江苏高中英语-语法总结

江苏高中英语-语法总结

``牛津高中英语----模块一第一单元定语从句一、定语从句：定语从句的介绍1．就像是一个形容词或介词短语修饰名词一样，定语从句也可以修饰名词。定语从句所修饰的名词称为先行词。形容词：Thegreenteam介词短语：Theteamingreen定语从句：Theteamwhowerewearinggreen2．定语从句通常由关系代词来引导，如which,that,who,whom,whose，或关系副词来引导，如when,where,why。关系代词可以在定语从句中担当主语，宾语，表语，定语；关系副词可以在定语从句中担当状语。如：做主语Thetreeswhichareontheschoolcampushavelosttheirleaves.做宾语Thestudentwhomwesawjustnowisthebestrunnerinourschool.做表语Jackisnolongerthelazyboythatheusedtobe.做定语ShehasabrotherwhosenameIcan’tremember.做状语TheschoolwherehestudiedisinShenzhen.二、定语从句：关系代词：that，which，who，whom，和whose1．在定语从句中，that和which用来指代物。如：Thisisthestorythat/whichwewroteforourstorytellingcontest.2．在定语从句中，who用来指代人。如：IamgoingtoseeafriendwhohasjustcomebackfromtheUK.3．当who在定语从句中做宾语时，可以用whom来取代，且whom比who更正式。如：Idon’tknowthenameoftheteacherwho/whomIsawinthecomputerroomtheotherday.4．当关系代词在定语从句中做宾语时，who，whom，which和that可以被省略。如：Helikesallthebirthdaypresents(that/which)hisfriendsgavehim.5．Whose用来表示所属，它既可指人也可指物。如：IsatnexttoagirlwhosenamewasDiane.TheclubwhosemembersaremusicfansmeetintheschoolgardeneverySaturdayafternoon.第二单元定语从句一、定语从句：介词提前的定语从句（preposition＋which;preposition＋whom）当关系代词（which/whom）做定语从句中介词的宾语时，可以把介词提到关系代词的前面。如：Wethoughtyouwereapersonfromwhomwecouldexpectgooddecisions.在非正式英语中，介词通常放在定语从句的最后。如：ArtisthesubjectwhichIknowlittleabout.如果介词放在定语从句的最后，which可以被that取代，whom可以被that和who取代。如：Dadisapersonwhom/that/whoIcaneasilytalkto.当关系代词做定语从句中介词的宾语，并且介词又放在定语从句的末尾时，我们通常省``\n``略关系代词who和that。如：Thetopic(which)EricisinterestedinisPhysics.Danielistheperson(whom)Iwanttomakefriendswith.当先行词是way时，我们用inwhich或that来引导定语从句，这种情况下，inwhich或that可以被省略。如：Ididn’tliketheway(that/inwhich)shetalkedtome.二、定语从句：关系副词：when，where，why我们通常用关系副词when引导先行词是time，moment，day，season，year等的定语从句。如：Doyourememberthedaywhenweleftyouincharge?IoftenthinkofthemomentwhenIsawtheUFO.2．我们通常用关系副词where引导先行词是place，house，city，country，city，world等的定语从句。如：Thepolicesearchedthehousewherethethiefhadstayed.Thisisnotafamilywherebadbehaviorgoesunpunished.3．我们通常用关系副词why引导先行词是reason的定语从句。如：Idon’tknowthereasonwhythehouseissodirty.4．在更加正式的英语中，where，when和why能够被介词＋which所替代。如：Thestudyistheplacewhere/inwhichIoftenhavetalkswithmyfather.Thisisthereasonwhy/forwhichmyparentsgothomeearlier.Itrainedthewholedaywhen/onwhichhetraveledwithhisfamily.第三单元定语从句一、定语从句：非限制性定语从句1．非限制性定语从句是一个为主句添加额外信息的从句，在非限制性定语从句前通常有个逗号。如：Amy,whotookweight-losspills,nowrealizesthathealthisimportant.Mypillsareinthebathroom,whereIalwayskeepthem.2．当先行词是整个主句时，可以用which来引导定语从句。如：Hemissedtheshow,whichwasagreatpity.3．我们可以用all＋whom/which来表示全部数量，用someof＋whom/which来表示部分数量。如：Iamdoingdifferenttypesofexercises,allofwhicharequitehelpfultomyhealth.Manypeople,someofwhomarenotoverweight,aregoingondiet.二、附加疑问句1．附加疑问句是放在陈述句后面的短问句。它们通常被用在口语中来引出一段对话，以一个更加礼貌的方式来询问信息，温柔的发号施令或要求某人做某事。我们用附加疑问句来询问意见或征求同意。当我们用附加疑问句来询问意见时，为了期待对方能同意我们的观点，附加疑问句会用降调来表达。当我们用附加疑问句来征求同意时，我们实际上是在询问我们自己也不太能确信的事情，这时候附加疑问句会用升调来表达。2．附加疑问句的构成有以下几种：``\n``1）在肯定的陈述句之后，我们会用否定的附加疑问句。在否定的陈述句之后，我们会用肯定的附加疑问句。如：Wecanstillbefriends,can’twe?Hedoesn’tlikeicecream,doeshe?2）当主句中有像neither，none，nobody，nothing，few，little，never，hardly或seldom这类词时，它们被认为是否定的，因此后面会跟个肯定的附加疑问句。如：Neitherofyouwillhavecoffee,willyou?NoonehasfoundmyCD,havethey?Nobodyunderstoodhisspeech,didthey?Hissisterseldomargueswithpeople,doesshe?3）人称代词如I，we，you，he，she，it或they会放在附加疑问句中。如：Iwasprettysilly,wasn’tI?Everyonehasadvisesyounottogoonadiet,haven’tyou?4）助动词，情态动词或be动词会放在附加疑问句中。如：Youliketraveling,don’tyou?Thereissomethingwrong,isn’tthere?Youcan’tspeakItalian,canyou?5）祁使句后用willyou，Let’s后用shallwe如：Postaletterforme,willyou?Let’shaveabreak,shallwe?``\n``牛津高中英语----模块二第一单元现在完成时态一、现在完成时态1．我们用现在完成时态来表示在最近的过去发生的但跟现在有联系的事情。如：ThedisappearanceofJustinhasmadeKellyveryunhappy.2．我们也用现在完成时态来表示在过去刚开始，并且现在还没结束的事情。如：IhavenotseenJustinsincelastFridaynight.3．当动作发生的确切时间不清楚或不重要时，我们也用现在完成时态。经常连用的时间短语有：alreadyeverforjustlatelyneverrecentlysinceyetalready用语肯定句，yet用语否定句。如：Theboyhasalreadycomehome.Ihaven’theardanythingfromhimyet.for+一段时间since+点时间如：Wehaven’tseenhimfortwoyears.Wehaven’tseenhimsince2002.注：当已给定具体的时间时，我们往往用一般过去时态，而不是现在完成时态。4．我们用现在完成时态来谈论刚刚完成的动作。如：Thepolicehavejustfinishedsearchingthearea.5．我们也用现在完成时态来表示重复的动作。如：SomevillagessaythattheyhaveseenUFOsmanytimes.6．现在完成时态的构成是：have/has+动词的过去分词二、现在完成进行时态1．我们用现在完成进行时态来表示在过去发生的并且仍将继续的动作。如：IhavenotbeensleepingwellsinceIreturnedhome.2．我们用现在完成进行时态来表示刚刚结束但以某种方式和现在有联系的动作。如：---SorryI’mlate.Haveyoubeenwaitinglong?---Yes,I’vebeenwaitingforanhour.3．现在完成进行时态的构成：have/has+been+doing注：for和since和现在完成进行时态连用。如：Ihavebeenwaitingforalongtime.Hehasbeenwaitingsincenineo’clock.三、现在完成时态还是现在完成进行时态1．我们用现在完成时态来谈论刚刚完成的动作，用现在完成进行时态来表示发生在过去并且现在仍在发生的动作。如：LiJiahasreadabookaboutStonehenge.(Shefinishedreadingthebook.)LiJiahasbeenreadingabookaboutStonehenge.(Sheisstillreadingthebook.)2．我们用现在完成时态表示重复的动作，用现在完成进行时态来表示不停的动作。如：IhavevisitedEgypttwicethismonth.IhavebeentouringEgyptfortwomonths.现在完成时态用于回答howmany/much的提问，现在完成进行时态用语回答howlong的提问。如：Howmanytimeshaveyouswuminthelake?Howlonghaveyoubeenswimminginthelake?3．状态动词和动作动词都可以用在现在完成时态中，但只有动作动词可以用在现在完成进行时态中。如：Ihavehadthiscameraforfiveyears.(状态动词)IhavetakenphotosofUFOwiththiscamera.（动作动词）``\n``IhavebeentakingphotosofUFOwiththiscamera.（动作动词）注：动作动词表示发生或变化的动作，如go，play。状态动词表示保持不变的动作，如like，know，exist4．当never，yet，already，ever出现在句子中时，只用现在完成时态，而不用现在完成进行时态。如：I’venevervisitedParis.I’vealreadybeentoParis.第二单元将来进行时态一、将来进行时态1．我们用将来进行时态来：1）谈论将来一段时间正在进行的事情。如：TobywillbeclimbingintheHimalayasallnextweek2）谈论从将来的某一点开始并且有可能要持续一段时间的事情。如：TobywillnotbeinLondonnextTuesday.HewillbeclimbingintheHimalayas.3）没有任何意图的表达将来的事情。如：TheweatherreportsaysthatitwillberainingwhenwearriveinLondon.在这种情况下表示事情是很自然的发生的，没有人为的安排。4）礼貌地询问有关其他人将来的计划。如：WillyoubevisitingyouruncleinTanzania?2．将来进行时态的构成：1）陈述句：will(not)+v-ing如：Tobyandhisbrother,Colin,will(not)beflyingtoMorocco.2）疑问句：will提到主语的前面如：WilltheybeflyingtoMoroccoon15thJuly?3）回答：will（not）如：Yes,theywill./No,theywillnot(won’t)二、过去将来时态1．我们用过去将来时态和过去进行时态来：1）表示过去的将来某一时间要发生的动作。如：Theysetoffat9a.m.andwouldreachtheairportanhourlater.2)暗指一个过去的目的。如：Iwasgoingtoleave,butthenitrained.3)暗指一个过去的安排。如：ColincalledJennifertosaythathewasseeingherlaterthatafternoon.4)指代实际已经发生过的将来的动作。如：ThejourneythatwastochangeToby’slifestartedinJulythatyear.2．