语言学知识点整理

语言学知识点整理

第一单元Whatislinguistics?什么是语言学？Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.Thescopeoflinguistics语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Appliedlinguistics应用语言学Phonetics语音学：thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunicationledtotheestablishmentofabranchoflinguisticscalledphoneticsPhonology音系学:aslinguistsbecameinterestedinhowsoundsputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication,theydevelopedanotherbranchofstudyrelatedtosoundscalledphonology.Morphology形态学:thestudyofthewayinwhichthesesymbolsarearrangedformwordshasconstitutedthebranchofstudycalledmorphology.Syntax句法学:thecombinationofthesewordstoformpermissiblesentencesinlanguagesisgovernedbyrules,thestudyoftheserulesconstitutesamajorbranchoflinguisticsstudiesSemantics语义学:thestudyofmeaningwasgraduallydevelopedandbecameknownassemanticsPragmatics语用学:whenthestudyofmeaningisconducted,notinisolaion,butinthecontextofuse,itbecomesanotherbranchoflinguisticstudycalledpragmaticsSociolinguistics社会语言学:thestudyofallthesesocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyformthecoreofthebranchcalledsociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics心理语言学:Psycholinguisticsrelatesthestudyoflanguagetopsychology\Appliedlinguistics应用语言学:findingsinlinguisticstudiescanoftenbeappliedtothesolutionofsuchpracticalproblemsastherecoveryofspeechability.thestudyofsuchapplicationsisgenerallyknownasappliedlinguisticsOtherrelatedbranchsincludeanthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics,mathematicallinguistics,andcomputationallinguistics.Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics。人类学/神经语言学/数理语言学/计算语言学1.PrescriptivevsDescriptive规定性与描述性Descriptive：alinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Prescriptive:itaimslaydownrulesfor“correct”behavior.Modernlinguisticsisdescriptive;itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthentic,andmainlyspokendata.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptive;itisbasedon“high”writtenlanguage2.Synchronicvs.diachronic共时性与历史性ThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudyInmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy.3.Speechandwriting口头语与书面语Speechenjoyspriorityoverwritinginmodernlinguisticsstudyforthefollowingreasons:(1)speechprecedeswritingintermsofevolution(2)alargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechtaninwriting(3)speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage4.Languageandparole语言与言语LanguagereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityParolereferstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuse5.Competenceandperformance能力与运用Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealusers’knowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagePerformance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationWhatislanguage?什么是语言？LanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunicationCharacteristicsoflanguage:语言的特性Languageisarule-governedsystemLanguageisbasicallyvocalLanguageisarbitrary(thefactdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustrationofthearbitrarynatureoflanguage.ThisconventionalnatureoflanguageiswellillustratedbyafamousquotationfromShakespeare’splay“RomeoandJuliet”:“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.”)LanguageisusedforhumancommunicationDesignfeaturesoflanguage语言的甄别特征AmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecified12designfeatures:1)arbitrariness武断性2)productivity创造性3)duality二重性4)displacement移位性5)culturaltransmission文化传递性10\n单元二Twomajormediaofcommunication:speechandwritingThelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage.用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。Phonetics语音学:isdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguage.Threebranchesofphonetics:articulatoryphonetics发音语音学（mosthighlydeveloped）,auditoryphonetics听觉语音学andacousticphonetics声学语音学Articulationphonetics(发音语音学):Howaspeakeruseshisspeechorgansarticulatethesounds. Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）:Howahearerperceivesthesounds.Acoustic(声学语音学）:Howthesoundsaretransmitter.Organsofspeech发音器官Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantareasorcavities:Thepharyngealcavity咽腔----thethroatTheoralcavity口腔----themouthThenasalcavity鼻腔---thenoseVibrationofthevocalcords(声带)resultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalled“voicing”浊音，whichisafeatureofallvowels元音andsomeconsonants辅音。单词补充：01)velum:Thesoftpalate.软腭02)uvula:Asmall,conical,fleshymassoftissuesuspendedfromthecenterofthesoftpalate.小舌，悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块03)larynx:n.喉04)vocalcord:声带05)membrane:n.Athin,pliablelayeroftissuecoveringsurfacesorseparatingorconnectingregions,structures,ororgansofananimaloraplant.膜薄而柔软的组织层，覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域、结构或动植物器官06)thesoftpalate:软腭07)thehardpalate:硬腭08)theteethridge:齿龈09)alveolus:Atoothsocketinthejawbone牙槽颚骨处的牙床10)theteeth:牙齿11)thelips:上下唇12)bladeoftongue:舌面13)backoftongue:舌根14)pharyngealcavity:咽腔15)nasalcavity:鼻腔16)velar:Articulatedwiththebackofthetonguetouchingornearthesoftpalate,as(g)ingoodand(k)incup.软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的，如在good中的(g)以及在cup中的(k)17)thetipofthetongue:舌尖18)theupperfrontteeth:上齿19)theroofofthemouth:上颚20)thelowerlip:下唇InternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)Thevowels(monophthongsanddiphthongs)元音（单元音&双元音）Theconstants辅音Broadtranscription:transcriptionwithletter-symbolsonly.(indictionariesandteachingtextbooks)用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音方式叫做宽式标音法，这种音标法常见于词典和教科书。Narrowtranscription:thetranscriptionwithdiacritics.但实际上，同一语音在不通的语音环境中的发音不尽相同，比如Pit和spit中的/P/音发音就不一样。在宽式标音的基础上，再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄式标音法。ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds英语语音的分类vowelsandconstantsThebasicdifferencebetweenavowelandaconstantisthatinthepronunciationoftheformertheairthatcomesfromthelungsmeetswithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat,thenose,orthemouth,whileinthatofthelatteritisobstructedinonewayoranother.Consonants:thesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairsteamatsomepointofthevocaltract.Vowels:thesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstruction.ClassificationofEnglishconstantsClassificationintwoways:intermsofmannerofarticulation:stops,fricatives,affricates,nasals,liquids,glides.:intermsofplaceofarticulation:bilabial,labiodental,dental,alveolar,palatal,velar,glottal.ClassificationofEnglishvowels:thepositionofthetongueinthemouth舌位高低(classificationof10\n3groups:front,central,andback):theopennessofthemouth,口的张开程度(classificationof4groups:closevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,andopenvowels):theshapeofthelips园唇与否(roundedornotrounded):lengthofthevowels元音的长度(longvowelsandshortvowels,correspondingtothedistinctionoftenseandlaxvowels)Phonologyandphonetics音系学和语音学botharethestudiesofspeechsounds.Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages.语音学研究的是人类所有语言的语音，旨在对语音进行描述和分类。Phonologyisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.音系学研究的重点是特定语言的语音体系，语音表达意义作用。Phone，phonemeandallophone语音，音位，音位变体Phones,whichcanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Phonologyisconcernedwiththespeechsoundswhichdistinguishmeaning.Thedifferentwhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair音位对立，互补分布，最小对立对ropeandrobethat/P/and/b/canoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning;thereforetheyareinphonemiccontrast.可以出现在不同语音组合中的同一为止，产生意义差别。/P/and/Ph/thesetwoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.[pen]and[ben]最小对立对指出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合。Somerulesinphonology几条音系规则Sequentialrules序列规则：blik,klib,bilk,kilbispossible.Butlbki,ilbk,bkil,ilkbnotpossible.Assimilationrules同化规则（onesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakethetwophonessimilar）Deletionrule省略规则（ittelluswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.）Sign,design,thereisno{g}sound./Signature,designationthe{g}ispronounced./Deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconstant.Suprasegmentalfeatures:thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.切分即单音层面以上的音系特征。themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesare:stress,tone,intonation.