英语语言学名词解释

英语语言学名词解释

Chapter12 :LanguageAndBrain1.neurolinguistics:Itisthestudyofrelationshipbetweenbrainandlanguage.Itincludesresearchintohowthestructureofthebraininfluenceslanguagelearning,howandinwhichpartsofthebrainlanguageisstored,andhowdamagetothebrainaffectstheabilitytouselanguage.2.psycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguageprocessing.Itisconcernedwiththeprocessesoflanguageacqisition,comprehensionandproduction.3.brainlateralization:Thelocalizationofcognitiveandperceptivefunctionsinaparticularhemisphereofthebrain.4.dichoticlistening:Atechniqueinwhichstimulieitherlinguisticornon-linguisticarepresentedthroughheadphonestotheleftandrighteartodeterminethelateralizationofcognitivefunction.5.rightearadvantage:Thephenomenonthattherightearshowsanadvantagefortheperceptionoflinguisticsignalsidknownastherightearadvantage.6.splitbrainstudies:Theexperimentsthatinvestigatetheeffectsofsurgicallyseveringthecorpuscallosumoncognitionarecalledassplitbrainstudies.7.aphasia:Itreferstoanumberofacquiredlanguagedisordersduetothecerebrallesionscausedbyatumor,anaccidentandsoon.8.non-fluentaphasia:Damagetopartsofthebraininfrontofthecentralsulcusiscallednon-fluentaphasia.9.fluentaphasia:Damagetopartsoftheleftcortexbehindthecentralsulcusresultsinatypeofaphasiacalledfluentaphasia.10.Acquireddyslexia:Damageinandaroundtheangulargyrusoftheparietallobeoftencausestheimpairmentofreadingandwritingability,whichisreferredtoasacquireddyslexia.11.phonologicaldyslexia:itisatypeofacquireddyslexiainwhichthepatientseemstohavelosttheabilitytousespelling-to-soundrules.12.surfacedyslexia:itisatypeofacquireddyslexiainwhichthepatientseemsunabletorecognizewordsaswholebutmustprocessallwordsthroughasetofspelling-to-soundrules.13.spoonerism:aslipoftongueinwhichthepositionofsounds,syllables,orwordsisreversed,forexample,Let’shavechishandfipsinstendofLet’shavefishandchips.14.priming:theprocessthatbeforetheparticipantsmakeadecisionwhetherthestringoflettersisawordornot,theyarepresentedwithanactivatedword.15.frequencyeffect:Subjectstakelesstimetomakejudgementonfrequentlyusedwordsthantojudgelesscommonlyusedwords.Thisphenomenoniscalledfrequencyeffect.16.lexicaldecision:anexperimentthatletparticipantsjudgewhetherastringofletterisawordornotatacertaintime.17.theprimingexperiment:Anexperimentthatletsubjectsjudgewhetherastringoflettersisawordornotaftershowedwithastimulusword,calledprime.18.primingeffect:Sincethementalrepresentationisactivatedthroughtheprime,whenthetargetispresented,responsetimeisshorterthatitotherwisewouldhavebeen.Thisiscalledtheprimingeffect.(06F)19.bottom-upprocessing:anapproachthatmakesuseprincipallyofinformationwhichisalreadypresentinthedata.20.top-downprocessing:anapproachthatmakesuseofpreviousknowledgeandexperienceofthereadersinanalyzingandprocessinginformationwhichisreceived.21.gardenpathsentences:asentenceinwhichthecomprehenderassumesaparticularmeaningofawordorphrasebutdiscoverslaterthattheassumptionwasincorrect,forcingthecomprehendertobacktrackandreinterpretthesentence.22.slipofthetongue:mistakesinspeechwhichprovidepsycholinguisticevidenceforthewayweformulatewordsandphrases.Chapter11 :SecondLanguageAcquisition1.secondlanguageacquisition:Itreferstothesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.\n2.targetlanguage:Thelanguagetobeacquiredbythesecondlanguagelearner.3.secondlanguage:Asecondlanguageisalanguagewhichisnotanativelanguageinacountrybutwhichiswidelyusedasamediumofcommunicationandwhichisusuallyusedalongsideanotherlanguageorlanguages.4.foreignlanguage:Aforeignlanguageisalanguagewhichistaughtasaschoolsubjectbutwhichisnotusedasamediumofinstructioninschoolsnorasalanguageofcommunicationwithinacountry.5.interlanguage:Atypeoflanguageproducedbysecondandforeignlanguagelearners,whoareintheprocessoflearningalanguage,andthistypeoflanguageusuallycontainswrongexpressions.6.fossilization:Insecondorforeignlanguagelearning,thereisaprocesswhichsometimesoccursinwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