陈述句中过去将来时态的构成：1）would+动词原形如：ItoldyouColinandIwouldspendafewweekstraveling.2)was/weregoingto，was/wereto,was/wereaboutto如：Weweregoingtoseethewildanimals,butthenwedidn’thavetime.Itwashislastdayatschool---hewastoleavethenextmorning.``\n``Colinwasabouttogetoffthecamelwhenachildrantowardshim.第三单元过去完成时态一、过去完成时态1．我们用一般过去时态来谈论一个过去的动作。当我们想要谈论比过去更早的时间里发生的事情时，就用过去完成时态。如：Uponenteringthetomb,Carter’sluckypetbird,whichhadledhimtotheplace,waseatenbyasnake.2．在直接引语中，我们用过去完成时态来指代说话的时候就已经发生的动作。直接引语中的一般过去时态和现在完成时态在间接引语中改为过去完成时态。如：“Weemptiedthetombofeverythingitcontained,”saidCarter.-------Cartersaidthattheyhademptiedthetombofeverythingitcontained.3．过去完成时态只是指在另一个过去的动作之前发生的动作，并不是指发生在一长段时间以前的动作。如：IhaddonemyhomeworkthismorningbeforeIwenttothemuseum.4．过去完成时态经常跟以下引导的时间短语连用，如when,after,before,assoonas,until,since,by,for,already.如：ThenafewmonthsafterCarterhadopenedthetomb,LordCarnarvonfellillwithafeveranddied.5．过去完成时态的构成：had+v-ed如：HowardCarterhadreceivedmoneyfromLordCarnarvonbeforehemadehismostamazingdiscovery.二、现在完成时态还是过去完成时态当我们谈论一个与现在有关的过去的事情时，我们用现在完成时态。如：HowardCarterisoneofthemostfamousexplorerstheworldhaseverknown.当我们在谈论过去，并要说明一个更早发生的动作的时候，我们就要用过去完成时态。如：Notlongafterthetombhadbeenopened,peopleinCarter’steambegantofallillanddiestrangly.``\n``牛津高中英语－模块三第一单元名词性从句：名词性从句的介绍一、名词性从句：名词性从句的介绍名词性从句在句中的作用和名词或名词短语的作用是一样的。1．我们可以用名词性从句做句子的主语。如：ThatIcanpaybackthehelppeoplegivememakesmehappy.Whetherhe’llbeabletocomeisnotyetknown.Whytheyhavenotleftyetisunclear.我们可以用it来做形式主语。如：Itwasgoodnewsthateveryonegotbacksafely.2．我们可以用名词性从句来做动词的宾语。如：shesensedthatshewasbeingwatched.Iwonderif/whetherthat’sagoodidea.Pollydidn’tknowwhichwaysheshouldgo.我们可以用名词性从句来做介词的宾语。如：I’minterestedinwhothattallmanis.TherewasadiscussionaboutwhetherPollyhadfoundtheblindman.我们可以用it来做形式宾语。如：weallthoughtitgoodnewsthatthefoghadfinallygone.Theconductorhasmadeitclearthatnobuseswillberunning.3．我们可以用名词性从句来做表语。如：thetruthisthatthefogistoothinkforthebustorunthatfar.MyquestioniswhetherPollycanfindherwayhome.TheproblemishowPollyisgoingtofindusinthecrowd.4．我们可以用名词性从句来做一个名词的同位语。如：thefactthatPollydidn’taskfortheman’snameisapity.Thenewsthattheplanehadcrashedmadeussad.WhatevergaveyoutheideathatIcansing?5．我们用that，if/whether或一个疑问词来引导名词性从句。如：IhopethatPollywillbeOK.Nooneknewif/whetherhelosthissightbecauseofanaccident.Shecouldn’timaginehowtheblindmanhadfoundher.二名词性从句：用that或if/whether引导的名词性从句1．我们用that来引导名词性从句。1）当从句是一个陈述句时，我们用that来引导名词性从句。如：Shesensedthatshewasbeingwatchedbyatallmaninadarkcoat.2)在大多数情况下，我们不用that来引导介词后的名词性从句，但是，可以用that来引导in或except后的宾语从句。如：Theproblemliesinthatthemistmaybecomeathickfog.Ididn’ttellhimanythingexceptthatIwasn’tabletofindmywayback.3）当名词性从句做句子的主语时，that不能省略。``\n``如：Thatwecouldn’tfindourwayoutwasreallybadnews.4）在非正式英语中，当名词性从句做句子的宾语或表语时，that可以省略。如：Shewished(that)someonewouldcomealongtohelpher.Thetruthis(that)thebuseswillnotberunning.1．我们用if或whether来引导名词性从句。1）当从句是个一般疑问句时，我们用if或whether来引导名词性从句。我们把if或whether后面从句的顺序改成陈述句的语序。如：Shewondered.Wouldthebusesstillberunning?Shewonderedif/whetherthebuseswouldstillberunning.2）介词后只能用whether，而不能用if。如：Sheisnotcertainaboutwhethershehasdoneanythingwrong.3）当从句做主语放在句子开头时，只能用whether，而不能用if。如：Whetheritisgoingtoclearupkeepsmewondering.4）只能用whetherornot，而不能用ifornot。如：IwanttoknowwhetherornotthetraingoestoKingStreet.2．如果and或but引导两个并列的that或whether/if引导的名词性从句，后一个句子的that或whether/if不可省。如：Hesaidthathelikedrainverymuchandthathewouldn’tuseanumbrellawhenitwasraining.Nooneknowswhetheritwillbefinetomorrowandwhetherhewillcometowork.第二单元名词性从句：由疑问词引导的名词性从句一、名词性从句：由疑问词引导的名词性从句我们用以下的疑问词来引导名词性从句：what,which,who/whom,whose,when,where,whyandhow。1．当从句是wh-引导的疑问句时，我们用疑问词来引导名词性从句。从句可以做句子的主语，宾语或表语。如：Whereapersoncomesfromwillaffecttheirstyleofspeech.YoucanbegintoseewhyEnglishhassuchstrangerules.ThatiswhyEnglishisalanguagewithsomanyconfusingrules.2．我们把疑问词后面的句式改成陈述句的语序。如：Whatarepeoplefromthenorthsaying?Peoplefromthesouthfinditdifficulttounderstand.Peoplefromthesouthfinditdifficulttounderstandwhatpeoplefromthenortharesaying.3．在任何情况下，都不可以省略名词性从句中的疑问引导词。二、形式主语it在英语中，我们通常把最重要的信息放在句子的末尾用于强调。这被称做句末强调效果。用形式主语it就可以达到这一效果。It只是语法意义上的主语，真正的主语在句子的后面。1．我们通常用it来做形式主语。1）当我们用一个名词性从句来做句子的主语时：（更好的）ItiscertainthatwewouldnotbeabletounderstandOldEnglishtoday.（正确的）ThatwewouldnotbeabletounderstandOldEnglishtodayiscertain.2）当主语是带to的动词不定式时：``\n``（更好的）Itishardtomasteraforeignlanguage.（正确的）Tomasteraforeignlanguageishard.3）当主语是动词-ing形式时：（更好的）Smokingisdifficulttostop.（正确的）Itisdifficulttostopsmoking.2．It可以被放在seem，appear，happen，chance，turnout和prove前做句子的形式主语。如：Itseemsthathespeakstwolanguages.=heseemstospeaktwolanguages.Ithappensthatmynewneighborcomesfrommyhometown.=Mynewneighborhappenstocomefrommyhometown.3．我们可以用句型it+be+被强调的名词或短语+that或who引导的从句来强调句子中的主语，宾语或状语。如：Itwaslastnight(notanyothertime)thatIreadaboutthehistoryofEnglish.如果不强调任何成分，句子可以是：IreadaboutthehistoryofEnglishlastnight.第三单元宾语补足语一、宾语补足语1．宾语补足语为宾语提供更多的信息。如：TheycalledhertheLoulanBeauty.2．宾语补足语通常以下面形式出现：动词+宾语+宾语补足语，宾语补足语通常可以是名词短语或形容词。如：TheymadeProfessorZhangchairmanofthesociety.Wefoundtheruinsmostinteresting.3．有时侯带to的动词不定式和不带to的动词不定式可以做宾语补足语。如：Theybelievedhimtobehonest.ProfessorZhang’sspeechmadeusalllaugh.4．宾语补足语可以时介词短语。如：Shefoundourselvesinthemiddleofadesert.5．宾语不足语通常和宾语在数上是一致的。如：ShemadeJoeherassistant.ShemadeJoeandSueherassistants.二、Either…or…和Neither…nor…1．我们用either…or…来表示选择性。如：（连接主语）eitherAnnorJaneshouldhavearrivedbynow.(连接动词)peopleeithertriedtoescapeorstayedintheirhouses.(连接宾语)wecouldchoosetoeateithernoodlesorrice.(连接状语)theyaregoingtothemuseumeithertodayortomorrow.3．我们用neither…nor…来连接表示否定的观点。（both…and…的反义词）如：neitherthemuseumnorthesiteitselfinterestedher.Theyneithertoldmethelocationnorshowedmethemap.Iateneitherthenoodlesnortherice.Theywentthereneitherbytrainnorbyair.三、主谓一致``\n``主谓一致是指在主语后选择正确的单复数形式。以下几点帮助我们决定动词是单数或是复数。1．动词应是单数，如果主语是：1）单数的名词或不可数名词如：thecitywasfoundedinthe8thcenturyBC.Thefoodtheyofferedontheplanewasdelicious.2)计量的短语，标题或名字如：twohoursistooshortforthevisit.Littlewomenisagreatnovel.3)一个短语或从句如：travellingtoPompeiiisexciting.Thatitkeepsrainingworriesthetourists.2．动词应是复数，如果主语是：1）一个复数名词如：bothcitieswereveryrich.2）由and连接的两个或两个以上的单词或短语如：thenoodlesandricetheyofferedontheplanewerequiteplain.3．当主语是allof/mostof/someof/halfof/apartof+名词/代词，动词与名词或代词保持一致。如：allofushaveattendedthelectureaboutPompeii.Mostofthelecturewasabouthowtheancientcitywasdiscovered.4．