超切分特征――重音，声调，语调第三单元Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Itisdividedintotwosub-branches:inflectionalmorphologyandlexicalorderivationalmorphology.形态学研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则，有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支Morpheme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.语素：语言最小的意义单位FreeMorpheme:Afreemorphemeisonethatcanstandbyitself.(independent)Freemorphemes:areindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.Forexample:boy.BoundMorpheme:Aboundmorphemeisonethatcannotstandbyitself.粘着语素必须和其他语素结合成单词cannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.Roots:Arootisoftenseenasapartofaword,itcanneverstand10\nbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.SuchrootsarenumerousinEnglishforexample:"geo-“bearsthemeaningof“theearth”.Whenitcombineswithanotherroot“-ology”meaning“abranchoflearning”,wegottheword“geology”whichmeans“thestudyoftheearth’sstructureBoundMorphemeincludestwotypes:(1)root(2)Affix(词缀)1)Inflectionalaffixes(屈折词缀)(inflectionalmorphemes):Inflectionalaffixes:manifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.affixesattachedtotheendofwordstoindicategrammaticalrelationshipsareinflectional2)Derivationalaffixes(派生词缀)Derivationalaffixes:areaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.Suchawayofword-formationiscalledderivationandthenewwordformedbyderivationiscalledaderivative.A)prefix:Aprefixcomesbeforewords.B)suffix：thatisaddedtothestem；theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.Rootandstem（词根和词干）(本书未涉及)1)Root2)StemThedifferencesbetweenrootandstem:Arootisthebasicformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Astemisthesurpluspartafterthecuttingofinflectionalmorphemeinawordwithinflectionalmorphemes,canbefurtheranalyzed,itsometimescouldbearoot.IndividualisticUndesirablesIndividualist(stem)undesirable(stem)Individual(stem)desirable(stem)dividual(stem)desire(root,stem)divide(root,stem)Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：addingword-formationorderivationalaffixestostem.Prefixation前缀@：It'stheformationofnewwordsbyaddingaprefixestostems.Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofaword,modifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.Suffixesattheendofaword,areaddedtotheendofstems.Theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.Compounding复合法（alsocalledcomposition）Compounding:istheformationofnewwordsbyjoiningtwoormorestems.CompoundingispopularandimportantwayofformingnewwordsinEnglish.Intermsofmorphemicanalysis,derivationcanbeviewedadtheadditionofaffixestostemstoformnewwords,andcompoundingthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.Featuresofcompounds1.orthographically(拼写特征):acompoundcanbewrittenasonewithorwithoutahyphen,orastwoseparatewords.Forexample:armchair,follow-up,thunderbird.2.syntactically(句法特征):thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement.Forexample:ice-cold(adj.)greenhouse(noun).3.sematically（语意特征）:themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningsofthemeaningsofitscomponents.Forexample:ablacklegisnotalegthatisblack,itmeanscheater4.phonetically（语音特征）:thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.单元四Syntaxisasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.Asamajorcomponentofgrammar,syntaxconsistsofasetofabstractrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordstoformgrammaticalsentences.句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统。Normallyasentenceconsistsofatleastasubjectanditspredicatewhichcontainsafiniteverboraverbphrase.句子通常由主语和谓语两大部分构成。谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。Thereferringexpressionisgrammaticallycalledsubject.主语是指句子中所被指称的对象。Subjectalllanguagehavewaysofreferringtosomeentity,suchasaperson,aplace,athing,anidea,oranevent,thisreferringexpressionisgrammaticallycalledsubject.AsubjectmaybeanounoranounphraseinasentencethatusuallyprecedesthepredicateTypesofsentences句子的类型Thesimplesentence:consistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.简单句含一个主语和一个谓语的独立句子10\nThecoordinatesentenceorcompoundsentence:containstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction.并列句含由连接词串联起来的两个句子成分Thecomplexsentence:containstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.Thetwoclausesinacomplexsentenceholdunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.复合句由两个或两个以上的子句组成，其中之一为主要子句，其余为从属子句。acomplexsentencecontainstwo,ormore,clauses,onewhichisincorporatedintoanother.Thatis,thetwoclausesincomplexsentenceholdunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.Theincorporated,orsubordinated,clauseisnormallycalledanembeddedclause,andtheclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledmatrixclause.Someconclusionscanbedrawnfromthecomplexsentence.1.anembeddedclausefunctionsasagrammaticalunitinitsmatrixclause.2.mostembeddedclausesrequireanintroductorywordcalledasubordinator,suchas“that”,”if”.3.anembeddedclausemaynotfunctionasagrammaticallywell-formedsentenceifitstandsindependentlyasasimplesentenceunlessitformchanges.Languageisahighlystructuredsystemofcommunication.Sentencesarenotformedbyrandomly(随意)combininglexicalitems,butbyfollowingasetofsyntacticrulesthatarrangelinguisticelementsinaparticularordertomakeastringofwordsnotonlymeaningfulbutalsolinearly-andhierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构)Thelinerandhierarchicalstructureofsentences句子的线性排列与层次结构Thelinerwordorderofasentence:whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinsequence.句子的线性排列，句子无论就其口头或书面表现形式看，所含的次都按线性次序排列。(表面上的排列)Thehierarchicalstructureofasentence：sentencesareorganizedwithwordsofthesamesyntacticcategory,suchasnounphrase(NP),orverbphrase(VP),groupedtogether.句子的结构是一种由名词词组和动词词组等句法成分单位构成的层次性结构。treediagramofsentencestructureThepointsatwhichthetreebranchesatvariouslevelsarecalledbranchingnodes.（分节点）Syntacticcategories句法类型Wordsandphrasesareorganizedaccordingtothesyntacticcategoriestheybelongto.Lexicalcategories词类MajorLexicalCategories主要词类Noun(N)\Verb(V)\Adjective(Adj)\Adverb(Adv)名词、动词、形容词、副词MinorLexicalCategoriesDeterminer(Det)\Auxiliary(Aux)\Preposition(Prep)\Pronoun(Pron)\Conjunction(Conj)\Interjection(Int)限定词、助动词、介词、代名词、连接词、感叹词Phrasalcategories词组类Nounphrase(NP)\Verbphrase(VP)\Prepositionalphrase(PP)\Adjectivephrase(AP)名词短语、动词短语、介词短语、形容词短语Grammaticalrelations语法关系Ourlinguisticknowledgeincludesanawarenessofadistinctionbetweenthestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsofconstituentscalledgrammaticalrelations.语法关系是指句子中名词词组与动词的关系，其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。Thestructuralsubjectandthestructuralobject结构主语与结构宾语Thelogicsubject(thedoeroftheaction)andthelogicalobject(therecipientoftheaction)逻辑主语（行动的执行者）与逻辑宾语（行动的接受者）Combinationalrules组合规则Phrasestructurerules（rewriterule）短语结构规则短语结构规则是一组句法重写规则。NP—DetN(a/theman)NP---DetAdjNPPS(thetallmanwithglassesthatImet)TherecursivenessofPhrasestructurerules短语结构规则的循环性Theserulescangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences,andsentencewithinfinitelength,duetotheirrecursiveproperties.根据短语结构规则，短语和句子可以无限循环地组合起来。NP(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)VPV(NP)(PP)(S)APA(PP)(S)PPPNPXP….XX-bar:ageneralandhighlyabstractschemathatcollapsesallphrasestructurerulesintoasingleformat:x”—(spec)X(comp.)Synatacticmovementandmovementrules[句法位移和移位规则]Synatacticmovementoccurswhenaconstituentinasentencemovesoutofitsoriginalplacetoanewpositon.Synatacticmovementisdictatedbyrulestraditonallcalledtransformationalrules[转换规则].NP-movementandWH-movement10\nNP-movementoccurwhenasentencechangesfromtheactivevoicetothepassivevoice.WH-movementisobligatory[强制性的]inEnglishwhichchangesasentencdfromaffirmativetointerrogative.AUX-movement,themovementofanauxiliaryverbtothesentence-initialposition,suchas“be”,“have”,“do”,“will”,“can”,and“should”.D-structureandS-structureAsentencdmayhavetwolevelsofsyntacticrepresentation.Oneexistsbeforemovementtakesplace,namedD-structure(orthedeepstructure[深层结构])，theotheroccursaftermovementtakesplacenamedS-structure(roughlymeaningthesurfacesturcture[表层结构])Transformational-generativelineofanalysis:itisbelievedthatphrasestructureruleswiththeinsertionofthelexicon,generatesentencesatthelevelofD-structure,whiletheapplicationofsynatcticmovementrulestransformsasentencefromthelevelofD-structuretothatofS-sturcture.phrasestructurerules+thelexicon---->D-structure---->movementrules---->S-structureGeneralgrammar:asystemoflinguisticknowledgewhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersaboutnaturallanguage.Moveα:Ageneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.ageneralmovementrule。