.7.contrastiveanalysis:amethodofanalyzinglanguagesforinstructionalpurposeswherebyanativelanguageandtargetlanguagearecomparedwithaviewtoestablishingpointsofdifferencelikelytocausedifficultiesforlearners.8.contrastiveanalysishypothesis:Ahypothesisinsecondlanguageacquisition.Itpredictsthatwheretherearesimilaritiesbetweenthefirstandsecondlanguages,thelearnerwillacquiresecondlanguagestructurewithease,wheretherearedifferences,thelearnerwillhavedifficulty.9.positivetransfer:Itreferstothetransferthatoccurwhenboththenativelanguageandthetargetlanguagehavethesameform,thusmakinglearningeasier.(06F)10.negativetransfer:themistakentransferoffeaturesofone’snativelanguageintoasecondlanguage.11.erroranalysis:thestudyandanalysisoferrorsmadebysecondandforeignlanguagelearnersinordertoidentifycausesoferrorsorcommondifficultiesinlanguagelearning.12.interlingualerror:errors,whichmainlyresultfromcross-linguisticinterferenceatdifferentlevelssuchasphonological,lexical,grammaticaletc.13.intralingualerror:Errors,whichmainlyresultfromfaultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage,independentofthenativelanguage.Thetypicalexamplesareovergeneralizationandcross-association.14.overgeneralization:Theuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituations,inwhichtheyareunacceptable.15.cross-association:somewordsaresimilarinmeaningaswellasspellingandpronunciation.Thisinternalinterferenceiscalledcross-association.16.error:theproductionofincorrectformsinspeechorwritingbyanon-nativespeakerofasecondlanguage,duetohisincompleteknowledgeoftherulesofthattargetlanguage.17.mistake:mistakes,definedaseitherintentionallyorunintentionallydeviantformsandself-corrigible,suggestfailureinperformance.18.input:languagewhichalearnerhearsorreceivesandfromwhichheorshecanlearn.19.intake:theinputwhichisactuallyhelpfulforthelearner.20.InputHypothesis:AhypothesisproposedbyKrashen,whichstatesthatinsecondlanguagelearning,it’snecessaryforthelearnertounderstandinputlanguagewhichcontainslinguisticitemsthatareslightlybeyondthelearner’spresentlinguisticcompetence.Eventuallytheabilitytoproducelanguageissaidtoemergenaturallywithoutbeingtaughtdirectly.21.acquisition:Acquisitionisaprocesssimilartothewaychildrenacquiretheirfirstlanguage.Itisasubconsciousprocesswithoutminutelearningofgrammaticalrules.Learnersarehardlyawareoftheirlearningbuttheyareusinglanguagetocommunicate.Itisalsocalledimplicitlearning,informallearningornaturallearning.22.learning:learningisaconsciouslearningofsecondlanguageknowledgebylearningtherulesandtalkingabouttherules.23.comprehensibleinput:Inputlanguagewhichcontainslinguisticitemsthatareslightlybeyondthelearner’spresentlinguisticcompetence.(06F)\n24.languageaptitude:thenaturalabilitytolearnalanguage,notincludingintelligence,motivation,interest,etc.25.motivation:motivationisdefinedasthelearner’sattitudesandaffectivestateorlearningdrive.26.instrumentalmotivation:themotivationthatpeoplelearnaforeignlanguageforinstrumentalgoalssuchaspassingexams,orfurtheringacareeretc.(06C)27.integrativemotivation:thedrivethatpeoplelearnaforeignlanguagebecauseofthewishtoidentifywiththetargetculture.(06C/05)28.resultativemotivation:thedrivethatlearnerslearnasecondlanguageforexternalpurposes.(06F)29.intrinsicmotivation:thedrivethatlearnerslearnthesecondlanguageforenjoymentorpleasurefromlearning.30.learningstrategies:learningstrategiesarelearners’consciousgoal-orientedandproblem-solvingbasedeffortstoachievelearningefficiency.31.cognitivestrategies:strategiesinvolvedinanalyzing,synthesis,andinternalizingwhathasbeenlearned.(07C/06F)32.metacognitivestrategies:thetechniquesinplanning,monitoringandevaluatingone’slearning.33.affect/socialstrategies:thestrategiesdealingwiththewayslearnersinteractorcommunicatewithotherspeakers,nativeornon-native.Chapter10:LanguageAcquisition1.languageacquisition:Itreferstothechild’sacquisitionofhismothertongue,i.e.howthechildcomestounderstandandspeakthelanguageofhiscommunity.2.languageacquisitiondevice(LAD):Ahypotheticalinnatemechanismeverynormalhumanchildisbelievedtobebornwith,whichallowthemtoacquirelanguage.