当主语是集合名词，如band,crowd,class,dozen,family,public,team时，如果名词指代的是集体，动词用单数；如果名词指代的是个体，动词用复数。如：ourteamisveryimportanttome.OurteamarenowtravelingtoXinjiang.5．当主语是news,physics,mathematics,Aids时，动词用单数；当主语是goods,clothes,congratulations,earnings,remains,belongings时，动词用复数。如：thelatestnewsisthattheLoulanBeautyisbeingdisplayedinShanghai.Alltheirbelongingsweredestroyedintheearthquake.6．当either…or…,neither…nor…,notonly…butalso…,not…but…,连接句子的主语时，动词采取就近原则。如：eithertheteamleaderortheguidesarelookingafterthestudents.Eithertheguidesortheteamleaderislookingafterthestudents.注：当主语是anybody/anyone/anything/everybody/everyone/everything/nobody/noone/nothing/somebody/someone/something/each/eachone/either/neither/one时，动词用单数。``\n``牛津高中英语－模块四第一单元直接引语和间接引语一、直接引语和间接引语1．我们用直接引语来阐述所说的话。如果我们把引语写下来，这些单词就会被放在引号但是，我们通常更愿意用间接引语来阐述所说的话。直接引语：Shesaid,“ChinahasbeenusingPSAstoeducatepeople.”间接引语：ShesaidChinahadbeenusingPSAstoeducatepeople.2．我们可以通过把所说的话改成宾语从句或动词不定式短语的形式来把直接引语变成间接引语。如：Shesaid,“I’musedtoads.”----Shesaidthatshewasusedtoads.“Wemustnotfallforthiskindoftrick!”shesaid.----Shewarnedusnottofallforthatkindoftrick.3．除了句型的改变外，还有其它的改变：1）人称代词的改变：如：Shesaid,“Ididsomeresearch.”-----Shesaidthatshehaddonesomeresearch.2）时态的改变：如：Shesaid,“Thisasisveryclever.”-----Shesaidthatthatadwasveryclever.下面列举当动词是过去时态时，时态是如何变化的：直接引语间接引语一般现在时一般过去时现在进行时过去进行时一般过去时过去完成时现在完成时过去完成时一般将来时过去将来时过去完成时过去完成时现在完成进行时过去完成进行时注：当陈述一个不变的事实时，时态不变。如：“lighttravelsatgreatspeed,”hesaid.----Hesaidthatlighttravelsatgreatspeed.3）时间和地点状语的变化：如：Tomsaid,“Iamworkingheretoday.”-----Tomsaidhewasworkingtherethatday.下面列举这种变化的例子：直接引语间接引语todaythatday/yesterday/onWednesday,etc.tomorrowthenextday/thefollowingday/onThursday,etc.yesterdaythedaybefore/thepreviousday/onTudesay,etc.nextmonththemonthafter/thefollowingmonth/inJuly,etc.lastyeartheyearbefore/thepreviousyear,etc.aweekagoaweekbefore/aweekearlier,etc.4）其它的例子：直接引语间接引语thisthatthesethosecomego``\n``二、间接引语：陈述句，疑问句和祈使句1．陈述句1）我们用that引导的名词性从句来陈述一件事。如：Shesaid,“Advertisementsareanimportantpartofourlives.”------Shesaidthatadvertisementsareanimportantpartofourlives.2)除了say之外，还有其它的动词可以这样用：tell,advise,agree,explain,insist,promise,remind,suggest,warn如：“PSAsareoftenplacedforfree,”thewritersaid.-----ThewriterexplainedthatPSAsareoftenplacedforfree.2．疑问句1）我们用whether/if引导的名词性从句来陈述一般疑问句。如：MattaskedAnn,“Areyouthehappiestpersonintheworld?”-----MattaskedAnnwhether/ifshewasthehappiestpersonintheworld.2）我们用wh-疑问词引导的名词性从句来陈述wh-疑问句。如：Iaskedher,“Howcanthatcouldbe?’-----Iaskedherhowthatcouldbetrue.3．祈使句1）我们用以下结构来陈述祈使句：陈述动词+宾语+（not）+to-动词不定式如：Thewritersaid,“Thinkaboutwhyyoushoulddothethingstheadsuggests.”-----Thewritertoldustothinkaboutwhyweshoulddothethingstheadsuggested.“Don’tworry,Mickey,”Jensaid.-----JenaskedMickeynottoworry.2)其它的单词也有同样的用法：advise,encourage,invite,remind,warn如：“Don’tbelieveeveryadvertisementyouread,”Michellesaidtome.-----MichelleadvisedmenottobelieveeveryadvertisementIread.第二单元情态动词：总体介绍一、情态动词：总体介绍1．我们用情态动词来谈论：1）能力如：Hecanrunthe100msprintin11seconds.2)义务义务性由弱到强排列：oughtto/should----haveto-----must如：Youmustworkhardtowinthegoldmedal.3)确定确定性由弱到强排列：might----may----could----should-----oughtto----will----must如：ShemightwinamedalattheOlympics.4)允许正式性由弱到强排列：can----could----may----might如：Heisinjuredbutmaytakepartinthegames.2．我们也用情态动词来：1）提要求：正式性由弱到强排列：will---can----could----would如：Canyouhelpmewithmytraining?3）提意见：如：Shallwedoexercisethismorning?4）提供帮助：``\n``如：I’llwashyoursportsjacket.ShallIgetaticketforyou?5）提建议：如：Youshouldnot/oughtnottoeatalotbeforeswimming.3情态动词后应该接不带to的动词不定式。如：Shecouldwinthegoldmedal.4我们用情态动词的进行时来谈论现在可能发生的事情，用情态动词的完成时来谈论过去可能发生的事情。如：Theboysmaybeplayingfootballontheplayground.Heplaysbasketballverywell.Hemusthavepracticeditalot.二、情态动词：can和beableto等1．Can和beableto1）当指能力时，can和beableto可以互换，但beableto比can更加正式但也不常用。如：Mybrothercan/isabletoplaytabletennisverywell.2)我们用can来谈论将来可能发生的动作。如：Let’sgetsomeexercise.Wecangoandjoginthepark.3）beableto可以用在不同的时态中，可以后面直接接动词原形或放在另一个情态动词之后。如：I’msorryIhaven’tbeenabletoplaytenniswithyourecently.It’snicetobeabletoattendthelecture.WangGongmightbeabletowinthechessgame.4)can的过去式是could，beableto的过去式是was/wereableto如：Hecouldswimacrosstheriverwhenhewasyoung.Mikewasagoodswimmer,sohewasabletotakefirstplaceinthecompetition.2．shall和will1）我们通常用shall来表达承诺，用will来表达决心或决定。如：Don’tworry.Youshallhavetheticketsforthegames.LiuMeiwillgoandbuytheticketsforthegames.2)在疑问句中，shall用于第一人称或第三人称提供帮助或提建议，will用于第二人称和第三人称询问意愿。如：Shallwegoswimmingthisweekend?Agroupofstudentsarewaitingtoseeyououtside.Shalltheycomein?Willyougohikingwithmeinthemountain?Willhepayforme?3．mustn’t和needn’tMustn’t用来表达让某人不做某事，needn’t用来表达做某事没必要。如：Youmustn’tmissthisfootballmatch.It’sveryimportant.Youneedn’twatchthegameifyoudon’twantto.4．need和dare当用做情态动词时，这两个词常出现在否定句和疑问句中。这两个词还可以当做普通动词来用。如：Youneedn’t/don’tneedtogotrainingifyoufeeltired.Darehe/Doeshedaretodiveintothewaterfromthebridge?第三单元被动语态``\n``一、被动语态1．主动语态和被动语态在意思上没有太大区别，可以互换。在主动语态的句子中，我们用动作的发出者作为句子的主语；在被动语态的句子中，我们用动作的承受者作为句子的主语。如：ScientistsdesignedaVRheadset.AVRheadsetwasdesignedbyscientists.2被动语态的基本结构是：be+-ed（动词的过去分词），在不同的时态中，be的形式是不一样的。例如，在一般现在时态中，be是is或are；在现在进行时态中，be是is/am/are+being；在现在完成时态中，be是have/has+been；在一般将来时态中，be是will+be。如：Rightnowthenewproductisbeingdevelopedinthelaboratory.Anagreementhasbeenputforward.3．当用被动语态的时候，以下几点需要注意：1）我们通常用by来引导动作的发出者，但当没必要提及动作的发出者或动作的发出者不重要，或很难说出动作的发出者是谁时，动作的发出者可以省略不提。如：hebelievesthatVRfilmswillbeacceptedbyviewers.BoththeheadsetsandtheglovesareconnectedtotheRealCinecomputersystem.2）动词give，lend，offer，send，tell和show后面可以接两个宾语，分别指人和物。当这些动词用做被动语态的时候，我们通常把动词后面接的人做为句子的主语；有些时候，也会把物作为主语。如：Theyareofferedheadsetsandglovesinthecinema.Headsetsandgloveswereofferedtotheminthecinema.3）在主动语态中，一些动词后面往往接宾语和动词原形。在被动语态中，动词原形前面要接to。如：Isawhimgothere.Hewasseentogothere.4)有时候，在被动语态中，get可以替换be。如：getchanged,getdressed,gethurt如：Pleasewaitawhile.I’lljustgoandgetchanged.5）有些动词主动形式表被动含义。如：ThiskindofcomputersellswellinChina.Yourarticlereadswell.6）状态动词不能用于被动语态。如：Ihavemanysciencebooks.VRfilmsbelongtothelatestwaveofnewtechnology.4．被动语态的其它特殊形式：1）it+动词的被动语态+that从句如：ItissaidthatthetechnologybehindRealCineisvirtualreality.2）主语+动词的被动语态+todo如：ThetechnologybehindRealCineissaidtobevirtualreality.类似的动词还有：believe,report,suppose,know,prove等。二、情态动词和被动语态1．在被动语态中用情态动词来表达能力，可能性，责任，允诺等。