Moveα(ormoveAlpha)ismovecertainconstituenttocertainplace.GeneralprinciplesofUniversalGrammar。Onesuchprinciple,orconditon,isthecasecondition[格条件].Asisrequiredbythecaseconditonprinciple,anounphrasemusthavecaseandcaseisassignedbyV(verb)orP(preposition)totheobjectposition,orbyAUX(auxiliary)tothesubjectposition.AnotherconditioniswhatisknownastheAdjacencycondition[毗邻条件]oncaseassignment,whichstatesthatacaseassignorandacaserecipientshouldstayadjacenttoeachother.TheparametersofUniversalGrammar。Adjacencyparameter[毗邻参数]:UGisbelievedtocontainaparameterwiththevalues[+strictadjacency]and[-strictadjacency]setontheAdjacencyCondition.Anotherparameter,theonethatinvolveswordorder,concernsthedirectionalityofCaseassignment,knownastheDirectionalityparameter.[方位参数]Twodirectionalityvalues[rightwarddirectionality]左向位and[leftwarddirectionality]右向位。17、linguisticcompetence:Comskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.18、sentence:Asentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatementquestionorcommand.19、transformationrules:Syntacticmovementisgovernedbytransformationalrules.Theoperationofthetransformationalrulesmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.单元五Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning:1.Thenamingtheory.Oneoftheoldestnotionsconcerningmeaning,andalsoaveryprimitiveone,wasthenamingtheoryproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.2.Theconceptualistview(意念论):washoldsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.,betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretation（解释）ofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.ThisviewissuggestedbyOgdenandRichards.3.Contextualism(语境论)：contextualismisbasedonthepresumption(假定)thatonecanderive(推导)meaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservable(可观测的)contexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized,thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.4.Behaviorism(行为主义论):behaviorismreferstotheattempt(企图)todefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakerutteritandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”(Bloomfied,1933).Thistheorysomewhatclosetocontextualismemphasizesonthepsychologicalresponse.SenseandreferenceSense(意义):Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Reference（所指意义）:Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Majorsenserelations:1.synonymy(同义):referstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.Synonymycanbedividedintothefollowinggroups:①Dialectalsynonyms(地域性同义词)---synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects.Thesearewordswithmoreorlessthesamemeaningusedindifferentregionaldialects.Suchas:AmericanEnglishandBritishEnglish.10\n②Stylisticsynonyms(文体同义词)---synonymsdifferinginstyle.Wordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality(礼节).Suchas:oldman,daddy,father.③synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning.④collocationalsynonyms(搭配上的区别)⑤semanticallydifferentsynonyms(语意上的差别)。Surpriseandamaze2.polysemy(多义)：referstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning;thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Forexample:table1apieceoffurniture2allthepeopleseatedatatable3thefoodthatisputonatable….3.homonymy(同音异意，同形异意)：homonymyreferstothephenomenon(现象)thatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.differentwordsareidentical(相同的)insoundorspelling,orinboth.Homophones(同音异意):refertotwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain/reignHomographs(同形异意):refertotwowordareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tearn./tearv.4.hyponymy(上下关系):referstothesenserelatingbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.5.antonymy:refertotwowordsareoppositeinmeaningi.Gradableantonymysii.Complementaryantonymsiii.RelationaloppositesSenserelationsbetweensentences句际语义关系i.XissynonymouswithY.X与Y同义ii.XisinconsistentwithY.X与Y不一致iii.XentailsY(YisanentailmentofX)蕴涵关系iv.XpresupposesY(YisaprerequisiteofX)前提预设v.Xisacontradiction矛盾关系vi.Xissemanticallyanomalous语义异常5.5Analysisofmeaning语义分析5.5.1Componentialanalysis（成分分析）--awaytoanalyzelexicaimeaningComponentialanalysis（成分分析）isawayproposedbythestructuralsemantieiststoanalyzewordmeaning.Theapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures（语义特征）.Thisisparalleltothewayaphonemeisanalyzedintosmallercomponentscalleddistinctivefeatures.Plusandminussignsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemanticfeatureispresentorabsentinthemeaningofaword,andthesefeaturesymbolsareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters.Forexample,theword"man"isanalyzedascomprisingthefeaturesofman：+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE.Woman:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE.Father:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE.Boy:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE. 5.5.2Predicationanalysis---awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning述谓结构分析Predicationanalysis(述谓分析法):isanewapproachforsententialmeaninganalysis.Predicationisusuallyconsideredanimportantcommoncategorysharedbypropositions,questions,commandsect.Predicationistobreakdownthesentenceintotheirsmallerconstituents:argument(logicalparticipant)andpredicate(relationelement).Thepredicateisthemajororpivotalelementgoverningtheargument.selectionalrestrictions选择限制theBritishlinguistG.Leech.Predication述谓结构statements陈述句imperative祈使句interrogative疑问句argument(s)（变元，中项）predicate谓词two-placepredication(双位述谓结构)one-placepredication（单位述谓结构）no-placepredication（缺位述谓结构）单元六Pragmatics：Pragmaticscanbedefinedinvariousways.Ageneraldefinitionisthatitisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Pragmaticsvs.semantics运用学和语义学Saussure索绪尔Pragmatics:thenotionofcontextwastakenintoconsideration,ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmaticsSemantics:contextisnotconsidered,thestudyisconfinedtotheareaoftraditionalsemanticsContext(语境):Thenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstituted(构成)bythespeakerandthehearer.Thesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:theknowledgeoflanguagetheyuse,theknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldand10\nthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.Sentencemeaning(句子意义):referstoasentenceandisagrammaticalconcept,andthemeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiesastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.Utterancemeaning(话语意义):referstoasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication.Itbecomesanutteranceanditshouldbeconsideredinthesituationinwhichitisactuallyuttered(orused).Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning句子意义和话语意义l  Ifwetakeitasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasaself-containedunitinisolationfromcontext,thenwearetreatingitasasentence.l  Ifwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenwearetreatingitasanutterance.l  Themeaningofasentenceisabstract,anddecontextualizd,thatofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontextdependent.6.2Speechacttheory言语行为理论6.2.1Austin'smodelofspeechactsl  constatives述事话语:arestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiableandconnotative(内涵的)bearingthetruth-value.l  performatives行事话语aresentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastateandarenotverifiable(可证实的),inotherwords,performativesareutterancethat“dothings”.Locutionaryact(言内行为):istheactofutteringwords,phrase,clauses.Itistheactconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lectionandphonology.Illocutionaryact(言外行为):istheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Perlocutionaryact(言后行为):istheactperform(执行)byorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.Theclassificationofillocutionaryacts:issuggestedandformulatedbyJohn.R.Searle,thestudentofJohnAustin.AccordingtoSearle,speechactsfallintotruegeneralcategoriesandeachtypehasacommon,generalpurpose:1.Representative(表述句):statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.2.Directives(指令句):tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.3.Commissives(受约句):committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction4.Expressives(表情句):expressingfeelingorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.5.Declarations(宣布句):bringaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething.Co-operativeprinciple/cp(合作原则):proposedandformulatedbyP.Grice,apragmatichypothesis,isaboutthattheparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.Theprinciplehasthefollowingformaxims:1.themaximofquantity:(a).makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired.(b).donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.2.themaximofquality:a.donotsaywhatyoubelievetofalse.B.donotsayforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.3.themaximofrelation:berelevant(有关联的)4.themaximofmanner:a.avoidobscurity(含糊)ofexpression.B.avoidambiguity（多意的）.(c.)bebriefed.beorderly(顺序).Conversationalimplicatures(会话含义):accordingtoP.Grice,referstotheextrameaningnotcontainedintheutterance,understandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximoftheCP.单元七Historicallinguisticsisthesubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguagechange.Historicallinguistsareconcernedwiththehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguagesandtheprocessesinvolvedinlanguagechange.Historicallinguistslookintothenatureoflanguagechangeandthecausethatleadtolanguagechange.MajorperiodsinthehistoryofEnglish:EnglishhasundergonedramaticchangesthroughoutthethreemajorperiodsofOldEnglish(449-1100),MiddleEnglish(roughlyfrom1100-1500),andmodernEnglish(1500tothepresent).Linguisticchange:isessentiallyamatterofchangeinthegrammar.Werefertothechangeinthegrammarofalanguageaslinguisticchange.TheGreatVowelshiftaseriesofsystematicsoundchangeinthe10\nhistoryofEnglishthatinvolvedsevenlongvowelsandconsequentlyledtooneofthemajordiscrepancies(差异)betweenEnglishpronunciationanditsspellingsystem.Apocope(尾音消失)thedeletionofaword-finalvowelsegment..suchas“name”Epenthesis(插音字)theinsertionofaconsonantorvowelsoundorthemiddleofaword.Socialgroupsreferstothespeakersinsociolinguisticstudies.Speechcommunityisdefinedasagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunity,andsharethesamelanguageoraparticularvarietyoflanguage.Speechvarietyreferstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakerorgroupofspeakers.Socialectreferstoavarietyoflanguagebypeoplebelongingtoaparticularsocialclass.Registerreferstoafunctionalspeechorlanguagevarietythatinvolvesdegreeofformalitydependingonthespeechsituationconcerned.Standardlanguagereferstoavarietyoflanguageofacommunityornation,usuallybasedonthespeechandwritingofeducatednativespeakersofthelanguage.Linguafrancaisavarietyoflanguagethatservesasacommonspeechforsocialcontactamonggroupsofpeoplewhospeakdifferentnativelanguageordialects.Pidginisamixedorblendedlanguageusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.Ithaslimitedvocabularyandreducedgrammaticalstructures.Diglossia(双言现象)referstoasociolinguisticsituationinwhichinwhichtwoverydifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunity,eachservingaparticularsocialfunctionandusedforaparticularsituation.Code-switchingreferstoabilingualspeakeroftenusestwolanguagealternativelyduringaconversationwithanotherbilingualspeaker.Bilingualismreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers,suchastheinhabitantsofaparticularregionornation.Anethnicdialect(orethniclanguagevariety)isasocialdialectofalanguage,ofthencuttingacrossregionaldifferences.Itisspokenmainlybyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedsomeformofsocialisolation,suchasracialdiscriminarionorsegregation.Domain(使用域)referstoaphenomenonthatmostbilingualcommunitieshaveonethingincommon,thatis,afairlyclearfunctionaldifferentiationofthetwolanguagesinrespectofspeechsituations,forexampletheHomeDomain,EmploymentDoman…Linguistictattoo(禁忌语)referstoawordorexpressionthatisprohibitedbythe“polite”societyfromgeneraluse,suchasobscene,profaneandswearwords….Euphemism(委婉语)isawordorexpressionthatisthoughttobemild,indirect,orlessoffensiveandsuedasapolitesubstituteforthesupposedlyharshandunpleasantwordorexpression.suchasgoaway–dieSpeechvarietyalsoknownaslanguagevariety,referstoangdistinguisdableformofspeechusedbyaspeekerorgroupofspeakers.Thedistinctivecharacteristicsofaspeechvarietymaybelexicalphonological,morphological,syntanctic,oracombinationoflinguisticfeatures.Slangisacasualuseoflanguagethatconsistsofexpressivebutnonstandardvocabulary,typicallyofarbitrary,flashyandoftenephemeralcoinagesandfiguresofspeechcharacterizedbyspontaneityandsometimesbyracinessPsycholinguisticsPsycholinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinrelationtothemind,withfocusontheprocessesoflanguageproduction,comprehensionandacquisition.Cerebralcortexistheoutsidesurfaceofthebrainwhichreceivesmessagefromallthesensoryorgansandwherehuamancognitiveabilitiesreside.Brainlateralizationreferstothelocalizationofcognitiveandperceptualfunctionsinparticularhemisphereofthebrain.Linguisticlateralizationisthehemisphericspecializationordominanceforlanguage.Dichoticlistening(两耳分听)referstoaresearchtechniquewhichhasbeenusedtostudyhowthebraincontrolshearingandlangugage,withwhichsubjectswearearphonesandsimultaneouslyreceivedifferentsoundsintherightandleftear,andarethanaskedtorepeatwhattheyhearandfindthatasignalcomingintherightearwillgotothelefthemisphereandasignalcomingintheleftearwillgototherighthemisphere.Thecriticalperiodisanearlyperiodofone’slifeextendingtotheageofpuberty,duringwhichthehumanbrainismostreadytoacquirelanguagenaturallyandeffortlessly,aperiodthatcoincideswiththeperiodofbrainlateralizationforlanguagefunctions.TheSqpir-Whorfhypothesisisatheoryputforwardbythe10\nAmericananthropologicallinguistisSapirandWhorf.Thishypothesisstatesthatthewaypeopleviewtheworldisdeterminedwhollyorpartlybythestructureoftheirnativelanguage.Subvocalspeechisatermusedtothoughtwhenthoughtandlanguageareidenticalorclosedparalleltoeachother.LanguagecentersBroca’sarea,Wernicke’sareaandtheangulargyrus.LanguageacquisitionLanguageacquisitionisconcernedwithlangugagedevelopmentinhumans.Referstothedevelopmentofthechildren’sacquisitionofhismothertongueorfirstlanguage.I.e.howhecomestounderstandandtospeakthelanguageofhiscommunity.Inputreferstothelanguagewhichalearnerhearsorreceivesandfromwhichheorshecanlearn.Behavioristlearningtheory,atheoryofPsychologysuggeststhatthelearner’sVerbalbehaviorisconditionedorreinforcedthroughassociationbetweenStimulusandresponsewhenappliedtofirstlanguageacquisition.Telegraphicspeechreferstotheearlyspeechofchildren.Itissocalledbecauseitlacksthesamesortsofwordswhichadultstypicallyleaveoutoftelegram.suchasnonsubstantivewordsandinflectionalmorphemes.Languagetransferreferstothelearnerswillsubconsciouslyusetheirknowledgeinlearningasecondlanguage.Transfercanbeeitherpositiveornegative.Interferencereferstotheuseofone’sfirstLanguagerulewhichlendstoanerrororinappropriateforminthetargetlanguage.ItisalsocalledNegativetransfer.Contrastiveanalysisreferstoacomparativeprocedureusetoestablishlinguisticdifferentsbetweentwolanguagesoastopredictlearningdifficultiescausedbyinterferencefromthelearner’sfirstlanguageandpreparethetypeofteachingmaterialsthatwillreducetheeffectsofinterference.ErroranalysisapproachshowsthatthesearestrikingsimilaritiesinthewayinwhichdifferentL2Learnersacquireanewlanguageandalargeproportionofdevelopmentaltypeoferrorsinlearner’sL2utterancesprovidesupportfortheclaimthatthesesimilaritiespointtoanaturalrouteofL2developmentwhichresemblesthatreportedforL1development.Interlanguagereferstotheapproximatelanguagesystemasecondlanguagelearnerconstractswhichrepresentshisorhertransitionalcompetenceinthetargetlanguage.Fossilizationreferstothecauseofthelearner’sinterlanguage.Thatisinsecondlanguagelearningtheincorrectlinguisticfeaturessuchastheaccentoragrammaticalpatternbecauseapermanentofthewayapersonspeaksorwritsinthetargetlanguage.Acculturationreferstotheprocessofadaptingtothecultureandvaluesystemofthesecondlanguagecommunity.Over-extensionreferstothefactthatChildrenover-extendearlywords,suchas“Daddy””Munny”,asaresulttheyarelikelytocallallmendaddyandallwomenmummy.Integrativemotivation(介入性学习动机)referstotheaimofasecondlanguagelearnerstointegratehimselforherselfofwhichthesecondlanguagecommunity.Instrumentalmotivation(工具性学习动机)referstothelearner’sdesiretolearnasecondlanguagebecauseitisausefulfunctionalinstrument,suchasgettingajob,passinganexaminationorreadingforinformation.10