英语专八语言学笔记

英语专八语言学笔记

英语语言学笔记1LinguisticsChapter1Introduction:LanguageandLinguisticslWhatislanguage?nDifferentdefinitionsoflanguageuLanguageisasystemwhosepartscanandmustbeconsideredintheirsynchronicsolidarity.(deSaussure,1916)u[Languageis]aset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.(Chomsky,1957)uLanguageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.nEachofthedefinitionsabovehaspointedoutsomeaspectsoftheessenceoflanguage,butallofthemhaveleftoutsomething.Wemustseethemulti-facetednatureoflanguage.nAsisagreedbylinguistsinbroadterms,languagecanbedefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.lFeaturesofhumanlanguagenCreativityuLanguageprovidesopportunitiesforsendingmessagesthathaveneverbeensentbeforeandforunderstandingbrandnewmessages.uThegrammarrulesandthewordsarefinite,butthesentencesareinfinite.Everyspeakeruseslanguagecreatively.nDualityuLanguagecontainstwosubsystems,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.uCertainsoundsorsequencesofsoundsstandforcertainmeanings.uCertainmeaningsareconveyedbycertainspeechsoundsorsequencesofspeechsounds.nArbitrarinessuTherelationshipbetweenthetwosubsystemsoflanguageisarbitrary.uThereisnologicalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.nDisplacementuThereisnolimitintimeorspaceforlanguage.uLanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingsrealorimagined,past,presentorfuture.nCulturaltransmissionuCulturecannotbegeneticallytransmitted.Instead,itmustbelearned.uLanguageisawayoftransmittingculture.nInterchangeabilityuAllmembersofaspeechcommunitycansendandreceivemessages.nReflexivityuHumanlanguagescanbeusedtodescribethemselves.uThelanguageusedtotalkaboutlanguageiscalledmeta-language.lFunctionsoflanguage–threemeta-functionsnTheideationalfunctionuToidentifythings,tothink,ortorecordinformation.nTheinterpersonalfunction37\nuTogetalonginacommunity.nThetextualfunctionuToformatext.lTypesoflanguagenGeneticclassificationnTypologicalclassificationuAnalyticlanguage–noinflectionsorformalchanges,grammaticalrelationshipsareshownthroughwordorder,suchasChineseandVietnameseuSyntheticlanguage–grammaticalrelationshipsareexpressedbychangingtheinternalstructureofthewords,typicallybychangingtheinflectionalendings,suchasEnglishandGermanuAgglutinatinglanguage–wordsarebuiltoutofalongsequenceofunits,witheachunitexpressingaparticulargrammaticalmeaning,suchasJapaneseandTurkishlThemythoflanguage–languageoriginnTheBiblicalaccountuLanguagewasGod’sgifttohumanbeings.nThebow-wowtheoryuLanguagewasanimitationofnaturalsounds,suchasthecriesofanimals,likequack,cuckoo.nThepooh-poohtheoryuLanguagearosefrominstinctiveemotionalcries,expressiveofpainorjoy.nTheyo-he-hotheoryuLanguagearosefromthenoisesmadebyagroupofpeopleengagedinjointlabouroreffort–liftingahugehuntedgame,movingarock,etc.nTheevolutiontheoryuLanguageoriginatedintheprocessoflabourandansweredthecallofsocialneed.lWhatislinguistics?nLinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.uObserving&questioninguFormulatinghypothesesuVerifyingthehypothesesuProposingatheorynBranchesoflinguisticsuInternalbranches:intra-disciplinarydivisionslPhoneticslPhonologylMorphologylSyntaxlSemanticsuExternalbranches:inter-disciplinarydivisionslPragmaticslPsycholinguisticslSociolinguisticslAppliedlinguisticslComputationallinguisticslNeurolinguistics37\nnFeaturesoflinguisticsuDescriptiveuDealingwithspokenlanguageuSynchronicChapter2PhoneticslWhatisphonetics?nPhoneticsistermedasthestudyofspeechsounds.nSub-branchesofphoneticsuArticulatoryphonetics–theproductionofspeechsoundsuAcousticphonetics–thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsoundsuAuditoryphonetics–theperceptivemechanismofspeechsoundslThespeechorgansnWheredoestheairstreamcomefrom?uFromthelungnWhatisthefunctionofvocalcords?uControllingtheairstreamnWhatarethecavities?uOralcavityuPharyngealcavityuNasalcavitylTranscriptionofspeechsoundsnUnitsofrepresentationuSegments(theindividualsounds)nPhoneticsymbolsuThewidelyusedsymbolsforphonetictranscriptionofspeechsoundsistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).uTheIPAattemptstorepresenteachsoundofhumanspeechwithasinglesymbolandthesymbolsareenclosedinbrackets[]todistinguishphonetictranscriptionsfromthespellingsystemofalanguage.uInmoredetailedtranscription(narrowtranscription)asoundmaybetranscribedwithasymboltowhichasmallerisaddedinordertomarkthefinerdistinctions.lDescriptionofspeechsoundsnDescriptionofEnglishconsonantsuGeneralfeature:obstructionuCriteriaofconsonantdescriptionlPlacesofarticulationlMannersofarticulationlVoicingofarticulationuPlacesofarticulationlThisreferstoeachpointatwhichtheairstreamcanbemodifiedtoproduceasound.nBilabial:[p][b][m][w]nLabiodental:[f][v]nInterdental:[W][T]37\nnAlveolar:[t][d][s][z][l][n][r]nPalatal:[F][V][tF][dV][j]nVelar:[k][g][N]nGlottal:[h]uMannersofarticulationlThisreferstohowtheairstreamismodified,whetheritiscompletelyblockedorpartiallyobstructed.nStops:[p][b][t][d][k][g]nFricatives:[s][z][F][V][f][v][W][T][h]nAffricates:[tF][dV]nLiquids:[l][r]nGlides:[w][j]nNasals:[m][n][N]uVoicingofarticulationlThisreferstothevibratingofthevocalcordswhensoundsareproduced.nVoicedsoundsnVoicelesssoundsnDescriptionofEnglishvowelsuGeneralfeature:withoutobstructionuCriteriaofvoweldescriptionlPartofthetonguethatisraisednFrontnCentralnBacklExtenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalatenHighnMidnLowlKindofopeningmadeatthelipslPositionofthesoftpalateuSinglevowels(monophthongs)anddiphthongslPhoneticfeaturesandnaturalclassesnClassesofsoundsthatshareafeatureorfeaturesarecallednaturalclasses.nMajorclassfeaturescanspecifysegmentsacrosstheconsonant-vowelboundary.nClassificationofsegmentsbyfeaturesisthebasisonwhichvariationsofsoundscanbeanalyzed.37\nChapter3PhonologylWhatisphonology?nPhonologyisthestudyofsoundsystemsandpatterns.nPhonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.nPhonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.uWhatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?uWhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?uWhatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage?lPhonemesandallophonesnAphonemeisadistinctive,abstractsoundunitwithadistinctivefeature.nThevariantsofaphonemearetermedallophones.nWeuseallophonestorealizephonemes.lDiscoveringphonemesnContrastivedistribution–phonemesuIfsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.uTypicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.lAminimalpairconsistsoftwowordsthatdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.lMinimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.uTheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.uSomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.However,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.nComplementarydistribution–allophonesuSoundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.uIfsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.nFreevariationuIfsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.lDistinctiveandnon-distinctivefeaturesnFeaturesthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,andfeaturesdonot,non-distinctivefeatures.nDistinctivefeaturesinonelanguagemaybenon-distinctiveinanother.lPhonologicalrulesnPhonemesareabstractsoundunitsstoredinthemind,whileallophonesaretheactual37\npronunciationsinspeech.nWhatphonemeisrealizedbywhatallophonesinwhatspecificcontextisanothermajorquestioninphonology.nTheregularitiesthatwhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontextaregeneralizedandstatedinphonologyasrules.nTherearemanyphonologicalrulesinEnglish.Takethefollowingonesasexamples.l[+voiced+consonant]–[-voiced]/[-voiced+consonant]_l[-voiced+bilabial+stop]–unaspirated/[-voiced+alveolar+fricative]_lSyllablestructurenAsyllableisaphonologicalunitthatiscomposedofoneormorephonemes.nEverysyllablehasanucleus,whichisusuallyavowel.nThenucleusmaybeprecededbyoneormoreconsonantscalledtheonsetandfollowedbyoneormoreconsonantscalledthecoda.lSequenceofphonemesnNativespeakersofanylanguageintuitivelyknowwhatsoundscanbeputtogether.nSomesequencesarenotpossibleinEnglish.Theimpossiblesequencesarecalledsystematicgaps.nSequencesthatarepossiblebutdonotoccuryetarecalledaccidentalgaps.nWhennewwordsarecoined,theymayfillsomeaccidentalgapsbuttheywillneverfillsystematicgaps.lSuprasegmentalfeaturesnFeaturesthatarefoundoverasegmentorasequenceoftwoormoresegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.nThesefeaturesaredistinctivefeatures.nStressuStressistheperceivedprominenceofoneormoresyllabicelementsoverothersinaword.uStressisarelativenotion.Onlywordsthatarecomposedoftwoormoresyllableshavestress.uIfawordhasthreeormoresyllables,thereisaprimarystressandasecondarystress.uInsomelanguageswordstressisfixed,i.e.onacertainsyllable.InEnglish,wordstressisunpredictable.nIntonationuWhenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpressideas.uIntonationisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishutterancemeaning.uThesamesentenceutteredwithdifferentintonationmayexpressdifferentattitudeofthespeaker.uInEnglish,therearethreebasicintonationpatterns:fall,rise,fall-rise.nToneuToneisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishwords.uThesamesequenceofsegmentscanbedifferentwordsifutteredwithdifferenttones.uChineseisatypicaltonelanguage.Chapter4MorphologylWhatismorphology?nThetotalnumberofwordsstoredinthebrainiscalledthelexicon.37\nnWordsarethesmallestfreeunitsoflanguagethatunitesoundswithmeaning.nMorphologyisdefinedasthestudyoftheinternalstructureandtheformationofwords.lMorphemesandallomorphsnThesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageiscalledamorpheme.nAmorphememayberepresentedbydifferentforms,calledallomorphs.n“zero”formofamorphemeandsuppletivesuSomecountablenounsdonotchangeformtoexpressplurality.Similarly,someregularverbsdonotchangeformtoindicatepasttense.Inthesetwocases,thenounorverbcontainstwomorphemes,amongwhichthereisone“zeroform”ofamorpheme.uSomeverbshaveirregularchangeswhentheyareinpasttense.Inthiscase,theverbsalsohavetwomorphemes.Wordswhicharenotrelatedinformtoindicategrammaticalcontrastwiththeirrootsarecalledsuppletives.lFreeandboundmorphemesnSomemorphemesconstitutewordsbythemselves.Thesemorphemesarecalledfreemorphemes.nOthermorphemesareneverusedindependentlyinspeechandwriting.Theyarealwaysattachedtofreemorphemestoformnewwords.Thesemorphemesarecalledboundmorphemes.nThedistinctionbetweenafreemorphemesandaboundmorphemeiswhetheritcanbeusedindependentlyinspeechorwriting.nFreemorphemesaretherootsofwords,whileboundmorphemesaretheaffixes(prefixesandsuffixes).lInflexionalandderivationalmorphemes真题网提供