(03)3.UniversalGrammar:Atheorywhichclaimstoaccountforthegrammaticalcompetenceofeveryadultnomatterwhatlanguageheorshespeaks.4.motherese:Aspecialspeechtochildrenusedbyadults,whichischaracterizedwithslowrateofspeed,highpitch,richintonation,shorterandsimplersentencestructuresetc.----又叫childdirectedspeech，caretakertalk.(05)5.CriticalPeriodHypothesis:Thehypothesisthatthetimespanbetweenearlychildhoodandpubertyisthecriticalperiodforlanguageacquisition,duringwhichchildrencanacquirelanguagewithoutformalinstructionsuccessfullyandeffortlessly.(07C/06F/04)6.under-extension:Useawordwithlessthanitsusualrangeofdenotation.7.over-extension:Extensionofthemeaningofa wordbeyonditsusualdomainofapplicationbyyoungchildren.8.telegraphicspeech:Children’searlymultiwordspeechthatcontainscontentwordsandlacksfunctionwordsandinflectionalmorphemes.9.contentword:Wordsreferringtothings,quality,stateoraction,whichhavelexicalmeaningusedalone.10.functionword:Wordswithlittlemeaningontheirownbutshowgrammaticalrelationshipsinandbetweensentences.11.taboo:Wordsknowntospeakersbutavoidedinsomecontextsofspeechforreasonsofreligion,politenessetc.(07C)12.atypicaldevelopment:Someacquisitionoflanguagemaybedelayedbutfollowthesamerulesoflanguagedevelopmentduetotraumaorinjury.Chapter9:LanguageAndCulture1.culture :Thetotalwayoflifeofaperson,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguagethatcharacterizesthelifeofhumancommunity.2.discoursecommunity :Itreferstothecommonwaysthatmembersofsomesocialgroupuselanguagetomeettheirneeds.3.acculturation :Aprocessinwhichchangesonthelanguage,cultureandsystemofvaluesofagrouphappenthroughinteractionwithanothergroupwithadifferentlanguage,cultureandasystemofvalues.\n4.Sapir-WhorfHypothesis :TheinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtisnowknownasSapir-WhorfHypothesis.5.linguisticrelativity :Abeliefthatthewaypeopleviewtheworldisdeterminedwhollyorpartlybythestructureoftheirnativelanguage-----又叫Sapir-WhorfHypothesis.(06C)6.linguisticdeterminism:Itreferstotheideathatthelanguageweuse,tosomeextent,determinesthewayinwhichweviewandthinkabouttheworldaroundus.(06C)7.denotativemeaning:Itreferstotheliteralmeaning,whichcanbefoundinadictionary.8.connotativemeaning:Theassociationofaword,apartfromitsprimarymeaning.9.iconicmeaning:Theimageofawordinvokedtopeople.10.metaphors:Afigureofspeech,inwhichnofunctionwordslikelike,asareused.Somethingisdescribedbystatinganotherthingwithwhichitcanbecompared.11.euphemism:awordorphrasethatreplaceataboowordorisusedtoavoidreferencetocertainactsorsubjects,e.g.powderroomfortoilet.12.culturaloverlap:Thesituationbetweentwosocietiesduetosomesimilaritiesinthenaturalenvironmentandpsychologyofhumanbeing13.culturaldiffusion:Throughcommunication,someelementsofcultureAentercultureBandbecomepartofcultureB,thusbringingaboutculturaldiffusion.(05/03)14.culturalimperialism:Thesituationofincreasingculturaldiffusionallovertheworld.(06C)15.linguisticsimperialism:itisakindofkindoflinguicismwhichcanbedefinedasthepromulgationofglobalideologiesthroughtheworld-wideexpansionofonelanguage.(06C)16.linguisticnationalism:Inordertoprotectthepurityoftheirlanguage,somecountrieshaveadoptedspeciallanguagepolicy.Itiscalledlinguisticnationalism.17.interculturalcommunication:Itiscommunicationbetweenpeoplewhoseculturalperceptionsandsymbolsaredistinctenoughtoalterthecommunicationevent.18.languageplanning:planning,usuallybyagovernment,concerningchoiceofnationalorofficiallanguage(s),waysofspreadingtheuseofalanguage,spellingreforms,theadditionofnewwordstothelanguage,andotherlanguageproblems.Chapter8:LanguageAndSociety1.sociolinguistics:Thesubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinsocialcontexts.2.speechcommunity:Agroupofpeoplewhoformacommunityandshareatleastonespeechvarietyaswellassimilarlinguisticnorms.