD.MorphemeDBC\nExercises____modifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.A.PrefixesB.SuffixesC.RootsD.Affixes____areoftenthoughttobethesmallestmeaningfulunitsoflanguagebythelinguists.A.WordsB.MorphemesC.PhonemesD.Sentences“-s”intheword“books”is____.A.aderivativeaffixB.astemC.aninflectionalaffixD.arootTheword“internationalists”contains___morphemes.A.4B.5C.6D.7ABCB\nsyntaxAsubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.Itisamajorcomponentofgrammar.Grammaticalsentencesareformedfollowingasetofsyntacticrules.\nMainpointSyntaxasasystemofrulesSentencestructureandcategoriesGrammaticalrelationswithinsentencesPhrasestructurerule,theX-bartheoryandmovementrulesPrinciples-and-parametersparadigminUG\nWhatisasentence？L.Bloomfielddefinessentenceasanindependentlinguisticformnotincludedbysomegrammaticalmarksinanyotherlinguisticform,i.e.,itisnotsubordinatedtoalargerlinguisticform,itisstructurallyindependent.It’salsocalledamaximumfreeform.Syntaxasasystemofrules\nSentencesarerule-governed.we,laughed,alla.welaughedall.b.Wealllaughed.c.Laughedweall.d.Laughedallwe.e.Allwelaughed.f.Alllaughedwe.Howisasentencestructured?\nSyntaxconsistsofasetofabstractrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordstoformgrammaticalS.Syntacticrulescomprisethesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeakerknownaslinguisticcompetence.Syntacticrulesarecapableofyieldinganendlessofnumberofsentencesinanaturallanguage.\nAsentence=subject(主语)+predicate(谓语)Thebasiccomponentsofasentence1.Jacklikeslinguistics.\nsentencenounpredicateNPVsomeentity,suchasaperson,aplace,athing,anidea,oraneventsubjectpronounphrasegerundInfinitive-verbclauseFV/VPwhichsayssthaboutthesubjectVCVAVOVOCVOAVOOthemainverbwhichexpressesexistence,actionoroccurrencelimitedbyperson,number,tenseandmood.\nTypesofsentencessimplesentencecomplexsentenceCoordinate/compoundsentence\nAsimplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausethatcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.e.g.2.Johnreadsextensively.Aclausethat(a)takesasubjectandafiniteverb,and(b)atthesametimestandsstructurallyaloneisknownasafiniteclause(限定分句).Normally,afiniteclauseiscalledasentencewhileaclausethatiscombinedwithotherclausesiscalledaclause(从句/小句).Note:Thecentralelementinasentence/clauseisthefiniteverb.\nAcoordinatesentence(并列句)containstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,like“and,but,or”.e.g3.Johnisreadingalinguisticbook,andMaryispreparingforherhistoryexam.Thetwoclausesarestructurallyequalpartsofthesentence;neitherissubordinatetotheother.Inotherwords,eachclauseisseparablefromtheotherandstandasastructurallyindependentS.\nSJohnisreadingalinguisticbookMaryispreparingforherhistoryexamclause1conjunctionclause2SSand\nAcomplexsentencecontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.i.e,thetwoclausesinacomplexsentencehaveunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.Theincorporated,orsubordinate,clauseisnormallycalledanembeddedclause(子句),andtheclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixsentence(主句).4.MarytoldJane[thatJohnlikedlinguistics].5.Marysaw[Johnreadingalinguisticsbook].6.[ForJohntolikelinguistics]quitepuzzledMary.7.Marydidn’tlikelinguistics[untilhegaveheralecture].8.Marylostthebook[thatheboughther].\nThecharacteristicsofcomplexsentences:I.anembeddedclausefunctionsasagrammaticalunitinitsmatrixclause.Therefore,therelationshipbetweentheembeddedclauseanditsmatrixclauseisoneofaparttothewhole.II.mostembeddedclausesrequireanintroductorywordcalledasubordinator,suchas“that”,”until”.III.anembeddedclausemaynotfunctionasagrammaticallywell-formedsentenceifitstandsindependentlyasasimplesentenceunlessitsformchanges.\nThestructureofsentencesLanguageisahighlystructuredsystemofcommunication.Sentencesarenotformedbyrandomlycombininglexicalitems,butbyfollowingasetofsyntacticrulesthatarrangelinguisticelementsinaparticularordertomakeastringofwordsnotonlymeaningfulbutalsolinearly-andhierarchically-structured(线形结构和层次结构).\nThelinearwordorderofasentenceWhenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinasequence.Meanwhile,theyareheardorreadasarrangedoneafteranotherinasequence.Thissequentialorderofwordssuggeststhatthestructureofasentenceislinear(线性).Thestudentslikethelinguisticsteacher.\nThehierarchicalstructureofasentencethesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituents(成分)andshowsthesyntacticcategoriesofeachstructuralconstituent,suchasNPandVP.A:Thestudents/likethe/linguisticsteacher.B:The/studentslike/the/linguisticsteacher.C:Thestudentslikethe/linguistics/teacher.D:Thestudents//like/thelinguisticsteacher.\nTreediagramsofsentencestructureThehierarchicalordercanbebestillustratedwithatreediagramofconstitutestructure,socalledbecauseadiagramlookslikeaninvertedtree.\nSThestudentslikethelinguisticsteacherNPVVPNP\n9.You,heandIpassedthemid-termexam.10.Theprofessorsaidthatwepassedtheexam.\nYou,heandIpassedthemid-termexam.You,heandIpassedthemid-termexamVPPVPNPS\nNPVSVPVPVpassedtheexam(that)wesaidTheprofessorNPNPS\nTheseriousfatherandsonlaughed.laughedandTheseriousfathertheserioussonNPVPNPNPNP\nTheseriousfatherandsonlaughed.laughedandTheseriousfatherthesonSVPNPNPNP\nVisitingprofessorscanbeinteresting.VisitingprofessorscanbeinterestingSNPVP\nVisitingprofessorscanbeinteresting.visitprofessorscanbeinterestingS’VPVP(Someone)NPS\nICanalysisisanewapproachofsentencestudythatcutsasentenceintotwo(ormore)segments.Thiskindofpuresegmentationissimplydividingasentenceintoitsconstituentelementswithoutevenknowingwhattheyreallyare.Whatremainofthefirstcutarecalled“immediateconstituents(直接成分)”andwhatareleftatthefinalcutarecalled“ultimateconstituents”.E.g，“Johnleftyesterday”canbethussegmented：“John|left||yesterday”.Wegettwoimmediateconstituentsforthefirstcut(|)andtheyare“John”and“leftyesterday”.Furthersplit（||）thissentencegeneratesthree“ultimateconstituents”:“John”,“left”and“yesterday”.\nInadditionaltotheuseofstructuraltreediagrams,LinguistsmayshowthehierarchicalstructureofSentencesbyusingbracketsandsubscriptslabels.[[Thestudents][[like][thelinguisticsteacher]]].SVNPVPNP[[Theprofessor][[said][thatwepassedtheexam.]]]SNPVPVS\nSyntacticcategories:(句法类型)Thetermcategoryinsomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.，noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbPhrase,etc.Morespecificallyitreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits：thecategoriesofthenoun,forexample,includenumber,gender,caseandaccountability;andoftheverb,e.g.,tense,aspect,ice,etc.\nNumber(数)isagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,etc.InEnglish,numberismainlyobservedinnouns,andthereareonlytwoforms:singularandplural.Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs.Gender(性)displayssuchcontrastsasmasculine,feminine,neuteroranimateandinanimate,etc.fortheanalysisofwordclasses.Whenworditemsrefertothesexofthereal-worldentities，wenaturalgender(theoppositeisgrammaticalgender).\nCase(格)identifiesthesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.InLatingrammar,casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword,andaregiventhetermsaccusative,nominative,dative,etc.InEnglish,thecasecategoryisrealizedinthreeways:byfollowingaprepositionandbywordorder.\nApartfromsentencesandclauses,asyntacticcategoryusuallyreferstoaword(calledalexicalcategory)oraphrase(calledaphrasalcategory)thatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,suchasthesubject.Wordsandphrasesareorganizedaccordingtothesyntacticcategoriestheybelongto.Syntacticcategories:(句法类型)syntacticcategoriesmayleadtothreeresults.\nConstitutesthatcanbesubstitutedforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticalitybelongtothesamesyntacticcategory.Thestudentlikedthelinguisticslecture.ThelinguisticslecturelikedThestudent.Likedthestudentthelinguisticslecture.\nlexicalcategoriesmajorlexicalcategoriesminorlexicalcategoriesverbnounadjectivedeterminerauxiliaryprepositionpronounconjunctioninterjectionadverb\nNPVPPPAPphrasalcategoriesthe(tall)studentwatchagameontheblackboardextremelyhard\nGrammaticalrelations(语法关系)Thestructuralandlogicalrelationsofconstituentsarecalledgrammaticalrelations.Itconcernsthewayeachnounphraseinthesentencerelatestotheverb.Inmanycases,grammaticalrelationsrefervirtuallyto“who”does“what”dowhom”.Weusuallyrefertothegrammaticalrelationsas“subjectof”and“directobjectof”.\nThesubjectprecedestheverbandthedirectobjectfollowstheverb,withtheformercalledthestructuralsubjectandthelatterthestructuralobject.Thestructuralsubjectisnotnecessarilythelogicalsubject(thedoerofanaction)andthestructuralobjectisnotnecessarilythelogicalobject(therecipientoftheaction).Themankilledthedog.Thedogwaskilledbytheman.Ileftthewalletinthepark.ItwasintheparkthatIleftthewallet.\n