InflexionalmorphemesinmodernEnglishindicatecaseandnumberofnouns,tenseandaspectofverbs,anddegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.nDerivationalmorphemesareboundmorphemesaddedtoexistingformstoconstructnewwords.uEnglishaffixesaredividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.uSomelanguageshaveinfixes,boundmorphemeswhichareinsertedintoothermorphemes.uTheprocessofputtingaffixestoexistingformstocreatenewwordsiscalledderivation.Wordsthusformedarecalledderivatives.lConclusion:classificationofmorphemesnMorphemesuFreemorphemesuBoundmorphemeslInflexionallDerivational:affixesnPrefixes:-s,-’s,-er,-est,-ing,-ed,-snSuffixeslFormationofnewwordsnDerivationuDerivationformsawordbyaddinganaffixtoafreemorpheme.uSincederivationcanapplymorethanonce,itispossibletocreateaderivedwordwithanumberofaffixes.Forexample,ifweaddaffixestothewordfriend,wecanformbefriend,friendly,unfriendly,friendliness,unfriendliness,etc.Thisprocessofaddingmorethanoneaffixtoafree37\nmorphemeistermedcomplexderivation.uDerivationdoesnotapplyfreelytoanywordofagivencategory.Generallyspeaking,affixescannotbeaddedtomorphemesofadifferentlanguageorigin.uDerivationisalsoconstrainedbyphonologicalfactors.uSomeEnglishsuffixesalsochangethewordstress.nCompoundinguCompoundingisanothercommonwaytoformwords.Itisthecombinationoffreemorphemes.uThemajorityofEnglishcompoundsarethecombinationofwordsfromthethreeclasses–nouns,verbsandadjectives–andfallintothethreeclasses.uIncompounds,therightmostmorphemedeterminesthepartofspeechoftheword.uThemeaningofcompoundsisnotalwaysthesumofmeaningofthecomponents.nConversionuConversionistheprocessputtinganexistingwordofoneclassintoanotherclass.uConversionisusuallyfoundinwordscontainingonemorpheme.nClippinguClippingisaprocessthatshortensapolysyllabicwordbydeletingoneormoresyllables.uClippedwordsareinitiallyusedinspokenEnglishoninformaloccasions.uSomeclippedwordshavebecomewidelyaccepted,andareusedeveninformalstyles.Forexample,thewordsbus(omnibus),vet(veterinarian),gym(gymnasium),fridge(refrigerator)andfax(facsimile)arerarelyusedintheircompleteform.nBlendinguBlendingisaprocessthatcreatesnewwordsbyputtingtogethernon-morphemicpartsofexistingwords.Forexample,smog(smoke+frog),brunch(amealinthemiddleofmorning,replacingbothbreakfastandlunch),motel(motor+hotel).Thereisalsoaninterestingwordinthetextbookforjuniormiddleschoolstudents–“plike”(akindofmachinethatislikebothaplaneandabike).nBack-formationuBack-formationistheprocessthatcreatesanewwordbydroppingarealorsupposedsuffix.Forexample,thewordteleviseisback-formedfromtelevision.Originally,thewordtelevisionisformedbyputtingtheprefixtele-(far)totherootvision(viewing).Atthesametime,thereisasuffix–sioninEnglishindicatingnouns.Thenpeopleconsiderthe–sioninthewordtelevisionasthatsuffixanddropittoformtheverbtelevise.nAcronymsandabbreviationsuAcronymsandabbreviationsareformedbyputtingtogethertheinitiallettersofallwordsinaphraseortitle.uAcronymscanbereadasawordandareusuallylongerthanabbreviations,whicharereadletterbyletter.uThistypeofwordformationiscommoninnamesoforganizationsandscientificterminology.nEponymsuEponymsarewordsthatoriginatefrompropernamesofindividualsorplaces.Forexample,thewordsandwichisacommonnounoriginatingfromthefourthEarlofSandwich,whoputhisfoodbetweentwoslicesofbreadsothathecouldeatwhilegambling.nCoinageuCoinageisaprocessofinventingwordsnotbasedonexistingmorphemes.37\nuThiswayofwordformationisespeciallycommonincaseswhereindustryrequiresawordforanewproduct.Forexample,KodakandCoca-cola.nFormoredetailedexplanationtothewaysofwordformation,seemynotesofPracticalEnglishGrammar.Chapter5SyntaxlWhatissyntax?nThetermsyntaxisfromtheancientGreekwordsyntaxis,whichliterallymeans“arrangement”or“settingouttogether”.nTraditionally,itreferstothebranchofgrammardealingwiththewaysinwhichwords,withorwithoutappropriateinflexions,arearrangedtoshowconnexionsofmeaningwithinthesentence.nSyntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatanalyzesthestructureofsentences.lWhatisasentence?nSyntaxistheanalysisofsentencestructure.Asentenceisasequenceofwordsarrangedinacertainorderinaccordancewithgrammaticalrules.nAsequencecanbeeitherwell-formedorill-formed.Nativespeakersofalanguageknowintuitivelywhatstringsofwordsaregrammaticalandwhatareungrammatical.lKnowledgeofsentencestructurenStructuralambiguityuStructuralambiguityisoneormorestring(s)ofwordshas/havemorethanonemeaning.Forexample,thesentenceTomsaidhewouldcomeyesterdaycanbeinterpretedindifferentways.nWordorderuDifferentarrangementsofthesamewordshavedifferentmeanings.Forexample,withthewordsTom,loveandMary,wemaysayTomlovesMaryorMarylovesTom.nGrammaticalrelationsuNativespeakersknowwhatelementrelatestowhatotherelementdirectlyorindirectly.Forexample,inTheboatsarenotbigenoughandWedon’thaveenoughboats,thewordenoughisrelatedtodifferentwordsinthetwosentences.nRecursionuThesamerulecanbeusedrepeatedlytocreateinfinitesentences.Forexample,Iknowthatyou37\narehappy.HeknowsthatIknowthatyouarehappy.SheknowsthatheknowsthatIknowthatyouarehappy.nSentencerelatednessuSentencesmaybestructurallyvariantbutsemanticallyrelated.nSyntacticcategoriesuAsyntacticcategoryisaclassofwordsorphrasesthatcansubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality.Forexample,considerthefollowingsentences:lThechildfoundtheknife.lApolicemanfoundtheknife.lThemanwhojustleftherefoundtheknife.lHefoundtheknife.uAlltheitalicizedpartsbelongtothesamesyntacticcategorycallednounphrase(NP).Thenounphrasesinthesesentencesfunctionassubject.Theknife,alsoanounphrase,functionsasobject.lTraditionalgrammarnIntraditionalgrammar,asentenceisconsideredasequenceofwordswhichareclassifiedintopartsofspeech.nSentencesareanalyzedintermsofgrammaticalfunctionsofwords:subjects,objects,verbs(predicates),predicatives,…nCompulsoryelementsofasentence:subject,verb,object,complement,adverbial…nNouns:number,case,gender…nVerbs:tense,aspect,voice…nAdjectivesandadverbs:comparativeandsuperlativedegreesnAgreementinnumber/person/gendernParsing:tryingtomakedetailedanalysisinstructurelStructuralgrammarnStructuralgrammararoseoutofanattempttodeviatefromtraditionalgrammar.Itdealswiththeinter-relationshipsofdifferentgrammaticalunits.Intheconcernofstructuralgrammar,wordsarenotjustindependentgrammaticalunits,butareinter-relatedtooneanother.nFormclassuFormclassisawiderconceptthanpartofspeechintraditionalgrammar.uLinguisticunitswhichcanappearinthesameslotaresaidtobeinthesameformclass.Forexample,a(n),the,my,that,every,etc.canbeplacedbeforenounsinEnglishsentences.Thesewordsfallintooneformclass.uTheselinguisticunitsareobservedtohavethesamedistribution.nImmediateconstituent(IC)analysisuStructuralgrammarischaracterizedbyatop-downprocessofanalysis.uAsentenceisseenasaconstituentstructure.Allthecomponentsofthesentencesareitsconstituents.Asentencecanbecutintosections.Eachsectionisitsimmediateconstituent.Theneachsectioncanbefurthercutintoconstituents.Thison-goingcuttingistermedimmediateconstituentanalysis.uExamples:lOldmenandwomen:old|menandwomen,old||men|andwomenlThe|||little||girl|speaks||French.uInthisway,sentencestructureisanalyzednotonlyhorizontallybutalsovertically.Inother37\nwords,ICanalysiscanaccountforthelinearityandthehierarchyofsentencestructure.lIwillsuggest|thatthis||initselfreflects|||aparticularideology||||aboutgender|||||thatdeservestobere-examined.uTwoadvantagesofICanalysis:lItcananalyzesomeambiguities.lItshowslinearityandhierarchyofonesentence.lTransformational-generative(TG)grammarnBackgroundandthegoalofTGgrammaruChomsky(1957)–grammaristheknowledgeofnativespeakers.lAdequacyofobservationlAdequacyofdescriptionlAdequacyofexplanationuWritingaTGgrammarmeansworkingouttwosetsofrules–phrasestructurerulesandtransformationrules–whicharefollowedbyspeakersofthelanguage.uTGgrammarmustaccountforallandonlygrammaticalsentences.nSyntacticcategoriesuNounPhrase(NP)uVerbPhrase(VP)uSentence(S)uDeterminer(Det)uAdjective(Adj)uPronoun(Pro)uVerb(V)uAuxiliaryVerb(Aux)uPrepositionalPhrase(PP)uAdverb(Adv)nPhrasestructure(PS)rulesuS→NPVP(Det)(Adj)NuNP→{ProuVP→(Aux)V(NP)(PP)uPP→PNPnTreediagrams(omit)nRecursionandtheinfinitudeoflanguageuScontainsNPandVPandthatSmaybeaconstituentofNPandVP.NPandPPcanbemutuallyinclusive.Ifphrasalcategoriesappearonbothsidesofthearrowinphrasestructurerules,therulesarerecursive.Recursiverulescanbeappliedagainandagain,andthephrasestructurecangrowendlessly.nSub-categorizationofthelexicon.uTheprocessofputtingwordsofthesamelexicalcategoryintosmallerclassesaccordingtotheirsyntacticcharacteristicsiscalledsub-categorization.nTransformationalrules(T-rules)uParticlemovementT-rule37\nlJohnturnedthemachineoff.Johnturnedoffthemachine.uReplacementT-rulelJohnbeatTom.HebeatTom.lThehouseneedsrepairing(toberepaired).uInsertionT-rulelAfishisswimminginthepond.Thereisafishswimminginthepond.uDeletionT-rulelTheycameinand(they)satdown.uCopyingT-rulelHeiscoming,isn’the?lHehasfinishedhishomework,hasn’the?uReflexivizationT-rulelIwashme(myself).nTGgrammaraccountsforthementalprocessofourspeaking.lSystematic-functionalgrammarnBackgroundandthegoalofsystemic-functionalgrammaruM.A.K.HallidaylLanguageisasystemofmeaningpotentialandanetworkofmeaningaschoices.lMeaningdeterminesform,notviceversa.Meaningisrealizedthroughforms.lThegoalofsystemic-functionalgrammaristoseehowfunctionandmeaningarerealizedthroughforms.lThethreemeta-functionsoflanguagenIdeationalfunctionnInterpersonalfunctionnTextualfunctionnThetransitivitysystemoflanguageuElementslProcesslParticipantslCircumstancesuCategorizationofrealitylDoing–materialprocessnProcessesinvolvingphysicalactions:walking,running,throwing,kicking,wrapping,etc.nActor,goalandcircumstancelBeing–relationalprocessnProcessesrepresentingarelationbeingsetupbetweentwoseparateentities.nBe(identifying),have(attributive)nCarrier/possessorandattribute/possessedlSensing–mentalprocessnProcessesofsensing,includingfeeling,thinking,perceiving,imagining,wanting,liking,etc.nSenserandphenomenonlLesscentraltypesoflinguisticprocessnVerbalprocesses–sayingsomethinguSayerandreceiver37\nnBehaviouralprocesses–activeconsciousprocessesuBehaverandrangenExistentialprocesses–existenceofanentityuExistentnMoodandmodalityuMoodexpressesthespeaker’sattitudeandservesforinterpersonalfunction.Itisasyntacticconstituentmadeupofthesubjectandthefinite.uModalityisthedegreeofcertaintyorfrequencyexpressedbythegrammaticalformsoffinite.Itcanbecategorizedbymodalizationandmodulation.nThemeandrhemeuThemeisthegiveninformation,whilerhemeisthenewinformation.uExamples:lJohn|ismyfriend.lHe|shouldhaverepliedtomyletter.Chapter6SemanticslWhatissemantics?nSemanticsisdefinedasthestudyofmeaning.However,itisnottheonlylinguisticdisciplinethatstudiesmeaning.nSemanticsanswersthequestion“whatdoesthissentencemean”.Inotherwords,itistheanalysisofconventionalmeaningsinwordsandsentencesoutofcontext.lReferenceandsensenLinguisticexpressionsstandinarelationtotheworld.Therearetwoaspectsofmeaning.nReferenceistherelationbywhichawordpicksoutoridentifiesanentityintheworld.Butthereferentialtheoryfailstoaccountforcertainkindsoflinguisticexpression.uSomewordsaremeaningful,buttheyidentifynoentitiesintherealworld,suchasthewordsdragon,phoenix,unicorn,andmermaid.uItisnotpossibleforsomewordstofindreferentintheworld,suchasthewordsbut,and,of,however,the,etc.uSpeakersofEnglishunderstandthemeaningofaroundtrianglealthoughthereisnosuchgraph.37\nnSenseistherelationbywhichwordsstandinhumanmind.Itismentalrepresentation,theassociationwithsomethinginthespeaker’sorhearer’smind.Thestudyofmeaningfromtheperspectiveofsenseiscalledtherepresentationalapproach.lClassificationoflexicalmeaningsnReferentialmeaning(denotativemeaning)–centralmeaningofwords,stable,universalnAssociativemeaning–meaningthathingesonreferentialmeaning,lessstable,moreculture-specificuConnotativemeaning–thecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,embracesthepropertiesofthereferent,peripheraluSocialmeaning(stylisticmeaning)–whatisconveyedaboutthesocialcircumstancesoftheuseofalinguisticexpressionuAffectivemeaning–whatiscommunicatedofthefeelingorattitudeofthespeaker/writertowardswhatisreferredtouReflectedmeaning–whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpressionlTaboosuCollocativemeaning–theassociatedmeaningawordacquiresinlinewiththemeaningofwordswhichtendtoco-occurwithitlLexicalsenserelationsnSynonymyuSynonymsarewordswhichhavedifferentformsbutsimilarmeanings.lDialectalsynonyms–lift/elevator,flat/apartmentlSynonymsofdifferentstyles–gentleman/guylSynonymsofdifferentregisters–salt/sodiumchloridelSynonymsdifferinginaffectivemeaning–attract/seducelSynonymsdifferingincollocation–beautiful/handsome,able/capableuSynonymsarefrequentlyusedinspeakingandwritingasacohesivedevice.Inordertoavoidrepetitionthewriter/speakerneedstouseasynonymtoreplaceawordinthepreviousco-textwhenhe/shewantstocontinuetoaddressthatidea.Thesynonymstogetherfunctiontocreatecohesionofthetext.AntonymyuAntonymsarewordswhichareoppositeinmeaning.Types:1.Contraries(/Gradableantonyms)—pairsofwordsoppositetoeachother,butthepositiveofoneworddoesnotnecessarilyimplythenegativeoftheother.Forexample,thewordshotandcoldareapairofantonyms,butnothotdoesnotnecessarilymeancold,maybewarm,mildorcool.Therefore,thispairofantonymsisapairofgradableantonyms.1.1.Gradable(modificationby“very”orcomparatives(younger,youngest)1.2.Relativesemanticcontrast2.Complementaries(/contradictories/Complementaryantonyms)—wordsoppositetoeachotherandthepositiveofoneimpliesthenegativeoftheother:alive/dead2.1.Atypeofbinarysemanticopposition3.Conversives(/reversal(relational)antonyms/opposites)—wordsthatdenotethesamerelationorprocessfromoneortheotherdirection:push/pull,up/down,teacher/student37\n1.1.AtypeofbinarysemanticoppositionuAntonymyisfrequentlyutilizedasarhetoricalresourceinlanguageuse.Oxymoronandantithesisbasedonantonymy.Gradableantonymsmaygiverisetofuzziness.nHomonymyuHomonymsarewordswhichhavethesameform,butdifferentmeanings.lHomographs–wordswhichareidenticalinspelling,butdifferentinmeaningandpronunciation:tear[tZE](v.)/tear[tiE](n.)lHomophones–wordswhichareidenticalinpronunciation,butdifferentinspellingandmeaning:see/sealFullhomonyms–wordswhichareidenticalinspellingandpronunciation,butdifferentinmeaning:bear(v.togivebirthtoababy/tostand)/bear(n.akindofanimal)uRhetorically,homonymsareoftenusedaspuns.nPolysemyuApolysemeisawordwhichhasseveralrelatedsenses.uPolysemyisbasedontheintuitionofnativespeakersaswellastheetymologyorhistoryofwords.nHyponymyuHyponymyisarelationofinclusion.uTiger,lion,elephantanddogarehyponymsofthewordanimal.Wordslikeanimalarecalledsuperordinates.uThiskindofverticalsemanticrelationlinkswordsinahierarchicalwork.lComponentialanalysisnComponentialanalysisistheapproachthatanalyzewordmeaningbydecomposingitintoitsatomicfeatures.Itshowsthesemanticfeaturesofaword.nExamples:uMan:+HUMAN+MALE+ADULTuBoy:+HUMAN+MALE–ADULTuFather:+HUMAN+MALE+ADULT→PARENTuDaughter:+HUMAN–MALE0ADULT←PARENTlWordsandconceptsnCategorizationuCategorizationreferstotheprocessbywhichpeopleuselanguagetoclassifytheworldaroundandinsidethem.uItisfundamentaltohumancognition.uInthepasttwodecadescognitivepsychologistsandcognitivelinguisticshavegainednewinsightsintothenatureofcategories.nPrototypesuAprototypeisasetthathastypical,centralfeatures.Othersareperipheralfeatures,whicharenottypicalbutrelated.nHierarchiesuConceptualnetworklSentencialsenserelations–semanticrelationsofsentencesnSentencesmayberelatedinsense.Iwillillustratesenserelationswithinandbetweensentences.uTautology:Thebachelorisunmarried.37\nuContradiction:Thebachelorismarried.uInconsistency:Johnissingle./Johnismarried.uSynonymousness:Johnbroketheglass./TheglasswasbrokenbyJohn.uEntailment:Themeetingwaschairedbyaspinster./Themeetingwaschairedbyawoman.uPresupposition:Samhasreturnedthebook./Samborrowedthebook.nThesesemanticrelationsarefoundwithinorbetweenmeaningfulsentences.Therearesentenceswhichsoundgrammaticalbutmeaningless.Thesesentencesaresaidtobesemanticallyanomalous.Forexample:uColourlessgreenideassleepfuriously.uThepregnantbachelorkilledsomephonemes.lMetaphorsnFromrhetoricaldevicetocognitivedeviceuTheclassicalviewseesmetaphorasakindofdecorativeinadditiontoordinarylanguage,arhetoricaldevicethatmakeslanguageusecolourful.uAnotherviewofmetaphor,whichhasbecomemoreinfluentialinthepasttwodecades,holdsthatmetaphorsareacognitivedevice.Metaphorisanessentialelementinourcategorizationoftheworldandourthinkingprocess.uCognitivelinguisticshasshownthatmetaphorisnotanunusualordeviantwayofusinglanguage.Theuseofmetaphorisnotconfinedtoliterature,rhetoricandart.Itisactuallyubiquitousineverydaycommunication.nThecomponentsofmetaphorsuTargetdomain–tenoruSourcedomain–vehiclenFeaturesofmetaphorsuMetaphorsaresystematic.uMetaphorscancreatesimilaritiesbetweenthetwodomainsinvolved.uMetaphorsarealsocharacterizedbyimaginativerationality.37\nChapter7PragmaticslWhatispragmatics?nPragmaticscanbedefinedastheanalysisofmeaningincontext.nPragmaticanalysisofmeaningisfirstandforemostconcernedwiththestudyofwhatiscommunicatedbyaspeaker/writerandinterpretedbyalistener/reader.nAnalysisofintentionalmeaningnecessarilyinvolvestheinterpretationofwhatpeopledothroughlanguageinaparticularcontext.nIntendedmeaningmayormaynotbeexplicitlyexpressed.Pragmaticanalysisalsoexploreshowlisteners/readersmakeinferencesaboutwhatiscommunicated.lWhatarethedifferencesbetweenthetwolinguisticstudiesofmeaning–semanticsandpragmatics?nSemanticsstudiesliteral,structuralorlexicalmeaning,whilepragmaticsstudiesnon-literal,implicit,intendedmeaning,orspeakermeaning.nSemanticsiscontextindependent,decontextualized,whilepragmaticsiscontextdependent,contextualized.nSemanticsdealswithwhatissaid,whilepragmaticsdealswithwhatisimplicatedorinferred.lDeixisandreferencenDeixisisawordoriginallyfromGreek.Itmeanspointingvialanguage.Anexpressionusedbyaspeaker/writertoidentifysomethingiscalleddeicticexpression.nOutofcontext,wecannotunderstandsentencescontainingdeicticexpressions,becausewedonotknowwhattheseexpressionsrefertorespectively.nAccordingtoreferentialcontent,deixiscanbeputintopersondeixis,placedeixis,timedeixisanddiscoursedeixis.uPersondeixis:I,we,you,me,he,etc.uPlacedeixis:here,there,above,over,this,that…lProximalanddistaltermsnProximaltermsareusedwhensomethingisclosetothespeaker,whiledistaltermswhensomethingisawayfromthespeaker.uTimedeixis:next…,by…,before…,etc.lTenses:codingtimeuDiscoursedeixislAnaphoric:backwardreferencelCataphoric:forwardreferencenThedeicticcentre–ego-centriccentrelSpeechactsnInlinguisticcommunication,peopledonotmerelyexchangeinformation.Theyactuallydosomethingthroughtalkingorwritinginvariouscircumstances.Actionsperformedviaspeakingarecalledspeechacts.nPerformativesentencesuImplicitperformatives–It’scoldhere.uExplicitperformatives–Pleaseclosethedoor.nTypesofspeechactsuLocutionaryspeechact–theactionofmakingthesentence37\nuIllocutionaryspeechact–theintentionsuPerlocutionaryspeechact–theeffectsuOfthesedimensions,themostimportantistheillocutionaryact.nInlinguisticcommunicationpeoplerespondtoanillocutionaryactofanutterance,becauseitisthemeaningintendedbythespeaker.nIfateachersays,“Ihaverunoutofchalk”intheprocessoflecturing,theactofsayingislocutionary,theactofdemandingforchalkisillocutionary,andtheeffecttheutterancebringsabout–oneofthestudentswillgoandgetsomechalk–isperlocutionary.nInEnglish,illocutionaryactsarealsogivenspecificlabels,suchasrequest,warning,promise,invitation,compliment,complaint,apology,offer,refusal,etc.thesespecificlabelsnamevariousspeechfunctions.nAsfunctionsmaynotcorrespondtoforms,speechactscanbedirectandindirect.uSearle:twowaysofcommunication(performingacts)lDirectspeechact:Closethedoor.lIndirectspeechact:It’scoldinhere.uWhydopeopleoftenspeakindirectlyinsocialcommunication?lDifferentsocialvariables:age,sex,socialconditionlPoliteness:communicativestrategyuIndirectspeechactsarerelatedtoappropriateness.lIndirectspeechactsaremadeforpoliteness,notviceversa.Tomakeappropriatechoicesdoesnotnecessarilymeanindirectspeechacts.lCooperationandimplicaturenConversationalImplicatureuInourdailylife,speakersandlistenersinvolvedinconversationaregenerallycooperatingwitheachother.Inotherwords,whenpeoplearetalkingwitheachother,theymusttrytoconversesmoothlyandsuccessfully.Inacceptingspeakers’presuppositions,listenershavetoassumethataspeakerisnottryingtomisleadthem.Thissenseofcooperationissimplyoneinwhichpeoplehavingaconversationarenotnormallyassumedtobetryingtoconfuse,trick,orwithholdrelevantinformationfromoneanother.uHowever,inrealcommunication,theintentionofthespeakerisoftennottheliteralmeaningofwhatheorshesays.Therealintentionimpliedinthewordsiscalledconversationalimplicature.Forexample:[1]A:Canyoutellmethetime?B:Well,themilkmanhascome.uInthislittleconversation,AisaskingBaboutthetime,butBisnotansweringdirectly.ThatindicatesthatBmayalsonotnotheaccuratetime,butthroughsaying“themilkmanhascome”,heisinfactgivingaroughtime.TheanswerBgivesisrelatedtotheliteralmeaningofthewords,butisnotmerelythat.Thatisoftenthecaseincommunication.Thetheoryofconversationalimplicatureisforthepurposeofexplaininghowlistenersinferthespeakers’intentionthroughthewords.uThestudyofconversationalimplicaturestartsfromGrice(1967),theAmericanphilosopher.Hethinks,indailycommunication,peopleareobservingasetofbasicrulesofcooperatingwitheachothersoastocommunicateeffectivelythroughconversation.Hecallsthissetofrulesthecooperativeprinciple(CP)elaboratedinfoursub-principles(maxims),thatisthecooperative37\nprinciple.nTheCooperativePrincipleuMakeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Themaximsare:lQuantitynMakeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).nDonotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.lQuality–Trytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue.nDonotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.nDonotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.lRelation–Berelevant.lManner–Beperspicuous.nAvoidobscurityofexpression.nAvoidambiguity.nBebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).nBeorderly.uWeassumethatpeoplearenormallygoingtoprovideanappropriateamountofinformation,i.e.theyaretellingtherelevanttruthclearly.ThecooperativeprinciplegivenbyGriceisanidealizedcaseofcommunication.uHowever,therearemorecasesthatspeakersarenotfullyadheringtotheprinciples.Butthelistenerwillassumethatthespeakerisobservingtheprinciples“inadeeperdegree”.Forexample:[2]A:WhereisBill?B:ThereisayellowcaroutsideSue’shouse.uIn[2],thespeakerBseemstobeviolatingthemaximsofquantityandrelation,butwealsoassumethatBisstillobservingtheCPandthinkabouttherelationshipbetweenA’squestionandthe“yellowcar”inB’sanswer.IfBillhasayellowcar,hemaybeinSue’shouse.uIfaspeakerviolateCPbytheprincipleitself,thereisnoconversationatall,sotherecannotbeimplicature.Implicaturecanonlybecausedbyviolatingoneormoremaxims.nFourCasesof“Violating”themaximsgivenbyGriceandConversationalImplicatureuThepeopleinconversationmayviolateoneormoremaximssecretly.Inthisway,hemaymisleadthelistener.lForthiscase,intheconversation[2]above,weassumethatBisobservingtheCPandBillhasayellowcar.ButifBisintentionallytryingtomisleadAtothinkthatBillisinSue’shouse,wewillbemisledwithoutknowing.Inthiscase,ifone“lies”inconversation,thereisnoimplicatureintheconversation,onlythemisleading.uHemaydeclarethatheisnotobservingthemaximsortheCP.lInthiskindofsituation,thespeakerdirectlydeclaresheisnotcooperating.Hehasmadeitclearthathedoesnotwanttogoonwiththeconversation,sothereisnoimplicatureeither.uHemayfallintoadilemma.Forexample,forthepurposeobservingthefirstprincipleofthemaximofquantity(makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired),hemaybeviolatingthesecondprincipleofthemaximofquality(donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence).lForthiscase,Gricegaveanexample:[3]A:WheredoesClive?B:SomewhereinthesouthofFrance.37\nlIn[3],ifBknowsthatAisgoingtovisitC,hisanswerisviolatingthemaximofquantity,becauseheisnotgivingenoughinformationaboutwhereClives.Buthehasnotdeclaredthathewillnotobservethemaxims.SowecanknowthatBknowsifhegivesmoreinformation,hewillviolatetheprinciple“donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence”.Inotherwords,hehasfallenintoa“dilemma”.SowecaninferthathisimplicatureisthathedoesnotknowtheexactaddressofC.Inthiscase,thereisconversationalimplicature.uHemay“flout”oneormoremaxims.Inotherwords,hemaybeobviouslynotobservingthem.lThelastsituationisthetypicalcasethatcanmakeconversationalimplicature.Oncetheparticipantinaconversationhasmadeanimplicature,heorsheismakinguseoneofthemaxims.Wecanseethatfromthefollowingexamples:[4]A:Whereareyougoingwiththedog?B:TotheV-E-T.lIn[4],thedogisknowntobeabletorecognizetheword“vet”andtohatebeingtakenthere.Therefore,Amakesthewordspelledout.Hereheis“flouting”themaximofmanner,makingtheimplicaturethathedoesnotwantthedogtoknowtheanswertothequestionjustasked.[5](Inaformalget-together)A:Mrs.Xisanoldbag.B:Theweatherhasbeenquitedelightfulthissummer,hasn’tit?lBisintentionallyviolatingthemaximofrelationin[5],implicatingthatwhatAhassaidistoorudeandheshouldchangeatopic.lThepolitenessprinciple(PP)nLeechpointsoutthatCPinitselfcannotexplainwhypeopleareoftensoindirectinconveyingwhattheymean.Grice’stheoryofCPis,fundamentally,logic-oriented.nConversationalinteractionisalsosocialbehaviour.Choiceoflinguisticcodesiscentralinlanguageuse.Therearesocialandpsychologicalfactorsthatdeterminethechoice.nBesidesbeingcooperative,participantsofconversationsnormallytrytobepolite.Thespeakersconsiderthematteroffaceforthemselvesandothers.Basedonthisobservation,Leechproposesthepolitenessprinciple(PP),whichcontainssixmaxims.uTactlMinimizecosttoother.lMaximizebenefittoother.uGenerositylMinimizebenefittoself.lMaximizecosttoself.uApprobationlMinimizedispraiseofother.lMaximizepraiseofother.uModestylMinimizepraiseofself.lMaximizedispraiseofself.uAgreementlMinimizedisagreementbetweenselfandother.lMaximizeagreementbetweenselfandother.uSympathy37\nlMinimizeantipathybetweenselfandother.lMaximizesympathybetweenselfandother.nThemaximsexpressedintermsofmaximizeentailtheconceptofgradienceinpoliteness.Thetactmaximexpressedintermsofcostandbenefitcanbeexemplifiedbythefollowing:真题网提供