(05)3.speechvarieties:Itreferstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.4.regionaldialect:Avarietyoflanguageusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion.5.sociolect:Avarietyoflanguageusedbypeople,whobelongtoaparticularsocialclass.6.registers :Thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituation.7.idiolect :Aperson’sdialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselements,regardingregional,social,genderandagevariations.(04)8.linguisticreportoire :Thetotalityoflinguisticvarietiespossessedbyanindividualconstituteshislinguisticrepertoire.9.registertheory :AtheoryproposedbyAmericanlinguistHalliday,whobelievedthatthreesocialvariablesdeterminetheregister,namely,fieldofdiscourse,tenorofdiscourseandmodeofdiscourse.10.fieldofdiscourse :thepurposeandsubjectmatterofthecommunicativebehavior..11.tenorofdiscourse:Itreferstotheroleofrelationshipinthesituationinquestion:whotheparticipantsinthecommunicationgroupsareandinwhatrelationshiptheystandtoeachother.12.modeofdiscourse:Itreferstothemeansofcommunicationanditisconcernedwithhowcommunicationiscarriedout.13.standarddialect:Asuperposedvarietyoflanguageofacommunityornation,usuallybasedonthespeechandwritingofeducatednativespeakersofthelanguage.\n14.formality:Itreferstothedegreeofformalityindifferentoccasionsandreflectstherelationshipandconversations.AccordingtoMartinJoos,therearefivestagesofformality,namely,intimate,casual,consultative,formalandfrozen.15.Pidgin:Ablendingofseverallanguage,developingasacontactlanguageofpeople,whospeakdifferentlanguages,trytocommunicationwithoneanotheronaregularbasis.16.Creole :Apidginlanguagewhichhasbecomethenativelanguageofagroupofspeakersusedinthisdailylife.17.bilingualism :Theuseoftwodifferentlanguagessidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay,andlanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.(07C)18.diaglossia :Asociolinguisticsituationinwhichtwodifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunity,eachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.19.LinguaFranca :Avarietyoflanguagethatservesasamediumofcommunicationamonggroupsofpeople,whospeakdifferentnativelanguagesordialects20.code-switching:themovementbackandforthbetweentwolanguagesordialectswithinthesamesentenceordiscourse.(04) Chapter7:LanguageChange1.historicallinguistics:Asubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudylanguagechange.2.coinage:Anewwordcanbecoinedtofitsomepurpose.(03)3.blending:Ablendisawordformedbycombiningpartsofotherwords.4.clipping:Clippingreferstotheabbreviationoflongerwordsorphrases.5.borrowing:Whendifferentculturecomeintocontact,wordsareoftenborrowedfromonelanguagetoanother.Itisalsocalledloadwords.6.backformation:Newwordsmaybecoinedfromalreadyexistingwordsbysubtractinganaffixmistakenlythoughttobepartoftheoldword.Suchwordsarecalledback-formation.7.functionalshift:Wordsmayshiftfromonepartofspeechtoanotherwithouttheadditionofaffixes.8.acronyms:Acronymsarewordsderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords.9.protolanguage:Theoriginalformofalanguagefamily,whichhasceasedtoexist.10.Languagefamily:Agroupofhistoricallyrelatedlanguagesthathavedevelopedfromacommonancestrallanguage.Chapter6:Pragmatics1.pragmatics:Thestudyofhowspeakersusessentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.2.context:Thegeneralknowledgesharedbythespeakersandthehearers.(05)3.sentencemeaning:Themeaningofaself-containedunitwithabstractandde-contextualizedfeatures.4.utterancemeaning:Themeaningthataspeakerconveysbyusingaparticularutteranceinaparticularcontext.(03)5.utterance:expressionproducedinaparticularcontextwithaparticularintention.6.SpeechActTheory:ThetheoryproposedbyJohnAustinanddeepenedbySearle,whichbelievesthatweareperformingactionswhenwearespeaking.(05)7.constatives:Constativesarestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable.(06F)8.performatives:Performativesaresentencesthatdon’tstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.9.locutionaryact:Theactofconveyingliteralmeaningbyvirtueofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.10.illocutionaryact:Theactofexpressingthespeaker’sintentionandperformedinsayingsomething.