如：FirefightercouldbetrainedusingRealCine.2．情态动词被动语态的形式是：情态动词+be+动词的过去分词如：Thepositionoftheviewercanbecalculatedatanytime.``\n``注意其它情态动词被动语态的用法：主动语态被动语态CantouchcanbetouchedMayfeelmaybefeltMightnotimpressmightnotbeimpressedCouldusecouldbeusedShoulduseshouldbeusedOughttodevelopoughttobedevelopedMustwearmustbeworn被动语态通常被用在科学报告中。三、经常被用做被动语态的动词1．一些经常被用做被动语态的动词可以充当形容词的作用.如：beboredwithbebornin/onbedisappointedat/bybefascinatedbybeimpressedat/by/withbeinterestedinbesetupbybesituatedin/onbesurprisedat/by如：AndywasboredwithlisteningtothesameCDeveryday.IwasbornonaWednesday.Mydadwasdisappointedbymytestresults.Peoplehavealwaysbeenfascinatedbynewtechnology.ShewasimpressedatthenumberofpointsIscored.Someofmyfriendsareinterestedinstudyingabroad.ThisnewexhibitionwassetupbytheStudents’Union.Ourschoolissituatedinaquietarea.TheyweresurprisedatthepossibilitiesoftheInternet.这里的be都可以用become来取代。``\n``牛津高中英语－模块五第一单元动词不定式：带to的动词不定式一、动词不定式：带to的动词不定式带to-的动词不定式的结构是to+动词原形，如，todo,towork.它可以单独使用，也可以组成动词不定式短语。如：Iwasdeterminedtobecheerful.1．带to-的动词不定式可以做：1）句子的主语如：Tofindabestfriendisdifficult.=Itisdifficulttofindabestfriend.2）句子的宾语如：Ineedtosleepforeighthourseverynight.3）宾语补足语如：Iaskedhimtocomeover.4）定语如：Ihaveaveryimportantmeetingtoattend.5）同位语如：Hisintentionwastocheermeup.6）状语如：Mydadarrangedsomeswimminglessonstosurpriseme.2．带to-的动词不定式有进行时态和完成时态如：Thingsseemtobegettingbetter.Johnpretendednottohaveseenme.二、动词不定式：不带to的动词不定式1．可用于不带to的动词不定式的动词有：1）letmakehave（有时候）如：Iletherborrowmybook.Shemademepromisetowriteeveryday.Theteacheroftenhashisstudentsreadaloudinclass.2）感官动词：feelhearseewatch如：Isawhertalktohernewfriends.3）wouldratherhadbetterwhynot如：Iwouldrathergoswimming.Youhadbettertidyyourbedroom.WhynotvisityourcousininJapan?注：感官动词后可以接v-ing如：Isawhertalktohernewfriend.(见证谈话的整个过程)Isawhertalkingtohernewfriend.(见证谈话正在发生，但不一定见证整个谈话过程)2．当有and,or,except,but,than,ratherthan,连接两个动词不定式时，后一个不定式往往省略to。如：Shetoldmetobecheerfulandlookonthebrightside.Doyouwanttogoshoppingorwatchafilm?WehadnothingtodobutwatchTV?``\n``Idecidedtowriteratherthanphone.三、V-ing作名词1．V-ing可以充当名词用。可以被用做：1）做主语（指一般性的动作）如：Swimmingisgoodforyourhealth.2）做宾语（指一般性的动作）如：Iloveswimmingintheseaduringthesummer.3)介词之后如：Ikeepfitbyswimmingeveryday.4）物主代词之后如：Herswimminghasimprovedsinceshestartedtrainingeveryday.注：如果所谈论的人比较明确，那么物主代词可以省略。如：Thankyouforcoming.5）组成复合名词如：Thereisashoeintheswimmingpool.2．以下动词后面接v-ingAdmitdislikeimaginedelayconsidermindunderstandavoidenjoypracticemissfinishkeepsuggest3．以下常用词组后面接v-ingWouldyoumindcannothelplookforwardtofeellikecannotstanditisnouse/goodputoffkeepon如：Wouldyoumindhelpingmewithmyhomework?Icannothelpwonderingwhyshedoesnotlikeme.Ilookforwardtoseeingyouattheparty.Idon’tfeellikedoinganythingnow.Shecannotstandseeingthatboy.Ithinkitisnousecryingaboutyourexamresultsnow.Ihadtoputoffshoppingforawhile.Hekeptonaskingmeformyphonenumber.4．以下动词后面可以接v-ing或todo，意思上几乎没有区别。Continuepreferbeginhatelikestart5．一些动词后面既可以接v-ing，也可以接todo，但意义和用法上有区别。在使用时要确保形式的正确。如，forgetregretremembermeantrygoonforget+todo(事情还没做)如：Heforgottoclosethedoorwhenheleft.Forget+doing(事情已经做了)如：I’llneverforgetwinningmyfirstgoldmedal.第二单元V-ing充当形容词或副词一、V-ing充当形容词或副词1．v-ing可作：``\n``1）定语v-ing可以放在名词前，像形容词一样修饰名词。如：Thiswillhavealastingeffect.有时候会把一个副词放在v-ing前。如：Thatwasanextremelyinterestingspeech.v-ing可以和副词或名词构成复合词。如：Thefast-growingeconomyhascausedenvironmentalproblems.Awood-burningstoveisenvironmentallyfriendly.v-ing可以放在名词后，像定语从句一样修饰名词，v-ing还可以被改成定语从句。如：peoplerunningthesefactoriesareveryconcernedabouttheenvironment.=Peoplewhorunthesefactoriesareveryconcernedabouttheenvironment.2）表语如：Thisdestructionisfrightening.3）宾语补足语如：Weallfoundhisargumentconvincingandinteresting.2．v-ing可放在stand,sit,lie的后面，表示动作同时发生。如：Theystoodtalkingtoeachother.=Theystoodwhentheyweretalkingtoeachother.3．v-ing有完成时态，如，havingworked如：Havingworkedsidebysidewithmanyenvironmentalists,Iknowthatahealthyenvironmentandstableeconomyshouldbepossibleatthesametime.二、V-ing短语v-ing短语可以单独使用，后面也可以接宾语或状语。如：Theysattheresmiling.Theysattheresmilingateachother.1．v-ing短语可以表示：1）时间如：Askingaround,Ifindmanypeoplewillingtopayslightlyhigherpricesforthingsthatareenvironmentallyfriendly.=WhenIaskaround,Ifindmanypeoplewillingtopayslightlyhigherpricesforthingsthatareenvironmentallyfriendly.Havingobservedtheproblemformanyyears,heannouncedthatwearenowfacingthebiggestenvironmentalproblemofourtime.=Afterheobservedtheproblemformanyyears,heannouncedthatwearenowfacingthebiggestenvironmentalproblemofourtime.2）原因如：Wearemakingbiggerholesinthenets,hopingtoavoidcatchingfishthatarenotfullygrown.=Wearemakingbiggerholesinthenets,becausewehopetoavoidcatchingfishthatarenotfullygrown.3）结果如：Thefactorykeepsreleasingsmoke,makingtheairdirty.=Thefactorykeepsreleasingsmoke.Asaresult,theairismadedirty.4)条件如：Preparingfully,wecanachievegreatthings.=Ifwepreparefully,wecanachievegreatthings.2．连词+v-ing也可以来表示时间。常用的连词有：whenwheneverwhileonceuntil``\n``如：Wehavetotakeenvironmentalprotectionintoconsiderationwhendevelopingtheeconomy.3．v-ing从句的逻辑主语通常和主句的主语一致。如：Hetraveledontheplanelikethis,keepingthetortoiseinablanket.=Whenhetraveledontheplanelikethis,hekeptthetortoisehiddeninablanket.4．否定形式是：not+v-ing如：Hesatthere,notknowingwhattosay.第三单元V-ed形式一、V-ed形式v-ed在句中可以充当形容词和副词的用法。1．v-ed可以被用作：1）定语v-ed放在名词的前面，像形容词一样修饰名词。V-ed可以改成定语从句。如：IfIhadthechance,Iwouldhaveaclonedbaby.=ifIhadthechance,Iwouldhaveababywhoiscloned.大部分名词前的v-ed表达被动的含义。但有些v-ed表达过去的含义，如，escapedretiredfallen。比较下面的短语：表被动：thehighlypraisedscientist(Thescientisthasbeenhighlypraised.)表过去：theretiredscientist(Thescientisthasretired.)有时候可以把副词放在v-ed之前。如：well-trainedteachersv-ed可以和副词或名词连用构成复合词。如：underdevelopedregionhandmadefurniturev-ed可以像定语从句一样放在名词后修饰名词。如：Ithinkthescientificadvancesmentionedinyourarticleareinteresting.=Ithinkthescientificadvancesthatarementionedinyourarticleareinteresting.2）表语如：MygrandfatherwasdelightedtohearIpassedmyexams.3）宾语补足语如：Aftertherobbery,theyfoundthefrontwindowsbroken.2．v-ed可以接在动词后面表示动作同时发生。如：standsitlie如：Shelaytrappedunderthebuildingforthreedays.(Shelaythereandwastrapped.)二、V-ed短语v-ed短语可以是v-ed单独使用，也可以后面接宾语和/或状语。如：Shelefttherestaurant,disappointed.Shelefttherestaurant,disappointedwiththebadservice.1．表被动的v-ed短语可以表示：1）时间如：Thescientisthascopiedahumancell,assistedbyrecentadvancesinmedicalscience.