Cleantherooms.CosttoHLesspoliteuGetsomechalksforme.↑↑uLookatthemap.uTakeaseat.uEnjoyyourtrip.↓↓uHaveanothercupofcoffee.BenefittoHMorepolitenCosttohearer:uPeelthepotatoes.MoredirectLesspoliteuCanyoupeelthepotatoes?↑↑uWillyoupeelthepotatoes?↓↓uWouldyoupossiblypeel…?LessdirectMorepolitenBenefittohearer:uWouldyouhaveanothersandwich?LessdirectLesspoliteuWillyouhaveanothersandwich?↑↑uHaveanothersandwich.↓↓uYoumusthaveanothersandwich.MoredirectMorepolitenPolitenessandappropriatenessuDistance,power,situationalcontextnRelationbetweenCPandPPuThePPisthesuperordinateprinciplestandingabovetheCP.ThePPoverridestheCP.uPeoplesometimesviolatetheCPinordertofollowthePP.lAgeneralintroductiontotheprincipleofrelevance(RP)nFromthefourmaximsofCPtotheRPuThecodemodellCommunicationisaprocessofcodinganddecoding.uTheinferentialmodellCommunicationisaprocessofproducingandinterpreting,orcodingandinferring.nTheoreticalassumptionsuGenerallaw:tousetheminimaleffortforthemaximaleffectforhumanbehaviour.uTocommunicateistoclaimothers’attention.uContractualeffect/processingeffort=relevancenThetheoryofRPintroducedhereisonlyatinypart.Forfurtherstudy,pleasesearchthewebfromgoogle.lConversationalimplicaturenWhatisaconversation?uAconversationischangingideas,orconversing.uConversationisthebasicformofspeechinhumancommunication.uConversationisthedialogicforminspokenandwrittendiscourse.nAnalysisofconversation37\nuTheglobalanalysis–toanalyzethewholestructure,thewholeprocessofaconversation.uThelocalanalysis–tounderstandtheinternalstructureofaconversation,theturn-taking.lTurn-takingnTurn-takingreferstohavingtherighttospeakbyturns.nConversationsnormallyfollowthepatternof“Ispeak–youspeak–Ispeak–youspeak”,iftherearetwoparticipants.nAnypossiblechange-of-turnpointiscalledatransitionrelevanceplace(TRP).nOnespeaks(takesthefloor),theotherlistens.lAdjacencypairnAdjacencypairsareafundamentalunitofconversationalstructure.nGreeting/greeting,question/answer,invitation/acceptance,offer/decline,complaint/denialarecommoncasesofadjacencypairs.lInsertionsequencenNotallfirstpartsareimmediatelyfollowedbysecondparts.Itoftenoccursthattheanswerisdelayedbyanotherpairofquestionandanswer.Lookatthefollowingexample:-MayIhaveabottleofMich?(Q1)-Areyouover21?(Q2)-No.(A2)-No.(A1)nThesecondpartofadjacencypairisviolatedhere.nAconversationsometimesisorganizedinapreferentialway.lPre-sequencenPre-invitationnPre-requestnPre-announcementlPost-sequencenExplanationChapter8LanguageinSocialContextslWhatissociolinguistics?nThesociolinguisticstudyoflanguageuLanguageinrelationtosocietyuDiversityoflanguage,variationbetweensocietiesorwithinasocietynThedistinctionbetween“language”and“alanguage”uTrytoanswerthefollowingthreequestions:lCanlanguagebedefinedintermsofgeography?lCanlanguagebedefinedintermsofnationality?lShouldlanguagebedefinedbymutualintelligibility?37\nuTheanswertothesequestionsshouldallbeno.Alllanguagesareequal.Ifyoudefinelanguageintermsofthesefactors,youarespeakingof“alanguage”.lVarietiesoflanguagenAlanguagevariesaccordingtothefollowingfactors:uSituationuGeographicalareasuSocialfactorsuPurposesandsubjectmattersuTime(throughwhichthelanguagedevelops)nGeographicalvarietiesandregionaldialectsuWhat’stherelationshipbetweenaregionaldialectandthenationalstandardspeech?lAregionaldialectisavarietyofthenationalstandardspeech.uAccentlPronunciation:lSpelling:-our/-orlVocabulary:lGrammar:haveyou/doyouhave…uSocialvarietieslSociolectsareformsofalanguagethatcharacterizethespeechofdifferentsocialclasses.lAsocialvarietyisavarietyoflanguagebroughtaboutbythesocialfactors.lLanguageplaystheroleofasocialindicator.lSocialclassesandvariationnGrammar:thirdpersonsingularnPronunciation:popularcontractedformslSexandvariationnWomentendtospeakmorestandard,decentvariation.nWomentendtomakeoverstatements,especiallywhenmakingcomment.nWomenprefertousecertainadjectiveswhicharenotusednormally.nWomentendtoavoidtheuseofvulgarwords.nWomentendtousecertainexpressionstoshowhappinessorsurprise.lAgeandvariationlRaceandvariationnRacialdifferencenBlackEnglish-Pronunciation-GrammarlTemporaldialectsnStandarddialectandidiolectuStandarddialectisthehighestprestigeinasocietyoranation.Itisusuallybasedonthewell-educatedspeech.lItisusedinnewsmediaandliterature.lItisdescribedindictionariesandgrammarbooks.lItistaughtinschoolsandtonon-nativelearners.uIdiolectisthelanguagesystemofanindividual.Itisone’sparticularwayofspeakingand/or37\nwriting.nRegister–situationalvarietyuRegisterisaspeechvarietywhichchangesaccordingtothesituationwherelanguageisused.Usuallyitissharedbyagroupofpeople,suchaslawyers,doctors,stampcollectors,etc.uToknowhowtousearegistermeanstoknowhowtouselanguageappropriately.uRegisterisanalyzedonthreedimensions:field,modeandtenor.Fieldisconcernedwithwhyandaboutwhatwecommunicate;modeisrelatedtohowwecommunicate;tenorisaboutwithwhomwecommunicate.lFormalitynFrozennFormalnConsultativenCasualnIntimatelLanguageincontactnThroughouthistorynonaturallanguageispureorfreefromtheinfluenceofotherlanguages.Duetotrade,war,colonizationandothercauseslanguagesmaycomeintocontact.Whenthisoccurs,mixedcodesmaycomeintobeing,whicharecalledpidginsandcreoles.uThetermpidginisthelabelforthecodeusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguages.Apidginisnotthenativelanguageofanygroup.uAcreoleisamixedlanguagewhichhasbecomethemothertongueofaspeechcommunity.nBilingualismandmultilingualismarenormalinmanypartsoftheworldtoday.nBilingualismgivesrisetocode-switchingandcode-mixing.Theformerreferstothefactthataspeakerchangesfromonelanguagetotheotherindifferentsituationsorwhentalkingaboutdifferenttopics.Thelatterreferstothechangefromonelanguagetotheotherlanguagewithinthesameutterance.lTaboosandeuphemismsnTabooreferstoaprohibitionontheuseof,mentionof,orassociationwithparticularobjects,actions,orpersons.Euphemismisanexpressionthatsubstitutesonewhichmaybeseenasoffensiveordisturbingtotheaddressee.nTabooandeuphemismareactuallytwosidesofthesamecoin.nWhatistabooornottaboodependsonthecontext.lAbriefintroductiontoahottopicnowadays:languageandculturenWhatisculture?uNatureismaterial,whilecultureisspiritual.uLinguisticrelativitynLanguageispartofculture,acarrierofculture.uLanguageisaproductofoursociallife.uLanguageistheprincipalmeanbywhichcultureispasseddown.uLanguagereflectsthewayofthinking.Mentalactivitiesdependonlinguisticactivity.nSapir-Whorfhypothesis(relationshipbetweenlanguageandculture)uDeterminismlLanguagedeterminesourwayofthinking.uRelativism(linguisticrelativity)37\nnForfurtherstudyofthishottopic,refertothebookLanguageandCulturewrittenbyClaireKramschlCompetencenLinguisticcompetence:grammaticality,presentedbyChomskynCommunicativecompetence:fourcomponentsuGrammaticalityuAcceptabilityuAppropriatenessuEffectivenessChapter9SecondLanguageAcquisition(SLA)lWhatisSLA?nWhatislanguageacquisition?uThenaturalprocessofchildren’slanguagedevelopment.uItisdifferentfromlanguagelearning.uFourstagesoflanguageacquisitionlBabbling–holophrastic–two-word–telegraphicnWhatissecondlanguageacquisition(SLA)?uSLAislearningalanguageinF2(thelanguagebeinglearnt)languageenvironment.uItisdifferentfromforeignlanguagelearning,whichislearningalanguageinF1languageenvironment.uThemajordifferenceistheenvironment.nForeignlanguageteaching(FLT)andsecondlanguageteaching(SLT)nSLAtheorylFactorsaffectingSLAnExternalfactors:socialfactorsuSocialdemanduLanguagepolicynInternalfactors:learnerfactorsuMotivationlInstrumentallIntegrativeuAgeuLearningstrategy37\nlCognitivenRepetitionnTranslationnNote-takinglMetacognitivenOrganizingnSelf-monitoringnSelf-evaluationuPersonalityuAttitudelAnalysisoflearners’languagenWhyanalyze?uLearners’languageprovidesdataforresearchintothenatureofthelearningprocess.Inordertogaininsightintotheprocess,researchershaveengagedintheanalysisoflearners’language.nHowtoanalyze?uContrastiveanalysislComparethetargetlanguagewiththemothertongue.uErroranalysislIdentifyingerrorsnErrorsareduetothefaultinknowledgeofthespeaker,whilemistakesarebecauseofunsuccessfulperformance.lDescribingerrorsnOmission-Hecameinto_classroomwithabookin_hand.nAddition/wordy-Mychildgoestohisschool.nSelection-Ihope/wish…nDisordering-Iyesterdaywentto…(I,yesterday,wentto…/Iwentto…yesterday)lExplainingerrorsandanalyzingreasonnInterlingualfactors-Mothertongue’sinfluencenIntralingualfactors-Overgeneralization-Simplification-Cross-associationlLimitationforerroranalysisnFailtoseewhatlearners’languagewillbelikeifwefocusontheerrors.uInterlanguagelApproximatelanguagesystemlTransitionallanguagelLanguagetransfer–toborrowlanguagefromL1nPositivetransfer:L1doeshelp37\nnNegativetransfer:L1misleadslLearnersextendpatternsbyanalogy–overgeneralizedmistakes(overextension).lCommunicativestrategylExplainingSLAnNativisttheoriesuChomsky:LADsystemuKrashen:monitortheoryuInputhypothesis(i+1hypothesis)nEnvironmentalisttheoriesuCulturalawarenessuTheoreticalperspective(languageoutlook)uConfidenceandcompetencenFunctionalisttheoriesuLanguageuseuCommunicativestrategies(CS)Chapter10LinguisticsandForeignLanguageTeaching(FLT)lFLTasasystemnGovernmentplanningnSyllabusdesignandmaterialdevelopmentnClassroomteachingnEvaluationlContributionoflinguistics:applicationsandimplicationsnApplicationsuLinguisticdescriptioncanbedirectlyusedasinputintosyllabusandmaterialdevelopment.nImplicationsuThereisanindirectrelationshipbetweenlinguisticsandFLT.lContents:whattoteach?lMethodology:howtoteach?uWhatwelearnfromacertaintheoryishelpfulindecidingthose.lTheroleofateachernOrganizernLanguageuserForfurtherstudy,refertomynotesofTeachingMethod.真题网提供
37\n英语语言学笔记21.1.Whatislanguage?“Languageissystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Itisasystem,sincelinguisticelementsarearrangedsystematically,ratherthanrandomly.Arbitrary,inthesensethatthereisusuallynointrinsicconnectionbetweenawork(like“book”)andtheobjectitrefersto.Thisexplainsandisexplainedbythefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferent“books”:“book”inEnglish,“livre”inFrench,inJapanese,inChinese,“check”inKorean.Itissymbolic,becausewordsareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideasetc.bynothingbutconvention.Namely,peopleusethesoundsorvocalformstosymbolizewhattheywishtoreferto.Itisvocal,becausesoundorspeechistheprimarymediumforallhumanlanguages,developedor“new”.Writingsystemscamemuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Thefactthatsmallchildrenlearnandcanonlylearntospeak(andlisten)beforetheywrite(andread)alsoindicatesthatlanguageisprimarilyvocal,ratherthanwritten.Theterm“human”inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishumanspecific.1.2.Whataredesignfeaturesoflanguage?“Designfeatures”hererefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethattellthedifferencebetweenhumanlanguageandanysystemofanimalcommunication.Theyarearbitrariness,duality,productivity,displacement,culturaltransmissionandinterchangeability1.3.Whatisarbitrariness?By“arbitrariness”,wemeanthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds(seeI.1).Adogmightbeapigifonlythefirstpersonorgroupofpersonshaduseditforapig.Languageisthereforelargelyarbitrary.Butlanguageisnotabsolutelyseemtobesomesound-meaningassociation,ifwethinkofechowords,like“bang”,“crash”,“roar”,whicharemotivatedinacertainsense.Secondly,somecompounds(wordscompoundedtobeoneword)arenotentirelyarbitraryeither.