语言学复习范围

语言学复习范围

..-I.Directions:Fillintheblankineachofthefollowingstatementswithoneword,thefirstletterofwhichisalreadygivenasaclue.NotethatyouaretofillinONEwordonly.1.Clear［1］anddark[ł]areallophonesofthesameonephoneme/1/.Theynevertakethesamepositioninsoundbinations,thustheyaresaidtobeinplementarydistribution.(P24)2.Morphemesarethesmallestmeaningfulunitsofmeaning,wordsarethesmallestfreeformfoundinlanguage.(P32)3.Consonantsoundscanbeeither voicelessorvoiced,whileallvowelsoundsarevoiced.(P16)4.Inmakingconversation,thegeneralprinciplethatallparticipantsareexpectedtoobserveiscalledtheCooperative principleproposedbyJ.Grice.(P86-87)5.  Languageexistsintimeandchangesthroughtime.Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy.Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.(P4)6. Anessentialdifferencebetweenconsonantsandvowelsiswhethertheairstreamingupfromthelungsmeetswithanyobstructionwhenasoundisproduced.(P18)7. XPmaycontainmorethanjustX.Forexample,theNP“theboywholikesthispuppy〞consistsofDet,NandS,withDetbeingthespecifier,NtheheadandStheplement.(P46)..word.zl-\n..-9.  Whilethemeaningofasentenceisabstractandde-contextualized,thatofanutteranceisconcreteandcontext-dependent.(P79)11.Psycholinguisticsrelatesthestudyoflanguagetopsychology.Itaimstoanswersuchquestionsashowthehumanmindworkswhenpeopleuselanguage…(P3)12.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy;itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.(P4)13.Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerlevel,thereisastructureofmeaninglesssounds,whichcanbebinedintoalargenumberofmeaningfulunitsatthehigherlevel.Thisdesignfeatureiscalleddualityordoublearticulation.(P9)14.Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingiscontainedinthreeimportantareas:thepharyngealcavity—thethroat,theoralcavity—themouth,andthenasalcavity—thenose.(P15)16.Suprasegmentalfeaturessuchasstress,toneandintonationcaninfluencetheinterpretationofmeaning,thatis,theycandistinguishmeaning.(P27)18.Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.(P69)19.Thethreebranchesofphoneticsarelabeledarticulatoryphonetics,auditoryphoneticsandacousticphoneticsrespectively.(P15)21. Syntax_isabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarebined..word.zl-\n..-toformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.(P42)22. Thenoun“tear〞andtheverb“tear〞arehomonymys.(P69)23.Speechacttheoryisanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Itaimstoanswerthequestion“Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?〞(P80)24.Themodernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive,notprescriptive,anditsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedata.(P3)25.Languereferstothelanguagesystemsharedbyamunityofspeakerwhileparolecontrastedwithlangueinthatitistheconcreteactofspeakinginactualsituationsbyanindividualspeaker.(P4-5)26.Insemantictriangle,therelationbetweenawordandathingitreferstoisnotdirect,anditismediatedbyconceptinthemind.(P63)27.Twowaystotranscribespeechsoundsarenowavailable:narrowtranscriptionandbroadtranscription.(P17)28.Inthecooperativeprinciple,Griceintroducedfourcategoriesofmaxims.Theyaremaximofquality,maximofquantity,maximofrelationandmaximofmanner.(P87)29.Pragmaticsisthestudyoflanguageinuse.(P77-78)30.Historicallinguistics,asabranchoflinguistics,ismainlyconcernedwithboththedescriptionandexplanationoflanguagechangesthatoccurredovertime.(P93)..word.zl-\n..-31.Grammaticalorfunctionalwordssuchasconjunctions,prepositions,articlesandpronounsareclosedclasswordswhilecontentwordssuchasnouns,verbsadjectivesandadverbsarecalledopenclasswords.(P32)32.Wordsmayshiftfromonepartofthespeechtoanotherwithouttheadditionofaffixes,whichisalsocalledconversion.(P100)33.Whileponentialanalysisisawaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning,predicationanalysisisawaytoanalyzesentencemeaning.(P72-73)II.Directions：Decidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsistrueorfalse.PutaTfortrueorFforfalseinthebracketsinfrontofeachstatement.　(T)1.Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenwordsandwhatthesewordsactuallyreferto.(T)2.Thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,andyetthereisnolimittothenumberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandprehend.(T)3.Twopeoplewhoarebornandbroughtupinthesametownandspeakthesameregionaldialectmayspeakdifferentlybecauseofanumberofsocialfactors.(T)4.Inmodernlinguisticstudies,thespokenformoflanguageisgivenmoreemphasisthanthewrittenformforanumberofreasons.(F)5.Thepoundword“reading-room〞istheplacewhereaperson..word.zl-\n..-canreadbooks.Thisindicatesthatthemeaningofapoundisthesumtotalofthemeaningsofitsponents.