《语言学导论》重点整理

《语言学导论》重点整理

实用标准文案1.AnIntroductiontoLinguisticsandlanguage1.WhatisLinguistics?Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itendeavorstoanswerthequestion--whatislanguageandhowisrepresentedinthemind?Linguistsfocusondescribingandexplaininglanguageandarenotconcernedwiththeprescriptiverulesofthelanguage.2.BasiccriteriafordoingLinguistics♦1.Objectivity♦2.Explicitness♦3.Rigorousness♦4.Adequacy3.TheScopeofLinguistics(1)♦GeneralLinguistics:thestudyoflanguageasawhole♦Phonetics:thestudyofsoundsinlinguisticcommunication♦Phonology:thestudyofthesoundpatternsoflanguage.Itisconcernedwithhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication.♦Morphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichthesymbolsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords.4.TheScopeofLinguistics(2)♦:Syntaxthestudyofsentencestructure.Itattemptstodescribewhatisgrammaticalinaparticularlanguageintermofrules♦Semantics:thestudyofmeaning.♦Pragmatics:thestudyofmeaningincontext♦Sociolinguistics:thestudyofsocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsociety.♦Psycholingustics:thestudyoflanguagewithrelationtopsychology♦Appliedlinguistics:thestudyofapplicationsoflinguistics.5.Somedistinctionsinlinguistics♦Prescriptivevs.descriptive♦Synchronicvs.diachronic♦Speechandwriting♦Langueandparole♦Competenceandperformance♦Traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics(linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive;modernlinguisticsregardsspokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten;modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitdoesnotforcelanguageintoaLatin-basedframework.)6.Whatislanguage?♦Languageisnotanabstractconstructionofthelearned,orofdictionary-makers,butissomethingarisingoutofthework,needs,ties,joys,affections,tastes,oflonggenerationsofhumanity,andhasitsbasesbroadandlow,closetotheground.♦WaltWhitman7.Thedefinitionoflanguage♦Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication8.Designfeatures(Properties)♦Arbitrariness:vastmajorityoflinguisticexpressionsarearbitrary♦Productivity:creativityoropen-endedness♦Duality:doublearticulation(soundsandmeanings)♦Displacement:eg.SantaClaus,Superman,dragon♦Culturaltransmission:meme,memics精彩文档\n实用标准文案♦(Discreteness:thesoundsusedinlanguagearemeaningfullydistinct.Eg.pack,back)9.Assignments♦Commentonthedefinitionoflanguage.♦Summarizethedesignfeaturesoflanguage.♦Whatisyourunderstandingofsynchronicstudyoflanguage2.Chapter2Phoneticsandphonology1.Phonetics:thesoundsoflanguage?Threebranchesofphonetics?ArticulatoryPhonetics发音语音学:theproductionofspeechsounds.?AuditoryPhonetics听觉语音学:thestudyoftheperceptionofspeechsounds?AcousticPhonetics声学语音学:thestudyofthephysicalproductionandtransmissionofspeechsounds.2.Organsofspeech:1.Thepharyngealcavity喉腔2.Theoralcavity口腔3.Thenasalcavity鼻腔3.Twokindsoftranscription?Broadtranscription宽式标音:transcriptionwithletter-symbols?Narrowtranscription窄式标音:transcriptionwithletter-symbolsandthediacritics4.ClassificationofEnglishconsonants5.ClassificationofEnglishvowels6.Phonology:thesoundpatternsoflanguage?Difference?Phone,phoneme,allophone?Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,minimalpair7.Phones,phonemes,andallophones?Phonologyisthestudyofsoundpatternsoflanguage(i.e.howsoundsarearrangedtoformmeaningfulunits)andthefunctionofeachsound.Itrevealswhatarethepossiblecombinationsofsoundsinalanguageandexplainswhycertainwordstaketheformtheydo.8.Phone音素?phone:thesmallestperceptiblediscretesegmentofsoundinastreamofspeechi)phoneticunitii)notdistinctiveofmeaningiii)physicalasheardorproducediv)markedwith[]9.Phoneme音位?theminimalunitinthesoundsystemofalanguage.Withphonemes,weestablishthepatternsoforganizationwithintheinfinitelylargenumberofsounds.Eachlanguagecanbeshowntooperatewitharelativelysmallnumberofphonemes(15-80).Notwolanguageshavethesamephonemicsystem.10.Phoneme音位i)phonologicalunitii)distinctiveofmeaningiii)abstract,notphysicaliv)markedwith//.11.Threerequirementsforidentifyingminimalpairs:1)differentinmeaning;2)onlyonephonemedifferent;3)thedifferentphonemesoccurinthesamephoneticenvironment.?Minimalset:pat,mat,bat,fat,cat,hat,etc.11.Allophone音位变体:phonicvariants/realizationsofaphoneme12.Phonologicalrules:?Phonologicalpatterningisrule-governed.