“Type”and“write”areopaqueorunmotivatedwords,while“type-writer”islessso,ormoretransparentormotivatedthanthewordsthatmakeit.Sowecansay“arbitrariness”isamatterofdegree.1.4.Whatisduality?Linguistsrefer“duality”(ofstructure)tothefactthatinalllanguagessofarinvestigated,onefindstwolevelsofstructureorpatterning.Atthefirst,higherlevel,languageisanalyzedintermsofcombinationsofmeaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,wordsetc.);atthesecond,lowerlevel,itisseenasasequenceofsegmentswhichlackanymeaninginthemselves,butwhichcombinetoformunitsofmeaning.AccordingtoHuZhanglinetal.(p.6),languageisasystemoftwosetsofstructures,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.Thisisimportantfortheworkingsoflanguage.Asmallnumberofsemanticunits(words),andtheseunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences(notethatwehavedictionariesofwords,butnodictionaryofsentences!).Dualitymakesitpossibleforapersontotalkaboutanythingwithinhisknowledge.Noanimalcommunicationsystemenjoysthisduality,orevenapproachesthishonour.1.5.Whatisproductivity?Productivityreferstotheabilitytotheabilitytoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinone’snativelanguage,includingthosethathasneverheardbefore,butthatareappropriatetothespeakingsituation.Noonehaseversaidorheard“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthesmallhotelbedwithanAfricangibbon”,buthecansayitwhennecessary,andhecanunderstanditinrightregister.Differentfromartisticcreativity,though,productivitynever37\ngoesoutsidethelanguage,thusalsocalled“rule-boundcreativity”(byN.Chomsky).1.6.Whatisdisplacement?“Displacement”,asoneofthedesignfeaturesofthehumanlanguage,referstothefactthatonecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent,aseasilyashedoesthingspresent.Inotherwords,onecanrefertorealandunrealthings,thingsofthepast,ofthepresent,ofthefuture.Languageitselfcanbetalkedabouttoo.Whenaman,forexample,iscryingtoawoman,aboutsomething,itmightbesomethingthathadoccurred,orsomethingthatisoccurring,orsomethingthatistooccur.Whenadogisbarking,however,youcandecideitisbarkingforsomethingoratsomeonethatexistsnowandthere.Itcouldn’tbebow-wowingsorrowfullyfordomelostloveorabonetobelost.Thebee’ssystem,nonetheless,hasasmallshareof“displacement”,butitisanunspeakabletinyshare.1.7.Whatisculturaltransmission?Thismeansthatlanguageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,butthatthedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Itistruethatthecapacityforlanguageinhumanbeings(N.Chomskycalledit“languageacquisitiondevice”,orLAD)hasageneticbasis,buttheparticularlanguageapersonlearnstospeakisaculturaloneotherthanageneticonelikethedog’sbarkingsystem.Ifahumanbeingisbroughtupinisolationhecannotacquirelanguage.TheWolfChildrearedbythepackofwolvesturnedouttospeakthewolf’sroaring“tongue”whenhewassaved.Helearnedthereafter,withnosmalldifficulty,theABCofacertainhumanlanguage.1.8.Whatisinterchangeability?Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.Wecansay,andonotheroccasionscanreceiveandunderstand,forexample,“Pleasedosomethingtomakemehappy.”Thoughsomepeople(includingme)suggestthatthereissexdifferentiationintheactuallanguageuse,inotherwords,menandwomenmaysaydifferentthings,yetinprinciplethereisnosound,orwordorsentencethatamancanutterandawomancannot,orviceversa.Ontheotherhand,apersoncanbethespeakerwhiletheotherpersonisthelistenerandastheturnmovesontothelistener,hecanbethespeakerandthefirstspeakeristolisten.Itisturn-takingthatmakessocialcommunicationpossibleandacceptable.Somemalebirds,however,uttersomecallswhichfemalesdonot(orcannot?),andcertainkindsoffishhavesimilarhapsmentionable.Whenadogbarks,alltheneighbouringdogsbark.Thenpeoplearoundcanhardlytellwhichdog(dogs)is(are0“speaking”andwhichlistening.1.9.Whydolinguistssaylanguageishumanspecific?Firstofall,humanlanguagehassix“designfeatures”whichanimalcommunicationsystemsdonothave,atleastnotinthetruesenseofthem(seeI.2-8).Let’sborrowC.F.Hocket’sChartthatcompareshumanlanguagewithsomeanimals’systems,fromWangGang(1998,p.8).Secondly,linguistshavedonealottryingtoteachanimalssuchaschimpanzeestospeakahumanlanguagebuthaveachievednothinginspiring.Washoe,afemalechimpanzee,wasbroughtuplikeahumanchildbyBeatniceandAlanGardner.Shewastaught“AmericansignLanguage”,andlearnedalittlethatmadetheteachershappybutdidmotmakethelinguisticscirclehappy,forfewbelievedinteachingchimpanzees.Thirdly,ahumanchildrearedamonganimalscannotspeakahumanlanguage,notevenwhenheistakenbackandtaughttolotoso(seethe“WolfChild”inI.7)1.10.Whatfunctionsdoeslanguagehave?37\nLanguagehasatleastsevenfunctions:phatic,directive,Informative,interrogative,expressive,evocativeandperformative.AccordingtoWangGang(1988,p.11),languagehasthreemainfunctions:atoolofcommunication,atoolwherebypeoplelearnabouttheworld,andatoolbywhichpeoplelearnabouttheworld,andatoolbywhichpeoplecreateart.M.A.K.Halliday,representativeoftheLondonschool,recognizesthree“Macro-Functions”:ideational,interpersonalandtextual(see!.11-17;seeHUZhuanglinetal.,pp10-13,pp394-396).1.11Whatisthephaticfunction?The“phaticfunction”referstolanguagebeingusedforsettingupacertainatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontacts(ratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas).Greetings,farewells,andcommentsontheweatherinEnglishandonclothinginChineseallservethisfunction.Muchofthephaticlanguage(e.g.“Howareyou?”“Fine,thanks.”)isinsincereiftakenliterally,butitisimportant.Ifyoudon'tsay“Hello”toafriendyoumeet,orifyoudon’tanswerhis“Hi”,youruinyourfriendship.1.12.Whatisthedirectivefunction?The“directivefunction”meansthatlanguagemaybeusedtogetthehearertodosomething.Mostimperativesentencesperformthisfunction,e.g.,“Tellmetheresultwhenyoufinish.”Othersyntacticstructuresorsentencesofothersortscan,accordingtoJ.AustinandJ.Searle’s“indrectspeechacttheory”(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp271-278)atleast,servethepurposeofdirectiontoo,e.g.,“IfIwereyou,Iwouldhaveblushedtothebottomofmyears!”1.13.Whatistheinformativefunction?Languageservesan“informationalfunction”whenusedtotellsomething,characterizedbytheuseofdeclarativesentences.Informativestatementsareoftenlabelledastrue(truth)orfalse(falsehood).AccordingtoP.Grice’s“CooperativePrinciple”(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp282-283),oneoughtnottoviolatethe“MaximofQuality”,whenheisinformingatall.1.14.Whatistheinterrogativefunction?Whenlanguageisusedtoobtaininformation,itservesan“interrogativefunction”.Thisincludesallquestionsthatexpectreplies,statements,imperativesetc.,accordingtothe“indirectspeechacttheory”,mayhavethisfunctionaswell,e.g.,“I’dliketoknowyoubetter.”Thismaybringforthalotofpersonalinformation.Notethatrhetoricalquestionsmakeanexception,sincetheydemandnoanswer,atleastnotthereader’s/listener’sanswer.1.15.Whatistheexpressivefunction?The“expressivefunction”istheuseoflanguagetorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsorattitudesofthespeaker.Subconsciousemotionalejaculationsaregoodexamples,like“Goodheavens!”“MyGod!”Sentenceslike“I’msorryaboutthedelay”canserveasgoodexamplestoo,thoughinasubtleway.Whilelanguageisusedfortheinformativefunctiontopassjudgementonthetruthorfalsehoodofstatements,languageusedfortheexpressivefunctionevaluates,appraisesorassertsthespeaker’sownattitudes.1.16.Whatistheevocativefunction?The“evocativefunction”istheuseoflanguagetocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimis,forexample,toamuse,startle,antagonize,soothe,worryorplease.Jokes(notpracticaljokes,though)aresupposedtoamuseorentertainthelistener;advertisingtourgecustomerstopurchasecertaincommodities;propagandatoinfluencepublicopinion.Obviously,theexpressiveandtheevocativefunctionsoftengotogether,i.e.,youmayexpress,forexample,yourpersonalfeelingsaboutapoliticalissuebutendupbyevokingthesamefeelingin,orimposingiton,yourlistener.37\nThat’salsothecasewiththeotherwayround.1.17.Whatistheperformativefunction?Thismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings”orperformactions.Oncertainoccasionstheutteranceitselfasanactionismoreimportantthanwhatwordsorsoundsconstitutetheutteredsentence.WhenaskedifathirdYangtzebridgeoughttobebuiltinWuhan,themayormaysay“OK”,whichmeansmorethanspeech,andmorethananaveragesocialindividualmaydofortheconstruction.Thejudge’simprisonmentsentence,thepresident’swarorindependencedeclaration,etc.,areperformativesaswell(seeJ.Austin’sspeechActTheory,HuZhuanglin,ecal.,pp271-278).1.18.Whatislinguistics?