(06F)11.perlocutionaryact:Theactresultingfromsayingsomethingandtheconsequenceorthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.12.representatives:Statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.13.directives:Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.14.commisives:Committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.15.expressives:Expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.16.declaration:Bringaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething.\n17.cooperativePrinciple:Theprinciplethattheparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperateinmakingconversation,otherwise,itwouldbeimpossibletocarryonthetalk.18.conversationalimplicature:Theuseofconversationalmaximstoimplymeaningduringconversation.19.formality:formalityreferstothedegreeofhowformalthewordsareusedtoexpressthesamepurpose.MartinJoosproposedfivestagesofformality,namely,intimate,casual,consultative,cold,andfrozen.(06F)Chapter5:Semantics1.semantics:Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.2.Semantictriangle:ItissuggestedbyOdgenandRichards,whichsaysthatthemeaningofawordisnotdirectlylinkedbetweenalinguisticformandtheobjectintherealworld,butthroughthemediationofconceptofthemind.3.sense :Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform.Itisabstractandde-contexturalized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.4.reference :Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld.Itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.5.synonymy:Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.6.dialectalsynonyms:synonymsthatareusedindifferentregionaldialects.7.stylisticsynonyms:synonymsthatdifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.8.collocationalsynonyms:Synonymsthatdifferintheircolllocation,i.e.,inthewordstheygotogetherwith.9.polysemy :Thesamewordhasmorethanonemeaning.(05/03)10.homonymy:Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.(04)11.homophones:Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones.12.homographs:Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.13.completehomonymy:Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms.14.hyponymy:Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.15.superordinate:Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinate.16.co-hyponyms:Hyponymsofthesamesuperordinateareco-hyponyms.17.antonymy:Thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning.18.gradableantonyms:Someantonymsaregradablebecausethereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair.e.g,antonymsoldandyoung,betweenthemthereexistmiddle-aged,mature,elderly.19.complementaryantonyms:apairofantonymsthatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.Itisamatterofeitheroneortheother.20.relationalopposites:Pairsifwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelationalopposites.Forexample,husband---wife,father---son,buy---sell,let---rent,above---below.21.entailment:therelationshipbetweentwosentenceswherethetruthofoneisinferredfromthetruthoftheother.E.g.Cindykilledthedogentailsthedogisdead.22.presupposition:Whataspeakerorwriterassumesthatthereceiverofthemassagealreadyknows.e.g.SometeahasalreadybeentakenisapresuppositionofTakesomemoretea.23.componentialanalysis:anapproachtoanalyzethelexicalmeaningintoasetofmeaningcomponentsorsemanticfeatures.Forexample,boymaybeshownas[+human][+male][-adult].24.predicationanalysis:away,proposedbyBritishlinguistG.Leech,toanalyzesentencemeaning.25.predication:Intheframeworkofpredicationanalysis,thebasicunitsiscalledpredication,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.