=Thescientisthascopiedahumancell,andatthattimewasassistedbyrecentadvancesinmedicalscience.2）原因如：Shockedbythearticle,thewomanwrotealettertothenewspaper.=``\n``Thewomanwrotealettertothenewspaperbecauseshewasshockedbythearticle.3)条件如：Treatedwithelectricity,thecelltissuewillsplitintoseveralparts.=Ifitistreatedwithelectricity,thecelltissuewillsplitintoseveralparts.2．v-ed形式有一个逻辑主语。在上述例子中，逻辑主语都是主句的主语。如：thescientistwhowasassistedbyrecentadvancesinmedicalsciencethewomanwhowasshockedbythearticlethecelltissuewhichistreatedwithelectricity所有这些主语都跟主句的主语一致。三、V-ed和V-ing都可以做形容词1．v-ing形式用来描述某人或某物给人造成某种感觉，在意义上通常是主动的。如：Inoticedanamazingdifference.Somepeoplefinditexcitingthattheycouldmakecopiesofthemselvesinthefuture.2．v-ed形式用来表达我们对某人或某事的感觉，在意义上通常是被动的，因为它表示我们被一个动作所影响。如：Iwassurprisedtolearnthattheyhadcopiedahumancell.Theboywasmorefrightenedthanhurt.``\n``牛津高中英语－模块六第一单元时态的概要一、现在时态现在时态可以用来谈论现在的时间，包括一般现在时态，现在进行时态，现在完成时态和现在完成进行时态。1．我们用一般现在时态来谈论：1）现在或一直是正确的事情。如：Iamatacomedyshow.Thesunrisesintheeast.2）经常发生的事情。如：TheAcademyAwardsshowisontelevisioneveryyear.Everytimeapropcomediantellsajoke,heorsheusesathing,calledaprop.2．我们用现在进行时态来谈论：1）现在正在发生或正在进行的动作如：Theaudienceislaughingatthejoke.Idon’tunderstandwhyIamnotlosingweight!2）现在正在被计划，但在将来发生的动作。如：TheComedyClubisgivingalectureaboutstand-upnextmonth.TheyaregoingtotheAcademyAwardsshowinFebruary.3）重复发生的动作，和always一起使用，通常带有否定的附加含义如：Youarealwaysmakingthesamemistakes!Sueisalwayschanginghermind.3．我们用现在完成时态来谈论过去和现在是如何联系起来的。它用于：1）重复的经历。如：Hehashostedtheshoweighttimes.BillyCrystalhasbeeninmanyfilmsandtelevisionshow.2）过去发生的事情，但对现在有影响的事情。如：Doctorshavefoundthatpeoplewholaughalotlivelonger!Somestand-upcomedianshavebecomefamousastelevisionandfilmactorslateroninlife.3）过去开始，但现在仍在发生的事情。如：Peoplehavealwaysenjoyedlaughing.Comedianhavealwaystoldjokesandperformedcomicacts.4．我们用现在完成进行时态来谈论从过去开始，持续到现在，并且还有可能继续进行的事情。如：Doctorshavebeenresearchingthatquestion.Thecurtainsfinallyopen—theaudiencehavebeenwaitinganhourfortheshowtostart.第二单元时态的概要二、过去和将来时态过去时态用来谈论过去的事情，包括一般过去时态，过去进行时态，过去完成时态等。1．我们用一般过去时态来谈论发生在过去并且现在已经结束的事情。``\n``如：SangLanwasborninNingbo,Chinain1981.2．我们用过去进行时态来谈论发生在过去，并且持续了一段时间的事情。如：Sheknewthatinthoseyearsshewasmakingherparentsproud.3．我们用过去完成时态来谈论：1）在过去的过去发生并且在过去的某一个动作发生之前就已经结束的事情。如：Insteadofcryingaboutwhatshehadlost,SangLanthoughtabutwhatshecoulddotogetbetter.2)在过去的一个动作发生的同时所发生的事情。如：BythetimeshecompetedintheNewYorkGoodwillGames,shehadbeenadedicatedjuniorgymnastforelevenyears.将来的时态用来讨论将来的事情，包括一般将来时态，将来进行时态，过去将来时态等。1．我们用一般将来时态来讨论将来将要发生的事情。如：Shewillcomewithustowatchthefootballmatchtomorrow.一般将来时态的结构：1）willshall（用于提供有关将来的信息）如：IknowIwillthinkaboutherwhenevermylifefeelsunbearable.Ishallworkhardandlearntobecomeagymnast.2）begoingto+do（用于谈论将来的计划和意图）如：Today,I’mgoingtotalkabouthowtofindhappiness.2．我们用将来进行时态来谈论始于将来并且要持续一段时间的动作。如：DrBrainwillbetalkingaboutsuccessnexttime.3．我们用过去将来时态来谈论在过去的时间被提起的时候发生在将来的事情。如：BeforeshewenttotheGoodwillGames,SangLantoldherparentsshewasgoingtowinherevent.第三单元非真实条件句非真实条件句阐述的条件或情况是不真实的或是想象的。1．我们用非真实条件句来阐述不真实的或想象的一个现在的条件。如：IfIgotmarriedintheUSA,Iwouldexpectapresent.IcouldreachthebookifIwereabittaller.IfIhadthechance,Imightwanttobeatranslator.2．我们用非真实条件句来指代一个想象的过去的动作。如：Ifyouhadjoinedthechatroomtenminutesago,youwouldhaveknownwhatweweretalkingabut!IfthemanhadpointedwithhisfirstfingerwhilehewasinBrunei,everyonewouldhavethoughtthathewasveryrude.3．我们用非真实条件句来谈论想象的将来的情况。如：IfIhadtimetomorrow,Iwouldcertainlyhelpyou.4．非真实条件句的构成：现在If…was/were/did…,…would/could/mightdo…过去If…hadbeen/done…,…would/could/mighthavedone…将来If…was/were/did…,…would/could/mightdo…注：would，could，might经常可以互换，但在意思上有一些不同。``\n``Would表意图，计划；could表能力，可能性；might表可能性非真实条件句还有几点需要注意：1．在书面英语或正式的场合中，我们通常用were来代替条件句中的was.但在日常谈话中，was也经常用到。如：Ifhewas/werehere,hewouldbeabletohelpus.2．在表将来的非真实条件句中，还可以用wereto/should如：IfIweretofailmyMathstest,Iwouldhavetotakeitagainattheendoftheterm.Ifheshouldcometomorrow,Iwouldtalktohimaboutit.3．在非真实条件句中，可以把if省略，把should，were，had放在条件句的前面。如：Shouldyoumakeamistake,youshouldnotbeembarrassed.Hadyoutoldmeearlier,Iwouldnothavethisproblemnow.Wereyoutotakethetrain,youwouldbetheremuchsooner.4．在if从句中还可以用到could+havedone来表示非真实的条件。如：IfIcouldhavetoldyouaboutculturaldifferencesbetweenItalyandtheUK,Iwouldhave.第四单元非真实条件句：其它情况非真实条件句还有以下其它情况。1．当主句是有关现在发生的事情，而从句是有关过去发生的事情，或相反，我们可以用混合的条件句。如：IfyouhadlistenedtothetalkabouttheUNyesterday,youwouldknowtheanswertothequestionnow.IfTangNingwereintown,Iwouldhaveheardaboutit.2．我们用otherwise,or，及以with，without，butfor开头的短语来替代if条件句，来表达隐含的条件的意思。如：With(ifIhad)moremoney,Icouldhelpmorepeopleinneed.Without(Ifwedidn’thave)theUNGoodwill,Ambassadors,peopleworkingonprojectswouldnotbeencouraged.Butforthe(Iftherewasno)helpfromtheUN,thosewomenwouldnothavebeenabletosetuptheirmind.I’mtoobusynow,otherwise/or(IfIweren’tsobusy)Iwouldhelpyoudothework.3．我们也可以用evenif，asif，asthough，ifonly来引导非真实条件句。如：IwouldnevergothereevenifIweregiventhechanceto.Nicholasissmilingasifheknewnothingabout.MiketalksasthoughhehadbeentotheGreatWallbefore.IfonlyIwereaGoodwillAmbassador!4．Wish和wouldrather后面可以表达非真实的情况。如：Iwishtherewerenowarsintheworld.Iwouldratheryouhadn’ttoldmeaboutit.``\n``牛津高中英语－模块七第一单元介词一、介词介词可以放在名词或名词短语的前面来表达时间，地点，行动等等。介词也可以放在v-ing的前面。1．时间介词at,in,on,for,by和since可以被用来表示时间。At后接点时间，in后接段时间，on后接具体某一天。For用来表示某事延续了多长时间，by指的是不晚于什么时间（到为止），since指从过去某个时间到稍晚的某个时间或现在为止。其它表示时间的介词还有during，after，before，between，from，until等。如：Atthattime,therecordplayerhadtobewoundupbyhand.RegularpublicTVbroadcastingfirstbeganin1928.Thefirstrecordplayersonlyplayedarecordfortwominutes.By1967,mostTVbroadcastswereincolor.Sincethebeginningof1999,thepopularityofMP3hasincreasedgreatly.注：我们经常说inthemorning/afternoon/evening,但当谈论具体的早上，下午和晚上时，则要用on，如onSundaymorningontheafternoonof5thJune.2．地点介词at，in和on是表示地点的介词。At后接小地方或一个场合，in后接大地方，on表示在某个东西的表面。其它表示地点的介词还有above,against,behind,between,by,near,opposite,under等。如：I’llmeetyouatthedepartmentstore.WangLiisatamediaandtechnologyexhibition.CableTVbeganin1948intheUSA,butittook50yearsbefore66percentofUSAfamilieshaditintheirhomes.ThisnewtypeofTVcanbehungonthewall.3．行动介词介词to经常用来表示行动，意思是“朝着方向”。其它的介词还有across,along,down,into,off,over,outof,past,round,through,under,up等。如：Theinventionofthetransistorledtothedevelopmentofcassetterecorders.二、介词短语介词可以和动词，名词，和形容词连用构成介词短语。1．