“Linguistics”isthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonesociety,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.Alinguist,though,doesnothavetoknowandusealargenumberoflanguages,buttoinvestigatehoweachlanguageisconstructed.Heisalsoconcernedwithhowalanguagevariesfromdialecttodialect,fromclasstoclass,howitchangesfromcenturytocentury,howchildrenacquiretheirmothertongue,andperhapshowapersonlearnsorshouldlearnaforeignlanguage.Inshort,linguisticsstudiesthegeneralprincipleswhereuponallhumanlanguagesareconstructedandoperateassystemsofcommunicationintheirsocietiesorcommunities(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp20-22)1.19.Whatmakeslinguisticsascience?Sincelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage,itoughttobaseitselfuponthesystematic,investigationoflanguagedatawhichaimsatdiscoveringthetruenatureoflanguageanditsunderlyingsystem.Tomakesenseofthedata,alinguistusuallyhasconceivedsomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure,tobecheckedagainsttheobservedorobservablefacts.Inordertomakehisanalysisscientific,alinguistisusuallyguidedbyfourprinciples:exhaustiveness,consistency,andobjectivity.Exhaustivenessmeansheshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevanttothestudyandgivethemanadequateexplanation,inspiteofthecomplicatedness.Heistoleavenolinguistic“stone”unturned.Consistencymeansthereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement.Economymeansalinguistshouldpursuebrevityintheanalysiswhenitispossible.Objectivityimpliesthatsincesomepeoplemaybesubjectiveinthestudy,alinguistshouldbe(orsoundatleast)objective,matter-of-face,faithfultoreality,sothathisworkconstitutespartofthelinguisticsresearch.1.20.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics(e.g.HuZhuanglinetal.,1988;WangGang,1988).Butalinguistsometimesisabletodealwithonlyoneaspectoflanguageatatime,thustheariseofvariousbranches:phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,sociolinguistics,appliedlinguistics,pragmatics,psycholinguistics,lexicology,lexicography,etymology,etc.1.21.Whataresynchronicanddiachronicstudies?Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(asifitstoppeddeveloping)isasynchronystudy(synchrony).Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy(diachronic).Anessayentitled“OntheUseofTHE”,forexample,maybesynchronic,iftheauthordoesnotrecallthepastofTHE,anditmayalsobediachronicifheclaimstocoveralargerangeorperiodoftimewhereinTHEhasundergonetremendousalteration(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp25-27).1.22.Whatisspeechandwhatiswriting?37\nNooneneedstherepetitionofthegeneralprincipleoflinguisticanalysis,namely,theprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Speechisprimary,becauseitexistedlonglongbeforewritingsystemscameintobeing.Geneticallychildrenlearntospeakbeforelearningtowrite.Secondly,writtenformsjustrepresentinthiswayorthatthespeechsounds:individualsounds,asinEnglishandFrenchasinJapanese.Incontrasttospeech,spokenformoflanguage,writingaswrittencodes,giveslanguagenewscopeandusethatspeechdoesnothave.Firstly,messagescanbecarriedthroughspacesothatpeoplecanwritetoeachother.Secondly,messagescanbecarriedthroughtimethereby,sothatpeopleofourtimecanbecarriedthroughtimethereby,sothatpeopleofourtimecanreadBeowulf,SamuelJohnson,andEdgarA.Poe.Thirdly,oralmessagesarereadilysubjecttodistortion,eitherintentionalorunintentional(causingmisunderstandingormalentendu),whilewrittenmessagesallowandencouragerepeatedunalterablereading.Mostmodernlinguisticanalysisisfocusedonspeech,differentfromgrammariansofthelastcenturyandtheretofore.1.23.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenthedescriptiveandtheprescriptiveapproaches?Alinguisticstudyis“descriptive”ifitonlydescribesandanalysesthefactsoflanguage,and“prescriptive”ifittriestolaydownrulesfor“correct”languagebehavior.Linguisticstudiesbeforethiscenturywerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlygrammarswerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlygrammarswerebasedon“high”(literaryorreligious)writtenrecords.Modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive,however.It(thelatter)believesthatwhateveroccursinnaturalspeech(hesitation,incompleteutterance,misunderstanding,etc.)shouldbedescribedintheanalysis,andnotbemarkedasincorrect,abnormal,corrupt,orlousy.These,withchangesinvocabularyandstructures,needtobeexplainedalso.1.24.Whatisthedifferencebetweenlangueandparole?F.deSaussurerefers“langue”totheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandrefers“parole”totheactualoractualizedlanguage,ortherealizationoflangue.Langueisabstract,parolespecifictothespeakingsituation;languenotactuallyspokenbyanindividual,parolealwaysanaturallyoccurringevent;languerelativelystableandsystematic,paroleisamassofconfusedfacts,thusnotsuitableforsystematicinvestigation.Whatalinguistoughttodo,accordingtoSaussure,istoabstractlanguefrominstancesofparole,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethanthesubjectoflinguistics.Thelangue-paroledistinctionisofgreatimportance,whichcastsgreatinfluenceonlaterlinguists.1.25.Whatisthedifferencebetweencompetenceandperformance?AccordingtoN.Chomsky,“competence”istheideallanguageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,and“performance”istheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances.Theformerenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompetence.Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Inotherwords,theyshoulddiscoverwhatanidealspeakerknowsofhisnativelanguage.Chomsky’scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,F.deSaussure’slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofconventionsforacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.Sussure37\nlooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanN.Chomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.1.26.Whatislinguisticpotential?Whatisactuallinguisticbehaviour?Thesetwoterms,orthepotential-behaviordistinction,weremadebyM.A.K.Hallidayinthe1960s,fromafunctionalpointofview.Thereisawiderangeofthingsaspeakercandoinhisculture,andsimilarlytherearemanythingshecansay,forexample,tomanypeople,onmanytopics.Whatheactuallysays(i.e.his“actuallinguisticbehavior”)onacertainoccasiontoacertainpersoniswhathehaschosenfrommanypossibleinjusticeitems,eachofwhichhecouldhavesaid(linguisticpotential). 1.27.Inwhatwaydolanguage,competenceandlinguisticpotentialagree?Inwhatwaydotheydiffer?Andtheircounterparts?Langue,competenceandlinguisticpotentialhavesomesimilarfeatures,buttheyareinnatelydifferent(see1.25).Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofspeakingconventions;competenceisapropertyorattributeofeachidealspeaker’smind;linguisticpotentialisallthelinguisticcorpusorrepertoireavailablefromwhichthespeakerchoosesitemsfortheactualutterancesituation.Inotherwords,langueisinvisiblebutreliableabstractsystem.Competencemeans“knowing”,andlinguisticpotentialasetofpossibilitiesfor“doing”or“performingactions”.TheyaresimilarinthattheyallrefertotheconstantunderlyingtheutterancesthatconstitutewhatSaussure,ChomskyandHallidayrespectivelycalledparole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehavior.Paole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehaviorenjoymoresimilaritiesthandifferences.1.28.Whatisphonetics?“Phonetics”isthesciencewhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofhumansound-making,especiallythosesoundsusedinspeech,andprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp39-40),speechsoundsmaybestudiedindifferentways,thusbythreedifferentbranchesofphonetics.(1)Articulatoryphonetics;thebranchofphoneticsthatexaminesthewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinateintheprocess.(2)Auditoryphonetics,thebranchofphoneticresearchfromthehearer’spointofview,lookingintotheimpressionwhichaspeechsoundmakesonthehearerasmediatedbytheear,theauditorynerveandthebrain.(3)Acousticphonetics:thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmittedbetweenmouthandear.Mostphoneticians,however,areinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.1.29.Howarethevocalorgansformed?Thevocalorgans(seeFigure1,HuZhuanglinetal.,p41),orspeechorgans,areorgansofthehumanbodywhosesecondaryuseisintheproductionofspeechsounds.Thevocalorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts;theinitiatoroftheair-stream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.1.30.Whatisplaceofarticulation?Itreferstotheplaceinthemouthwhere,forexample,theobstructionoccurs,resultingintheutteranceofaconsonant.Whateversoundispronounced,atleastsomevocalorganswillgetinvolved,e.g.lips,hardpalateetc.,soaconsonantmaybeoneofthefollowing(1)bilabial:[p,b,m];(2)labiodental:[f,v];(3)dental:[,];(4)alveolar:[t,d,l,n.s,z];(5)retroflex;(6)palato-alveolar:[,];(7)palatal:[j];(8)velar[k,g,];(9)uvular;(10)glottal:[h].Somesoundsinvolvethesimultaneoususeoftwoplacesofarticulation.Forexample,theEnglish37\n[w]hasbothanapproximationofthetwolipsandthattwolipsandthatofthetongueandthesoftpalate,andmaybetermed“labial-velar”.1.31.Whatisthemannerofarticulation?The“mannerofarticulation”literallymeansthewayasoundisarticulated.Atagivenplaceofarticulation,theairstreammaybeobstructedinvariousways,resultinginvariousmannersofarticulation,arethefollowing:(1)plosive:[p,b,t,d,k,g];(2)nasal:[m,n,];(3)trill;(4)taporflap;(5)lateral:[l];(6)fricative:[f,v,s,z];(7)approximant:[w,j];(8)affricate:[].1.32.Howdophoneticiansclassifyvowels?Phoneticians,inspiteofthedifficulty,groupvowelsin5types:(1)longandshortvowels,e.g.,[i:,];(4)roundedandunroundvowels,e.g.[,i];(5)pureandglidingvowels,e.g.[I,].1.33.WhatisIPA?Whendiditcomeintobeing?TheIPA,abbreviationof“InternationalPhoneticAlphabet”,isacompromisesystemmakinguseofsymbolsofallsources,includingdiacriticsindicatinglength,stressandintonation,indicatingphoneticvariation.Eversinceitwasdevelopedin1888,IPAhasundergoneanumberofrevisions.1.34.Whatisnarrowtranscriptionandwhatisbroadtranscription?Inhandbookofphonetics,HenrySweetmadeadistinctionbetween“narrow”and“broad”transcriptions,whichhecalled“NarrowRomic”.Theformerwasmeanttosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingeventhemostminuteshadesofpronunciationwhileBroadRomicortranscriptionwasintendedtoindicateonlythosesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguage.1.35.Whatisphonology?Whatisdifferencebetweenphoneticsandphonology?