\n26.predicate:Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.27.argument:Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelement(s)inasentence.28.selectionalrestriction:Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbytherulescalledselectionalrestrictions,i.e.constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers.29.semanticfeatures:Thesmallestunitsofmeaninginaword,whichmaybedescribedasacombinationofsemanticcomponents.Forexample,womanhasthesemanticfeatures[+human][-male][+adult].(04)30.presequence:Thespecificturnthathasthefunctionofprefiguringthecomingaction.(05)Chapter4:Syntax1.syntax:Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.2.category:Itreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.3.syntacticcategories:Wordscanbegroupedtogetherintoarelativelysmallnumberofclasses,calledsyntacticcategories.4.majorlexicalcategory:onetypeofwordlevelcategories,whichoftenassumedtobetheheadsaroundwhichphrasesarebuilt,includingN,V,Adj,andPrep.5.minorlexicalcategory:onetypeofwordlevelcategories,whichhelpsormodifiesmajorlexicalcategory.6.phrase:syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrase,thecategoryofwhichisdeterminedbythewordcategoryaroundwhichthephraseisbuilt.7.phrasecategory:thephrasethatisformedbycombiningwithwordsofdifferentcategories.InEnglishsyntacticanalysis,fourphrasalcategoriesarecommonlyrecognizedanddiscussed,namely,NP,VP,PP,AP.8.head:Thewordroundwhichphraseisformedistermedhead.9.specifier:Thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsaresaidtofunctionasspecifiers.10.complement:Thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsarecomplements.11.phrasestructurerule:Thespecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule.12.XPrule:Inallphrases,thespecifierisattachedatthetopleveltotheleftoftheheadwhilethecomplementisattachedtotheright.ThesesimilaritiescanbesummarizedasanXPrule,inwhichXstandsfortheheadN,V,AorP.13.X^theory:Atheoreticalconceptintransformationalgrammarwhichrestrictstheformofcontext-freephrasesstructurerules.14.coordination:Somestructuresareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasandoror.Suchphenomenonisknownascoordination.15.subcategorization:Theinformationaboutaword’scomplementisincludedintheheadandtermedsuncategorization.(07C)16.complementizer:Wordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementaretermedcomplementizer.17.complementclause:Thesentenceintroducedbythecomplementizeriscalledacomplementclause.18.complementphrase:theelements,includingacomplementizerandacomplementclauseiscalledacomplementphrase.19.matrixclause:thecontrusctioninwhichthecomplementphraseisembeddediscalledmatrixclause.20.modifier:theelement,whichspecifiesoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheadsiscalledmodifier.21.transformation :aspecialtypeofrulethatcanmoveanelementfromonepositiontoanother.\n22.inversion :theprocessoftransformationthatmovestheauxiliaryfromtheInflpositiontoapositiontotheleftofthesubject,iscalledinversion.23.Doinsertion :Intheprocessofformingyes-noquestionthatdoesnotcontainanovertInfl,interrogativedoisinsertedintoanemptyInflpositontomaketransformationwork.24.deepstructure :AlevelofabstractsyntacticrepresentationformedbytheXPrule.25.surfacestructure :Alevelofsyntacticrepresentationafterapplyingthenecessarysyntacticmovement,i.e.,transformation,tothedeepstructure.(05)26.Whquestion :InEnglish,thekindofquestionsbeginningwithawh-wordarecalledwhquestion.27.Whmovement :Thetransformationthatwillmovewhphrasefromitspositionindeepstructuretoapositionatthebeginningofthesentence.Thistransformationiscalledwhmovement.28.moveα:ageneralruleforallthemovementrules,where‘alpha‘isacovertermfoeanyelementthatcanbemovedfromoneplacetoanother.29.universalgrammar:theinnatenessprinciplesandpropertiesthatpertaintothegrammarsofallhumanlanguages.Chapter3:Morphology1.morphology:Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandrulesforwordformation.2.openclass:Agroupofwords,whichcontainsanunlimitednumberofitems,andnewwordscanbeaddedtoit.3.closedclass:Arelativelyfewwords,includingconjunctions,prepositionsandpronouns,andnewwordsarenotusuallyaddedtothem.4.morpheme:Thesmallestunitofmeaningofalanguage.Itcannotbedividedwithoutalteringordestroyingitsmeaning.5.affix:aletteroragroupofletter,whichisaddedtoaword,andwhichchangesthemeaningorfunctionoftheword,includingprefix,infixandsuffix.6.suffix:Theaffix,whichisaddedtotheendofaword,andwhichusuallychangesthepartofspeechofaword.7.prefix:Theaffix,whichisaddedtothebeginningofaword,andwhichusuallychangesthemeaningofawordtoitsopposite.8.boundmorpheme:Morphemethatcannotbeusedalone,anditmustbecombinedwitothers.E.g.