(T)6.OnlywhenamaximunderCooperativePrincipleisblatantlyviolatedandthehearerknowsthatitisbeingviolateddoconversationalimplicaturesarise.(T)7.InEnglish,longvowelsarealsotensevowelsbecausewhenwepronouncealongvowelsuchas/i:/,thelarynxisinastateoftension.(T)8.Animportantdifferencebetweentraditionalgrammariansandmodernlinguistsintheirstudyoflanguageisthattheformertendedtoover-emphasizethewrittenformoflanguageandencouragepeopletoimitatethe“bestauthors〞forlanguageusage.(F)9.Theopen-classwordsincludeprepositions.(T)10.Accordingtosemantictriangle,thereisnodirectlinkbetweenasymbolandreferent,i.e.betweenawordandathingitrefersto.(T)11.Therelationshipof“flower〞,“violet〞,“rose〞and“tulip〞ishyponymy.(F)12.Onlywordsofthesamepartsofspeechcanbebinedtoformpounds.(eg.sunrise)(T)13.Linguistsbelievethatwhateveroccursinthelanguagepeopleuseshouldbedescribedandanalyzedintheirinvestigation.(F)14.Theconclusionswereachaboutthephonologyofonelanguagecanbegeneralizedintothestudyofanotherlanguage.(F)15.Themeaning-distinctivefunctionofthetoneisespecially..word.zl-\n..-importantinEnglishbecauseEnglish,unlikeChinese,isatypicaltonelanguage.(F)16.Whenwethinkofaconcept,weactuallytrytoseetheimageofsomethinginourmind’seyeeverytimeweeacrossalinguisticsymbol.(F)17.Allutterancescanberestoredtopletesentences.Forexample,“Goodmorning！〞canberestoredto“Iwishyouagoodmorning.〞(T)18.Anychildwhoiscapableofacquiringsomeparticularhumanlanguageiscapableofacquiringanyhumanlanguagespontaneouslyandeffortlessly.(F)19.AccordingtoN.Chomsky,“petence〞istheactualrealizationofhisknowledgeinutterance.(F)20.TheEnglishspellingexactlyrepresentsitspronunciation.(F)21.Allthegrammaticallywell-formedsentencesaresemanticallywell-formed.(T)22.Pragmaticsstudiestheaspectofmeaningthatisnotaccountedforbysemantics.(F) 23.Anillocutionaryactistheconsequenceoforthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.(T)24.Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumanmunication.(T)25.Thewritingsystemofalanguageisalwaysalaterinventionusedtorecordspeech;thustherearestillmanylanguagesintoday’s..word.zl-\n..-worldthatcanonlybespoken,butnotwritten.(F)26.InclassifyingtheEnglishconsonantsandvowels,thesamecriteriacanbeapplied.(F)27.Parolereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechmunity.(T)28.Conversationalimplicatureisakindofimpliedmeaning,deducedonthebasisoftheconventionalmeaningofwordstogetherwiththecontext,undertheguidanceoftheCPanditsmaxims.(F)29.Pragmaticfailuremayoccurincross-culturalmunication,i.e.betweenspeakersofdifferentculturalbackgrounds,butnotoccurinintra-culturalmunicationi.e.betweenspeakersofthesameculturalbackground.(T)30.Senseandreferencearetwotermsoftenencounteredinthestudyofmeaning.III.Directions:Explainthefollowingterms,usingoneortwoexamplesforillustrationwhennecessary.1.diachroniclinguisticsLinguisticsthatstudieslanguageoveraperiodoftime,alsoknownashistoricallinguistics,e.g.thestudyoftheChineselanguagesincetheendoftheQingdynastyuptothepresent.2.synchroniclinguisticsLinguisticsthatstudieslanguageatoneparticularpointoftime,e.g.the..word.zl-\n..-studyofthekindofEnglishusedduringShakespeare’stime.3.LanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumanmunication.4.contextContextisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.5.blendingAprocessofforminganewwordbybiningpartsofotherwords.E.g.smog---smoke+fog.6.referenceReferenceiswhatalinguisticformreferstointherealworld;itisamatteroftherelationshipbetweentheformandthereality.7.broadtranscriptionBroadtranscriptionisthetranscriptionwithlettersymbolsonly.Itisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooks.8.aminimalpairApairofsoundbinationswhichareidenticalineverywayexceptonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesamepositioninthestrings,e.g./pit/and/bit/.9.homonymyHomonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.eg.night/..word.zl-\n..-knight;leadv./leadn.;fastadj./fastv.10.hyponymyItreferstomeaninginclusiveness, thatis,thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.e.g.Therelationshipof“flower〞,“violet〞,“rose〞and“tulip〞ishyponymy.11.culturaltransmission(asadefiningfeatureofhumanlanguage)Oneofthemajordefiningfeaturesofhumanlanguage.Humansarebornwiththeabilitytoacquirealanguage,butdifferentfromanimals,theactualuseofhumanlanguageisnotgeneticallytransmitted,ratheritisculturallytransmitted,i.e.ithastobetaughtandlearnt.12.allophonesAllophonesarethedifferentphonesthatrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.13.morphologyMorphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.14.dualityLanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerlevel,thereisastructureofmeaninglesssounds,whichcanbebinedintoalargenumberofmeaningfulunitsatthehigherlevel.Thisdesignfeatureiscalledduality.15.pragmatics..word.zl-\n..