(1)“Phonology”isthestudyofsoundsystems-theinventionofdistinctivespeechsoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternswhereintheyfall.Minimalpair,phonemes,allophones,freevariation,complementarydistribution,etc.,arealltobeinvestigatedbyaphonologist.(2)Phonetics,asdiscussedinI.28,isthebranchoflinguisticsstudyingthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Aphonetistismainlyinterestedinthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds,whereasaphonologiststudieswhathebelievesaremeaningfulsoundsrelatedwiththeirsemanticfeatures,morphologicalfeatures,andthewaytheyareconceivedandprintedinthedepthofthemindphonologicalknowledgepermitsaspeakertoproducesoundswhichfrommeaningfulutterances,torecognizeaforeign“accent”,tomakeupnewwords,toaddtheappropriatephoneticsegmentstofrompluralsandpasttenses,toknowwhatisandwhatisnotasoundinone’slanguage.1.36.Whatisaphone?Whatisaphoneme?Whatisanallophone?A“phone”isaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Whenwehearthefollowingwordspronounced:[pit],[tip],[spit],etc.,thesimilarphoneswehaveheardare[p]foronething,andthreedifferent[p]’s,readilymakingpossiblethe“narrowtranscriptionordiacritics”.Phonesmayandmaynotdistinguishmeaning.A“phoneme”isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Asanabstractunit,aphonemeisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Forexample,thephoneme[p]isrepresenteddifferentlyin[pit],[tip]and[spit].Thephonesrepresentingaphonemearecalledits“allophones”,i.e.,thedifferent(i.e.,phones)butdonotmakeonewordsophoneticallydifferentastocreateanewwordoranewmeaningthereof.Sothedifferent[p]’sintheabovewordsaretheallophonesofthesamephoneme[p].How37\naphonemeisrepresentedbyaphone,orwhichallophoneistobeused,isdeterminedbythephoneticcontextinwhichitoccurs.Butthechoiceofanallophoneisnotrandom.Inmostcasesitisrule-governed;theserulesaretobefoundoutbyaphonologist.1.37.Whatareminimalpairs?Whentwodifferentphoneticformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestring,thetwoforms(i.e.,word)aresupposedtoforma“minimalpair”,e.g.,“pill”and“bill”,“pill”and“till”,“till”and“dill”,“till”and“kill”,etc.Allthesewordstogetherconstituteaminimalset.Theyareidenticalinformexceptfortheinitialconsonants.TherearemanyminimalpairsinEnglish,whichmakesitrelativelyeasytoknowwhatareEnglishphonemes.Itisofgreatimportancetofindtheminimalpairswhenaphonologistisdealingwiththesoundsystemofanunknownlanguage(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp65-66).1.38.Whatisfreevariation?Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironmentdonotcontrast;namely,ifthesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotgenerateanewwordformbutmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword,thetwosoundsthenaresaidtobein“freevariation”.Theplosives,forexample,maynotbeexplodedwhentheyoccurbeforeanotherplosiveoranasal(e.g.,act,apt,goodmorning).Theminutedistinctionsmay,ifnecessary,betranscribedindiacritics.Theseunexplodedandexplodedplosivesareinfreevariation.Soundsinfreevariationshouldbeassignedtothesamephoneme.1.39.Whatiscomplementarydistribution?Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment,theyarein“complementarydistribution”.Forexample,theaspiratedEnglishplosivesneveroccurafter[s],andtheunsaturatedonesneveroccurinitially.Soundsincomplementarydistributionmaybeassignedtothesamephoneme.Theallophonesof[l],forexample,arealsoincomplementarydistribution.Theclear[l]occursonlybeforeavowel,thevoicelessequivalentof[l]occursonlyafteravoicelessconsonant,suchasinthewords“please”,“butler”,“clear”,etc.,andthedark[l]occursonlyafteravowelorasasyllabicsoundafteraconsonant,suchasinthewords“feel”,“help”,“middle”,etc.1.40.Whatistheassimilationrule?Whatisthedeletionrule?(1)The“assimilationrule”assimilatesonesegmenttoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonesmoresimilar.Thisruleaccountsfortheraringpronunciationofthenasal[n]thatoccurswithinaword.Theruleisthatwithinawordthenasalconsonant[n]assumesthesameplaceofarticulationasthefollowingconsonant.Thenegativeprefix“in-“servesasagoodexample.Itmaybepronouncedas[in],[i]or[im]whenoccurringindifferentphoneticcontexts:e.g.,indiscrete-[](alveolar)inconceivable-[](velar)input-[‘imput](bilabial)The“deletionrule”tellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughisorthographicallyrepresented.Whiletheletter“g”ismutein“sign”,“design”and“paradigm”,itispronouncedintheircorrespondingderivatives:“signature”,“designation”and“paradigmatic”.Therulethencanbestatedas:deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.ThisaccountsforsomeoftheseemingirregularitiesoftheEnglishspelling(seeDaiWeidong,pp22-23).1.41.Whatissuprasegmentalphonology?Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?“Suprasegmentalphonology”referstothestudyofphonologicalpropertiesoflinguisticunitslargerthanthesegmentcalledphoneme,suchassyllable,wordandsentence.37\nHuZhuanglinetal.,(p,73)includesstress,lengthandpitchaswhattheysupposetobe“principalsuprasegmentalfeatures”,callingtheconcurrentpatterningofthree“intonation”.DaiWeidong(pp23-25)liststhreealso,buttheyarestress,toneandintonation.1.42.Whatismorphology?“Morphology”isthebranchofgrammarthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Itisgenerallydividedintotwofields:inflectionalmorphologyandlexical/derivationalmorphology.1.43.Whatisinflection/inflexion?“Inflection”isthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspect,andcase,whichdoesnotchangethegrammaticalclassoftheitemstowhichtheyareattached.1.44.Whatisamorpheme?Whatisanallomorph?The“morpheme”isthesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitwhichcannotbedividedwithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Theword“boxes”,forexample,hastwomorphemes:“box”and“-es”,neitherofwhichpermitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisifwedon’twishtosacrificemeaning.Thereforeamorphemeisconsideredtheminimalunitofmeaning.Allomorphs,likeallophonesvs.phones,arethealternateshapes(andthusphoneticforms)ofthesamemorphemes.Somemorphemes,though,havenomorethanoneinvariableforminallcontexts,suchas“dog”,“cat”,etc.Thevariantsoftheplurality“-s”maketheallomorphsthereofinthefollowingexamples:map-maps,mouse-mice,sheep-sheepetc.1.45.Whatisafreemorpheme?Whatisaboundmorpheme?A“freemorpheme”isamorphemethatconstitutesawordbyitself,suchas‘bed”,“tree”,etc.A“boundmorpheme”isonethatappearswithatleastanothermorpheme,suchas“-s”in“beds”,“-al”in“national”andsoon.Allmonomorphemicwordsarefreemorphemes.Thosepolymorphemicwordsareeithercompounds(combinationoftwoormorefreemorphemes)orderivatives(wordderivedfromfreemorphemes).1.46.Whatisaroot?Whatisastem?Whatisanaffix?A“root”isthebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Inotherwords,a“root”isthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.“Internationalism”isafour-morphemederivativewhichkeepsitsfreemorpheme“nation”asitsrootwhen“inter-”,“-al”and“-ism”aretakenaway.A“stem”isanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichanaffixcanbeadded.Itmaybethesameas,andinothercases,differentfrom,aroot.Forexample,intheword“friends”,“friend”isboththerootandthestem,butintheword“friendships”,“friendships”isitsstem,“friend”isitsroot.Somewords(i.e.,compounds)havemorethanoneroot,e.g.,“mailman”,“girlfriend”,ect.An“affix”isthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeused,onlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes:prefix,suffixandinfix,e.g.,“mini-”,“un-”,ect.(prefix);“-ise”,“-tion”,ect.(suffix).1.47.Whatareopenclasses?Whatareclosedclasses?InEnglish,nouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbsmakeupthelargestpartofthevocabulary.Theyare“open-classwords”,sincewecanregularlyaddnewlexicalentriestotheseclasses.Theother37\nsyntacticcategoriesare,forthemostpart,closedclasses,orclosed-classwords.Thenumberofthemishardlyalterable,iftheyarechangeableatall.1.48.Whatislexicon?Whatisword?Whatislexeme?Whatisvocabulary?Lexicon?Word?Lexeme?Vocabulary?“Lexicon”,initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.Initstechnicalsense,however,lexicondealswiththeanalysisandcreationofwords,idiomsandcollocations.“Word”isaunitofexpressionwhichhasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.Thisdefinitionisperhapsalittlevagueastherearedifferentcriteriawithregardtoitsidentificationanddefinition.Itseemsthatitishard,evenimpossible,todefine“word”linguistically.Nonethelessitisuniversallyagreedthatthefollowingthreesensesareinvolvedinthedefinitionof“word”,noneofwhich,though,isexpectedtocopewithallthesituations:(1)aphysicallydefinableunit,e.g.,[itiz‘w](phonological),“Itiswonder”(orthographic);(2)thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms(seewhatisthecommonfactorof“checks”,“checked”,“checking”,etc.);(3)agrammaticalunit(lookat(1)again;everywordplaysagrammaticalpartinthesentence). AccordingtoLeonardBloomfield,awordisaminimumfreeform(compare:asentenceisamaximumfreeform,accordingtoBloomfield).Thereareotherfactorsthatmayhelpusidentifywords:(1)stability(nogreatchangeoforthographicfeatures);(2)relativeuninterruptibility(wecanhardlyinsertanythingbetweentwopartsofawordorbetweentheletters).Tomakethecategoryclearerwecansubclassifywordsintoafewtypes:(1)variableandinvariablewords(e.g.,-mats,seldom-?);(2)grammaticalandlexicalwords(e.g.to,in,etc.,andtable,chair,ect.By“lexicalwords”wemeanthewordsthatcarryasemanticcontent,e.g.,nouns,verbs,adjectivesandmanyadverbs;(3)close真题网提供
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