–ment.9.freemorpheme:amorphemethatcanstandaloneasaword.10.derivationalmorpheme:Boundmorpheme,whichcanbeaddedtoastemtoformanewword.11.inflectionalmorpheme:Akindofmorpheme,whichareusedtomakegrammaticalcategories,suchasnumber,tenseandcase.12.morphologicalrules:Thewayswordsareformed.Theserulesdeterminehowmorphemescombinetoformwords.13.compoundwords:Acombinationoftwoormorewords,whichfunctionsasasinglewords14.inflection:themorphologicalprocesswhichadjustswordsbygrammaticalmodification,e.g.inTherainscame,rainisinflectedforpluralityandcameforpasttense.(04)Chapter2:Phonology1.phonicmedium :Themeaningfulspeechsoundinhumancommunication.2.phonetics :Thestudyofphonicmediumoflanguageanditisconcernedwithallsoundsintheworld’slanguages.(06C)3.articulatoryphonetics :Itstudiessoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview,i.e.howaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.(03)4.auditoryphonetics:Thestudiessoundsfromthehearer’spointofview,i.e.howthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer.5.acousticphonetics:Itstudiesthewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves,thephysicalmeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.6.voicing:thewaythatsoundsareproducedwiththevibrationofthevocalcords.7.voiceless:thewaythatsoundsareproducedwithnovibrationofthevocalcords.\n8.broadtranscription:Theuseoflettersymbolsonlytoshowthesoundsorsoundssequencesinwrittenform.9.narrowtranscription:Theuseoflettersymbol,togetherwiththediacriticstoshowsoundsinwrittenform.10.diacritics:Thesymbolsusedtoshowdetailedarticulatoryfeaturesofsounds.11.IPA:shortforInternationalPhoneticAlphabets,asystemofsymbolsconsistsoflettersanddiacritics,usedtorepresentthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguage.12.aspiration:Alittlepuffofairthatsometimesfollowsaspeechsound.13.mannerofarticulation :Themannerinwhichobstructioniscreated.14.placeofarticulation :Theplacewhereobstructioniscreated.15.consonant:aspeechsoundinwhichtheairstreamisobstructedinonewayoranother.16.vowel :aspeechsoundinwhichtheairstreamfromthelungmeetswithnoobstruction.17.monophthong :theindividualvowel.18.diphthong :Thevowelwhichconsistsoftwoindividualvowels,andfunctionsasasingleone.19.phone :Thespeechsoundweusewhenspeakingalanguage.20.phoneme :Thesmallestunitofsoundinalanguagewhichcandistinguishtwosounds.(06F/04)21.allophone :anydifferentformsofthesamephonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.(07C/05)22.phonology :Thedescriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctiontodistinguishmeaning.(06C)23.phonemiccontrast :twosimilarsoundsoccurinthesameenvironmentanddistinguishmeaning.24.complementarydistribution :allophonesofthesamephonemeandtheydon’tdistinguishmeaningbutcomplementeachotherindistribution.25.minimalpair:twodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptonesoundandoccursinthesameposition.Thetwosoundsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.26.sequentialrules:Therulestogovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.27.assimilationrule:Theruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherbycopyingafeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.28.deletionrule:Therulethatasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.29.suprasegmentalfeatures:Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments----syllable,word,sentence.30.tone:Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.31.intonation:Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.