介词与动词连用许多介词可以跟动词连用构成词组，如：agreewith,lookfor,lookinto,headfor,standfor.如：ScientistsagreewitheachotherthatthedevelopmentofTVwillnotstop.Iamlookingforthemostrecentmodel.Doyouhaveanyinstore?TheBritishAssociationfortheAdvancementofSciencewilllookintothecase.TheshipsetsailandheadedforShanghai.MDstandsforMiniDisc.2．介词与名词连用介词可以跟名词连用，如：intimefor,ontime,bymeansof,byaccident/mistake,for/onsale,onthemarket,inthatcase,uptodate如：Wethoughtwewouldbelate,butwewereintimefortheprogramme.Theproductsweredeliveredontime.``\n``YoucanconnecttheCDplayertothecomputerbymeansofaspecialjack.Becarefulnottopress“delete”byaccident/mistake!Whenwillthenewmodelbefor/onsale?Thereareseveralnewmodelonthemarket.YouwantaTVlinkedwiththeInternet?Inthatcase,getaWebTV!Thistechnologyisquiteuptodate.注：当uptodate出现在名词前时，要用连字符，如：up-to-dateproducts3．介词与形容词连用一些介词可以和形容词连用，如：goodat,capableof,fondof,satisfied/happywith如：Iamgoodatscience.Theprogramisofcapableofcalculatingourbudgetfortheyear.Iamfondofwatchingblack-and-whitefilms.SuMeiissatisfiedwithhernewjob.第二单元动词短语动词短语是由一个动词加副词或介词构成的。动词+副词：Ifyouopenupanymedicinecupboardintheworld,thereisahighprobabilitythatyouwillfindasprin.动词+介词：Itwasoveradecadebeforesomeoneelseturnedpenicillinintothegreatdrugofthe20thcentury.在使用动词短语时有一些规则需要注意：1．在动词短语里，副词可以放在名词的前面或后面。如：Flemingtriedoutthismouldonanotherbacterium.Flemingtriedthismouldoutonanotherbacterium.注：如果宾语是代词，只能放在动词和副词之间。如：Flemingtrieditoutonotherbacteria.2．动词短语后面不一定要接宾语。如：Thefirebrokeoutatmidnight.Flemingdidnotgiveup.3．在有介词的动词短语里，介词的宾语总是放在介词的后面如：Doctorsarelookingintothecasefornewtreatment.Sometimespeopleaskformedicinethattheydonotreallyneed.4．有时候动词短语里的副词后会接一个介词。如：Howcanyouputupwiththisforsolong?ItisnotrighttolookdownupthosewhohaveAIDS.``\n``5．动词词组有特殊的含义，如：动词词组含义例句tryouttestDon’ttrythedrugoutonanimals.giveupstopdoingsomethingTellyourfathertogiveup.washupcleanplates,bowls,etc.afteramealSheiswashingupinthekitchen.talkoverdiscussthoroughlyLet’stalktheissueover.setupcreateorstartDrArmstrongsetuphisownsurgeryin2000.lookaftertakecareofIspentawholedaylookingaftermysickdog.turnuparriveTheydidnotturnupuntil10o’clock.6．许多动词短语的意思不止一个，如，makeout就有许多不同的意思，以下列举其它三个意思：1）能够看见或听见某事如：Itwastoodark,andIcouldn’tmakeoutthewordswrittenonthewall.2）理解某事（用于否定句和疑问句中）如：Ican’tmakeoutwhatthearticlesays.3)阐述可能不是正确的事情如：Hemadeoutthathewasafamousdoctor.第三单元系动词系动词是连接主语和说明主语是什么样状态的成分的动词。最常用的系动词是“tobe（be/am/is/are/was/were/been）”如：Theinformationistrueandacute.1．Appear,seem,prove,keep,stay,remain是系动词。如：Nowitseemsverycommonforfamiliestospendalotoftimeapart.TheyappearinfavoroftheInternet.Theinternetprovedofgreatvaluetousduringourproject.Youshouldn’tkeepquietinadebate.Peoplestayedsilentandlistenedtous,andapplaudedattheend.Forthesereasons,IbelievetheInternetremainsapositivetoolthathelpsmakeourlivesbetter.2．感官动词是系动词，sound，taste，feel，look，smell如：Thatsoundswonderful,butsomepeopleclaimthattheinternetisawasteoftime.Ifyoualwayseatfastfood,vegetablesmaynottastedelicioustoyou.ItfeelsgoodtositinfrontoftheTVafterahardday’swork.Whenhegotuponstage,helookedalittlenervous.TheairoftensmellsbadinInternetcafes.3．暗指变化的词是系动词：turn，go，fall，grow，get，become如：Leavesturngreeninspring.Theboywillgomadifyoudon’tallowhimtousethecomputer.Alishafellasleepthemomentshegotintobed.Yoursonhasgrownmuchtaller.Johngetseasilyexcitedwhenheplayscomputergames.TheamountoffalseinformationontheInternetbecomesmoreofaproblemeveryday.4．大多数情况下，系动词后面接形容词。但有时也接名词或介词短语。如：IfeelitremainsimportantforuseitherorlimitouruseoftheInternet,ortolearnhowto``\n``solvetheproblemsithascaused.Hebecameateacheraftergraduationfromcollege.ThearticleisaboutusingtheInternettohelppeopleorallages.第四单元V-ed和V-ingv-ed和v-ing通常被称作分词。分词可以做定语修饰名词，或做时间，原因，结果和方式状语。1．v-ed和v-ing可以像形容词一样使用1）v-ing通常表达正在进行的动作，或某事是什么样子。如：shesatbesidethewindow,watchingthefallingleavesfloatingintheair.Itwasanexcitingdevelopment.2)v-ed通常表达被动的含义，或指代一个完成的动作，或告诉别人我们对某事的感觉。如：Thepolicefoundthestolencar.Therewasathicklayeroffallenleavesontheground.Manyexcitedwantedtotravelontheunderground.3）分词短语通常放在它所修饰的名词的后面。如：ThetrainsgoingtoLondonstopattheedgeofthecity.In1933,apublicorganizationcalledtheLondonPassengerTransportBoardwascreated.2．v-ed和v-ing可以像副词一样使用。1）v-ed和v-ing可以用来表示原因。如：Realizinghewouldhavetotaketwodifferenttrains,hedecidedtotakeataxiinstead.EncouragedbythesuccessoftheMetropolitanRailwayCompany,theMetropolitanDistrictRailwayopenedanotherlinein1868.2）v-ed和v-ing可以用来表示时间。如：Travelingthroughthetunnel,themanfeltuncomfortablebecauseofthenoise.Whenaskedhowoldtheundergroundsystemwas,shemadenoreply.3）v-ed和v-ing可以用来表示方式。如：ThetrainheadedforLondon,puffingandrattling.4)v-ed和v-ing可以用来表示条件。如：Turningtotheleftatthecrossroad,youwillseetherailwaystationonyourright.注：v-ing也可以表达紧随主句动作之后的动作。如：Arrivingattheairport,hestartedlookingforthetouristguide.3．v-ing有被动和完成形式。1）being+v-ed表示进行时态的被动态。如：Theundergroundsystembeingbuiltinthecitywillbeopennextyear.2）having+v-ed表示完成时态的主动形式：havingbeen+v-ed表示完成时态的被动形式。如：Havingseenthesituation,awealthyAmericanbusinessman,CharlesYerkes,triedtoimprovethesystem.Havingbeendevelopedovermanyyears,theundergroundsystemisnowabletotransportmillionsofpeopleeffectively.4．当v-ed和v-ing被用做状语时，它的逻辑主语就是主句的主语。如：Havingbeentrappedintraffic,hewaslateforwork.Givenenoughtime,wewillseethewholecity.5．否定形式：not+v-ing/v-ed如：Notknowingwhichlinetotake,sheturnedtomeforhelp.``\n``牛津高中英语－模块八第一单元否定句否定句用来改正一个错误的观点。如：Moneydoesnotbuyhappiness.在这句话里，钱能买来幸福的错误观点被改正了。注：否定句有是表达肯定含义。如：Hedidn’tleaveanythingtohissonbutabiglibraryofbooks.我们有几种方式来表达否定含义。最常用的否定词有：no，not，never，和neither。1．助动词+not在最简单的否定句里，not或n’t放在助动词后表否定。如：Theymightnot(mightn’t)havebeenwrittenlastyear.Idonot(don’t)thinkso.2．Not和其它词连用1）当把not放在一个前面加上否定前缀（如：un-dis-in-）的单词的时候，意思就变成肯定的了。但这种肯定没有直接的肯定句强烈。如：Itisnotuncommontofindherreadingthenewspaper.(Itisquitecommontofindherreadingthenewspaper.)2）当not放在表示时间，距离，数量的短语前时，则起到了强调否定含义的作用。如：Notmanypeopleheardthespeech.(Veryfewpeopleheardthespeech.)3．If-从句中额外的否定含义有时候，我们把否定的表达放在whether和if的后面来表达对一种情况的怀疑。这种表达更加随意而且常被用在英语口语中。如：Iwonderwhether/ifIshouldn’tbringanumbrella.(Iwonderwhether/ifIshouldbringanumbrella.)Iwouldn’tbesurprisediftheydidn’tmovesoon.(Iwouldn’tbesurprisediftheymovedsoon.注：当表达有关自己的事情时，用Iwonderwhether/if…,当表达有关别人的事情时，用Iwouldn’tbesurprisedif…4．还有许多其它的否定表达。一些常用的有hardly，farfrom，seldom,unless，freefrom,和wouldrather…than。