-Itreferstothestudyoflanguageinuse.16.boundmorphemeThemorphemesthatdonotoccuralone.17.arbitrarinessTheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.18.syntaxSyntaxstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.IV.Answerthefollowingquestions. 1.Whatarethefourmaximsunderthecooperativeprinciple?〔P86-87〕AccordingtoGrice,therearefourmaximsunderthecooperativeprinciple:A.Themaximofquantity1)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange).　　2)Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.　　B.Themaximofquality　　1)Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.　　2)Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.C.Themaximofrelation..word.zl-\n..-　Berelevant.　　D.Themaximofmanner1)Avoidobscurityofexpression.                             2)Avoidambiguity.3)Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).      4)Beorderly.2. Howaresentencemeaningandutterancemeaningrelated,andhowdotheydiffer?(P79)Ontheonehand,theyaredifferent.Themeaningofasentenceisabstractandde-contextualized,whilethemeaningofanutteranceisconcreteandcontext-dependent.Ontheotherhand,theyarerelated.Utterancemeaningisbasedonsentencemeaning,anditistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofmunication,orsimplyinacontext.3.HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweenpetenceandperformance?Whatdotheydiffer?(P4-5)1)Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechmunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Chomskydefinespetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactual..word.zl-\n..-realizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticmunication.2)BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.Theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudy.SimilartoSaussure,Chomskythinkswhatlinguistshouldstudyistheidealspeaker’spetence,andthetaskoflinguistsistodiscoverandspecifytherulesoflanguage.3)TwolinguistsdifferinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguage,whileChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofview.4.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenmodernlinguisticsandtraditionalgrammar?(P5-6)A.Linguisticsisdescriptive,notprescriptive.B.Linguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.C.LinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.5.WhatisthespeechacttheoryadvancedbyJohnAustin?(P80-81)Speechacttheoryisthefirstmajortheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage,whichwasoriginatedwithJohnAustinandaimstoanswerthequestion“Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage〞.First,hemadeadistinctionbetween“constatives〞〔述事话语〕and“performatives〞..word.zl-\n..-〔行事话语〕.Lateron,hesetupanothermodeltoexplainthewayactswereperformedbymeansoflanguage.Accordingtohisnewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:thatis,Thelocutionaryact〔言行为〕----anactofsayingsomething,i.e.anactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Theillocutionaryact〔言外行为〕----anactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Theperlocutionaryact〔言后行为〕----anactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething.6.Analyzetheillocutionaryactsofthefollowingseeminglyincoherentconversationbetweenacouple:----(thetelephonerings)----H:That’thephone.(1)----W:I’minthebathroom.(2)----H:Okay.(3)Thisseeminglyincoherentconversationgoesonsuccessfullybecausethespeakersunderstandeachother’sillocutionaryacts:(1)  Makingarequestofhiswifetogoandanswerthephone.(2)  Arefusaltoplywiththerequest;issuingarequestofherhusbandtoanswerthephoneinstead.(3)Acceptingthewife’srefusalandacceptingherrequest,..word.zl-\n..-meaning“allright,I’llanswerit.〞7.ChangeshastakenplaceintheEnglishlanguageduringthelast50years.PleaselistsomemajorrecenttrendsinnormalEnglishusage.(P103-104)(1)EnglishhasbeenmovingtowardsmuchgreaterinformalityofexpressionsincetheSecondWorldWar.(2)AmericanEnglishhasbeenexertinganever-increasingpowerandinfluenceonBritishEnglish.(3)Becauseoftheinfluenceofthedevelopmentofscienceandtechnology,moreandmorenewwordsandexpressionsarecoinedandused.8.Whatarethedesignfeaturesoflanguage?Whatdoeseachreferto?(P8-10)Themostimportantfiveare:Arbitrariness;Productivity;Duality;Displacement;Culturaltransmission.Eachreferstothefollowingrespectively:………………………(答案略，参见课本P8-10)9.Whatisaphone?Howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?(P23-24)Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearand..word.zl-\n..-produceduringlinguisticmunicationareallphones.Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample,thephoneme/l/inEnglishcanberealizedasdark[ɫ],clear[l],etc.whichareallophonesofthephoneme/l/...word.zl-