如：Pipcanhardlywaittobeginhisnewlife.Theclassicarefarfromdisappearing.Pip’ssisterseldomhasakindwordtosay.Unlessyoureadthenovelyourself,youwillneverknowwhathappensattheend.Thefortunesetshimfreefromfinancialworries.JoewouldratherdiethanseanyharmcometoPip.第二单元省略当我们不想重复含义比较明显的单词或短语时，我们就用省略。省略是使句子简明的有效的方法。1．省略可以用于1）祈使句中，主语常被省略。如：(I)Thankyouverymuch.(You)Comehere,please.``\n``2)答句，省略助动词后面的单词。如：“Didyouenjoytheopera?”“Yes,Idid(enjoyit).”3)动词不定式短语中，省略to后的内容。如：Althoughhewouldliketo(breakhispromise),theemperorcannotbreakhispromise.4）非正式英语中，省略句中的某些单词。如：(Areyou)Ready?How(isit)abouttheresult?5）hence后如：Hence(comes)thehappyendingofthestory.6)在介词或than之后。如：Mum:Couldyouwatertheplantsforme?Son:Whatabout(wateringthem)afterIfinishmyhomework?Theoperahousenowlooksbetterthan(itdid)whenIvisiteditlastyear.7)同一个句型和同一个动词后的两个从句中。如：PucciniwroteTurandotand(healsowrote)MadamButterfly.Theactorwasbornin1961,andhiswife(wasborn)in1964.2．为了节省空间和时间，一些单词被省略，包括：1）标志和标签如：Nosmoking(Nosmokingisallowedhere.)2)报纸标题如：Turandotonstage(TheoperaTurandotisbeingperformedonstage.)3)说明如：Donotbend(Donorbendthisenvelope.)4）明信片和日记如：Havenothadtimetowritediary(Ihavenothadtimetowritemydiary.)5)笔记如：OperaOK,costumesgreat(TheoperawasOKandthecostumesweregreat.)第三单元倒装倒装就是改变句子中单词的顺序。当我们用倒装的时候，我们把谓语提到主语的前面，因此我们强调的是谓语而不是主语。倒装用于以下情况。1．最常见的倒装的形式出现在问句里如：DidyougotovisittheLouvre?WhatdoyouknowaboutvanGogh?2．在以下情况下，我们把助动词放在主语的前面1）以否定词或短语开头的句子，如：neither,nor,never,not,atnotime,seldom,hardly如：Hedidnotlikethepainting.NeitherdidI.NeitheramIimpressedbythepaintingsnordoIlikethem.NeverinmylifehaveIseensuchwonderfulpictures.Notaworddidhesayabouthisvisittotheartmuseum.AtnotimeduringthetourwasIbored.Seldomdoeshepaintnow.HardlyhadIgottoAmsterdamwhenitbegantosnow.2）以so和only开头的句子``\n``如：LiMingenjoyedthemuseum.Sodidhisgrandmotherandaunt.SocrowdedwastheartgallerythatIcouldhardlymoveabout.OnlyonsuchatripcanyoulearnasmuchaboutEuropeanartists.注：当only修饰主语时，不需倒装。如：Onlyteacherswenttotheartgalleryyesterday.3在以下情况，主语放在动词的后面1）句子是直接引语或部分是直接引语。如：“I’dliketocomebackandseeMonet’sgarden,”saidmyaunt.“This,“saidtheartist“isthemostbeautifulplaceIhaveeverseen.”2)主语太常。如：Presentatthepartywereagroupofyoungpeoplewhocalledthemselvespioneersofmodernart.3)以here，there，in，out，up，down，on等开头的句子。如：Look!Herecomesthebus.ThedooropenedandincameMr.Smith,theartist.Outrushedthechildren.Downcamethewaterfromthetopofthemountain.注：当主语是代词时，不需要倒装。如：HereIaminAmsterdam.Thereitgoes.4）在正式的非真实条件句中，我们把should,were，hadto放在句子的开头。如：Shouldyouhavegoneonthetrip,youwouldhavelearntalotaboutpainting.Werethepictureunique,itwouldbevaluable.Hadthemuseumbeenclosed,wewouldhavebeenupset.第四单元强调句当我们需要用英语表达自己观点的时候，我们必须要考虑的不止是词汇和发音。我们选择强调的单词和句子成分能改变我们想要传达的含义。1．强调句可以借助某些单词来表达，如：so，such，really，和just。如：Everyonewassoexcitedaboutherspeech.Itwassuchaninterestingtelevisionshow.Ireallywanttoseeitagain.Actually,thefestivalinVenicedoesn’tjustfeatureHollywoodfilms.2．如果强调的不是动词，而是句子某一成分，我们可以用以下句型“It+be+强调部分+that从句。如：ItwasbecauseofhisHollywoodbackgroundthatheknewhowmanysmall,unknownactors.werebeingignoredbyHollywood.1)上述句型可以用来强调主语，宾语或状语。如：RobertRedfordtookoverthefestivalin1981.强调主语：ItwasRobertRedfordthat/whotookoverthefestivalin1981.强调宾语：ItwasthefestivalthatRobertRedfordtookoverin1981.强调状语：Itwasin1981thatRobertRedfordtookoverthefestival.2)当强调的主语是代词时，代词通常要用宾格。如：ItwasmewhorepresentedtheTorontoInternationalFilmFestivallastyear.注：当强调的是人时，引导词用that或who。3)强调结构还可以用语问句。``\n``如：IsittheCannesFilmFestivalthatgivesawardsmostlytoAmericanfilms?HowoftenisitthatfamousactorsanddirectorscometoToronto?Whowasitthattoldhimwhathadhappened?4）我们用“Itwasnotuntil…that…”结构来强调时间短语。如：ItwasnotuntilIspoketoKathythatIknewhowspecialtheSundanceFilmFestivalwas.3．如果我们想强调一般现在时态和一般过去时态中的肯定句中的动词，我们可以在动词前加助动词do或did。如：ManyofthefilmsarefromtheUSA,butwedogiveawardstofilmsfromothercountries.Wedidwanttohaveafestivalthatwasfair.Dotellusalittleaboutthefestivalyourepresent.``\n``牛津高中英语－模块九第一单元从句的概要当许多观点被融合在一个句子里时，其中某些观点比另一些要更重要，这个时候，我们用从句来表达不太重要的观点。从句包括状语从句，名词性从句或定语从句。1．状语从句可以表达时间，地点，方式，比较，条件，原因，目的或结果。它们由隐含这些意思的引导词来引导，如：when,where,how,although,if,since,because,inorderthat,sothat.如：BecausethepopulationofQuebecisstillover70percentFrench,MontrealhaswonderfulmixofOldWorldandNewWorldarchitectureandculture.2．名词性从句在句中充当名词的作用，可以做主语，宾语或表语。可以由that，或疑问词（what,which,whose,when,how,why,where,who）或if/whether来引导。当名词性从句作宾语的时候，that常省略，尤其是在口语和非正式的书面语中。如：Montrealhascolorfulnightlifetoensure(that)novisitoriseverbored.当我们用名词性从句来陈述问句时，句子的顺序是陈述句的语序而不是问句的语序。如：Idonotknowwhenshewilltravel.(NOTIdonotknowwhenwillshetravel.)3．定语从句就像形容词—它们为某物提供更多的信息。定语从句由关系代词（which,that,who,whom,whose）和关系副词（where,why,why）来引导。定语从句有两种，限定性和非限定性。1）限定性定语从句所提供的信息用来定义所修饰的物或人。在关系代词或副词之前没有逗号。如：Forthosewholoveoutdooractivities,itispossibletohike,sail,cross-countryskiortravelforhours-orevendays—withoutmeetinganotherperson.2)关系代词可以用来替换who和which。如：Itisgoodtolearnabouttheculturesofpeoplewho/thatcomefromothercountries.3）如果关系代词做定语从句中的宾语时，关系代词通常被省略，在英语口语中由为如此。如：Themapleleafisthepattern(that)youcanseeontheCanadianflag.4)非限定性定语从句用来提供额外的信息，它可以被省略而不会影响句子的语法结构，而且要放在逗号的后面。如：LocatedintheheartofTorontoistheCanadianNationalTower,whichisoftencalledtheCNTowerforshort.第二单元分词从句像分词一样，分词从句在句中也可以当作形容词或副词使用。现在分词和过去分词都可以构成分词从句。1．分词从句可以作：1）定语如：TheartistsupervisingthebuildingoftheParthenonwasthefamoussculptorPheidias.2)状语如：Builtofmarble,themonumenthaslastedhundredsofyears.大多数情况下，分词从句的主语就是句子的主语。否则的话，分词从句有自己的主语。如：Timepermitting,therestorationworkcouldbedonebetter.有时候主语可以是不同的。只有当没有误解的时候，主语才可以是不一致。如：Knowinghowbadlytherestorationworkhadbeendone,theunsafestructuresdidnotsurprisethem.``\n``3)补语如：IsawtheTempleofNikestandingthereonthehill.2．可以把现在分词或过去分词放在连词的后面，如：when,while,once,if,although.如：YouwillfindtheAcropolisverybeautifulwhenvisitingthecity.Whilereadingthearticle,IwasthinkingoftheWorldHeritagesitesinChina.Oncecaught,peoplewhodeliberatelydamagethemonumentwouldbefinedevenimprisoned.Ifrepairedwell,themonumentcouldberestoredtoitsformerglory.Althoughbeingconserved,theAcropolisisstillfacingseriousproblemssuchasdeliberatedamageandstealingofatones.第三单元同位语当两个名词短语一前一后出现在句子中并且指代同一个事物时，这两个短语互为同位语。如：TheFrenchflag,the“Tricolore”,wasfirstusedin1789,atthestartoftheFrenchRevolution.TheUSAwasalsobornfromrevolution,anditsflag,the“StarsandStripes”,symbolizesthis.1．当同位语提供更多信息时，第二个短语之前和之后有一个逗号。如：Theflag,asimpledesignofredoverwhite,hasalonghistorythatdatesbacktothe13thcentury.2．当同位语是用来解释第一个名词短语时，同位语的前和后都不需要逗号。如：Thecolorsred,whiteandblueusedontheflagareavisualreminderofthemottooftheRevolution—liberty,equalityandfraternity.3．我们有时侯用同位语来强调我们的观点。如：Weloveourflag,ouruniqueflag.4．名词后的名词性从句也是一种形式的同位语。如：ThenewsthatFrancehadasuccessfulrevolutionhadabigeffectonmanyothercountries,particularlythoseinEurope.Thefactthatsomecountriesusethesamecolorsontheirflagscanmeantheysharesimilarbeliefs.同位语从句可以把两个句子连在一起。如：Theteamhaswonthegame.Everyoneinthecityisexcitedbythenews.-----Everyoneinthecityisexcitedbythenewsthattheteamhaswonthegame.5．可以用在同位语从句前的名词还包括：truth，idea，hope，information如：ManypeopleareunawareofthetruththattheUSAwascolonizedbyBritain.Theideatheredrepresentsbraveryandbloodiswidelybelieved.IamreadingthisbookinthehopethatIcanlearnmoreaboutnationalflags.Didhegiveyoutheinformationthatthemeaningsofdifferentflagsshouldbeexplainedinyourreport?第四单元复杂句子的分析当我们看到复杂句时，我们可能需要对这些句子进行分析以便能更好的理解它们的含义。``\n``1．长简单句每一个长简单句都包含一个主语和一个谓语。在这些句子中，辨别出主语和谓语是非常有用的。主语是这个句子所讲述的的事物，而谓语则告诉我们这个事物是怎么样的，并且谓语通常包含一个动词。如：Islamwasstartedabout1400yearsagobyamancalledMuhammad.2．复合句在复合句中，有两个或以上的从句。这些从句通常由关联词引导的，如：and，or和but，每一个从句都独立成句。如：TherearemanyidiomsusedinEnglishandquiteafewofthemcomefromtheBible.“Byandby”nowmeans“beforelong”,butintheBible,itwasusedtomen“immediately”.3．复杂句复杂句是由一个主句和一个或更多的从句构成。它们由引导词连接，如：because,when,where,If,since,that,unless,whereas,whose,while,although.如：Unlessyourecognizewhenanidiomisbeingused,youcaneasilymisunderstandthemeaningofasentence.Therearelotsofexamplesofidiomswhereanimalsareusedtocreateanimage.Thetextgoesontosaythatifsaltlosesitsflavor,thenitshouldbethrownaway,meaningthatifyouarenothonest,thenyouareworthnothing.ThishasmeantthatsincetheBiblewastranslatedintoEnglishcenturiesago,manyHebreworGreekidiomshavebecomepartoftheEnglishlanguage.Anidiomisacombinationofwords,whosemeaningoftencannotbeunderstoodbylookingseparatelyatthemeaningsofthewordsthatmakeitup.4．复杂复合句当复合句和复杂句一起出现时，这就是复杂复合句。如：PeoplewhofollowthisreligionstudyBuddhistsutrasandtheyfollowtheteachingsofBuddha.``\n``牛津高中英语－模块十第一单元连词连词用于连接句子。如果没有连词，读者就会弄不懂句子的意思。连词帮助读者弄清楚文章当中接下来会发生什么事情。句子间常用的连词有：1．时间顺序连词显示观点或行为发生的顺序。常见的表达有：firstly,secondly,finally,now,intheend等。如：Theprogrammehasseveralaims:firstly,tohelpunemployedpeoplefindwork;secondly,toteachnewmothersaboutnutrition;andthirdly,tohelpyoungpeopledevelopproblemsolvingskills.Geldofintendedtheconcerttoraisemoneyforandpublicawarenessofthefamine.IntheEnd,100$millionwasraised.2．原因和结果连词表示做某件事的原因或结果。常用的表达有：foronething,therefore,so,asaresult.等如：Reporter:Whydidyouorganizetheconcert?Bob:Well,foronething,Iwantedtoraisemoneyforthehungrypeople.Also,Iwantedtoraisepublicawarenessofpovertyandfamine.Veryoften,peoplewhoreceivefoodaidbecomelazyanddonotwantajob,soitispossibleThatthegiftofasinglemealsometimescausesmoreharmthangood.Thesepeoplewillbegivenachancetohelpthemselvesinsteadofbeingdependentonotherpeople.Asaresult,theywillenjoyahigherstandardofliving.3．对比连词也是连接句子的重要连词，用于引出与之前观点相对比的观点。常用的有：however,incontrast,instead,nevertheless,onthecontrary,ontheotherhand等如：Povertyisstillkillingpeople.However,thesesmallvictoriesareagoodstarttowardsabetterfuture.Manypeoplebelievethathungerisonlyaprobleminthedevelopingworld.Onthecontrary,itisaproblemallovertheworld.4．添加连词用于引出更多的信息。常用的表达有：also,onthetopofsomething,aboveall,besides,furthermore,inaddition,moreover等。如：Forexample,thediseasemalaria,whichisspreadbymosquitoes,killsoveronemillionchildrenyearly.Ontopofthis,accordingtotheUnitedNations,hungerandmalnutritionclaimtenmillionliveseachyear.Ourorganizationisworkingtoraisemoneyforthelocalhomelessshelters.Furthermore,wearecollectingclothingtogivetothoseinneed.第二单元段落的构成段落在一篇段落中就像是楼房中的一层，用于在论文，故事或文章中组织信息。在写段落的时候，通常包括以下几个方面：1．主题句1）每个段落都应该含有一个观点。这个观点通常在主题句中表达，并且清晰的阐述这个段落所要传达的信息。``\n``如：Youngadultsgivemanydifferentreasonsformovingtocities.并不是所有的段落都有主题句，尤其是当一个段落是上一个已经有主题句的段落的延续的时候。2）主题句通常是一个段落的第一句话。但是，为了吸引读者的注意力，在一篇论文，一个故事，或一篇文章的第一段里，作者会在主题句之后加上一个有趣的事实，一个问句或一段引言。如：OlderAmericansareonthemove.2．支持句1）主题句后应该跟着一些句子来解释或证明主题句的正确。如：Fordecades,Floridahasbeenattractingolderresidents.Infact,accordingtothenationalPopulationsurveyconductedin2000,Floridawashometothelargestpopulationofpeopleaged65andolder.2)一个段落里的句子应该按一定的顺序列举出来。我们可以用一些过渡连词来连接这些句子。如：forexample,forinstance,furthermore,first,second,third,ontheotherhand,however,also.如：Floridaisapopularchoiceforthesepeoplebecauseoftheclimateandthestate’srelativelyflatlandscape.However,asthenumberofolderAmericansmovingthereincreases,moreChangesaremadetocatertothem.Forexample,ambulanceresponsetimehasdecreased,Andmanyhouseshavebathroomsdesignedforelderlyhomeowners,withthingslikewalk-inbathtubsthatreducetheriskofslipsandfalls.3）结束句一个段落应该以一句话结束，而这句话应以一种新的方式来重述主题，这就是结束句。结束句应该用来表达有关这个话题的最后的观点或引出下一个段落的观点。如：AcrosstheUSA,peoplearenoticingthesamething:youngpeoplewanttoliveincities.第三单元篇章的构成一篇文章应该让读者很容易的从一个观点领悟到另一个观点。要想是一篇文章具有逻辑性，应当注意以下几点：1．题目题目不应该太长，但应该清晰并且简单（如：‘Aidstoday’）2．起始段落1）起始段落应该包含一个主题句，这个主题句常常是段落的第一句话。如：WhendiscussingtheproblemofAids,weusealotoftechnicalandscientifictermsonthiswebsites.有时候主题句后面会跟一句话来起到吸引注意力的作用。有些情况，起始段落根本不需要主题句。例如，在一个解释一系列事件的段落中，主题就是有关这些事件的细节，因此不再需要主题句。2）像其它段落一样，起始段落里的主题句之后也应该跟随一些支持句。3）起始段落应该吸引读者的注意力并且让读者有兴趣继续读下去。我们可以加入一些有趣的事实，问题或给出一些细节来达到目的。如：InanAfricanvillage,eleven-year-oldAjanihearsafar-offscreamashewasheshislittlesisterInabaththatleakswater.3．中间段落1）主题句主题句通常是段落的第一句话，并且包含段落的主旨大义。主题句应该简单，明了，易于读者领会它的含义。2)支持句支持句应该跟在主题句的后面，并要用细节和证据来证明主题句。它对主题句所阐述的观点进行延伸和扩展。``\n``3）结束句一个段落的最后一句往往引出下一个段落的观点。4．结束段落结束段落里应该给出一个最终的观点（或许是一个预言），或它可以继续阐述其始段落里给出的句子。第四单元语言的风格英语中有许多不同的语言风格。语言风格是由所运用的场合决定的。风格最重要的不同在于英语口语和书面语。在口语和书面语中，又有正式和非正式的不同。正式非正式书面语论文给朋友或家人的信报告邮件申请信消息口语正式的演讲跟熟悉的人谈话（家人和朋友）跟陌生人谈话1．正式的风格1）我们经常用复杂结构的句子，包括被动语态和从属句。如：Ordinarycitizensareawareofthefrequentcomputer-relatedcrimesthathappensincemanycomputerusersareaffectedbycomputerviruses.2)我们经常用抽象名词。如：Therehasbeenanincreaseintheincidenceofcrime.2．非正式风格1）我们经常用简单句。如：Peopleareworriedaboutcomputerviruses.2)我们经常用主动语态。如：Youshouldgototheuniversityandtalktothedetectiveinchargeofcampuspoliceaboutthetheft.3）我们也会用许多口语，而且句子里有缩写。如：We’veheardlotsofreportsoffinancialfraud.``\n````