[blik]and[kilb],thoughnotfoundinEnglish,canbepossiblecombinations,while[kbil]or[lkib]cannot.Sequentialrulesarethosethataccountforthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.Theyarelanguage-specific,asinthe精彩文档\n实用标准文案followingcases:?*[tlait][iltrit]13.Sequentialrule?Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldfollowtheorder/sequencebelow:?a.Thefirstphonememustbe/s/?b.Thesecondphonememustbe/p/,/t/or/k/?c.Thethirdphonememustbe/l/,/r/,or/w/.spring,string,squirrel,split,screen14.Assimilationrule?Asoundmaychangebyassimilating/copyingafeatureofasequential/neighboringsound,e.g.impossible,irresistible,illegal[in-]?Question:Whatotherexamples??sink/since?pancake?sunglasses?fivepastseven?hasto15.Deletionrule?Asoundmaybedeletedeventhoughitmaybeorthographicallyrepresented.16.Stress,tone,andintonation?Suprasegmental（超切分）phonology?Suprasegmentalphonemes:?stress,toneandintonation17.Stress重音?Wordstress/sentencestress?Primarystress/secondarystress?Stressofcompounds:‵blackbird/black‵bird;‵greenhouse/green‵house?Sentencestress:Dependingontherelativeimportanceofthewords;contrastivestress18.Tone(声调）?Differentratesofvibrationproducedifferentfrequencies,whicharetermedasdifferentpitches.Pitchvariationsaredistinctiveofmeaning.?InsomelanguageslikeChinese,pitchvariationsarecalledtones.Languagesusingtonesaretonelanguages.19.Intonation（语调）?Whenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentence,theycombinetobecomeknownasintonation.ThreemajortypesofEnglishintonation:a.fallingtone/tuneb.risingtone/tunec.fall-risetone/tune20.Assignments:?Differencebetweenphoneticsandphonology?Phone,phoneme,allophone?Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,minimalpair3.Morphology（词法）1.Morphologyisthestudyofwordformationandstructure.Itstudieshowwordsareputtogetherfromtheirsmallerpartsandtherulesgoverningthisprocess.2.Twokindsofwords?1.Openclasswords:contentwords.e.g.nouns,verbs,adjectivesandadverbs?2.Closedclasswords:grammaticalwordsorfunctionalwords.E.g.conjunctions,prepositions,articlesandpronouns3.WordRelations精彩文档\n实用标准文案?Wordscanberelatedtootherwords,e.g."happy"—"unhappy".?TherulesthatrelatesuchsetsofwordsarecalledWordFormationRules.Thus,themorphologycontains•fundamentalelements–morphemes•rulesofcombination--WordFormationRules4.Morphemes?Theelementsthatarecombiningtoformwordsarecalledmorphemes.Amorphemeisthesmallestunitofmeaningyoucanhaveinalanguage.?weknowthreethingsabouteverymorpheme:1.itsmeaning2.itsform(thesoundsthatmakeitup)3.aruleofcombination(putitbefore/after/insidethestem)5.Acase:?Unhappy?Happier?unhappier6.BoundandFreeMorphemes?"Intheworddoors"therearetwomorphemes:"door"and"-s".?Themorpheme"door"canbeusedbyitself,soitiscalledaFREEmorpheme.?Butthemorpheme"s"cannotbeusedbyitself:•"Howmanydoorsdidyoushut?""Morethanone."OK"s"NotOK?Therefore,"-s"iscalledaBOUNDmorpheme.7.Affixes?Morphemesaddedtofreeformstomakeotherfreeformsarecalledaffixes.Therearefourprinciplekindsofaffixes:1.prefixes(atbeginning)—"un-"in"unable"2.suffixes(atend)—"-ed"in"walked"3.circumfixes(atbothends)—"en--en"in"enlighten"(Thesealwaysseemtoconsistofotherwiseattestedindependentprefixesandsuffixes.)4.infixes(inthemiddle)--"-bloody-"in"inbloody-credible"8.Derivationalmorphemes?Derivationalmorphemesmayormaynotchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords.?E.g.Noun---Adjective?affection+ate?alcohol+ic9.InflectionalMorphology?Morphologythatinteractswithsyntax(sentencestructure)iscalledINFLECTIONALMORPHOLOGYSomeexamplesare:•person•number•gender•nounclass•case•tense?Inflectionalmorphemesneverchangethecategory.Inflectionalmorphemesdonotchangethe"core"meaningoftheword.Inflectionalmorphemesusuallyoccur"outside"derivationalones.10.ARuleforFormingsomeEnglishWords11.Compounds12.OtherwaysofFormingWords13.Word-formation:thecreationofnewwordsonthebasisofexistingstructuraldevicesinthelanguagederivationcompoundingderivationalaffixationclipping,abbreviation,acronymsconversion14.Wordformation精彩文档\n实用标准文案?*affixation?*coinage:Ford,Kodak?*compounding/composition:hot-line,keep-fit?*conversion/functionalshift:knee,cool,trigger,brake?*derivation:alcoholic,affectionate?*back-formation:edit,babysit,massproduce,laze?*blending:smog,motel,globesity?*shortening(clippedwords,acronym)?*borrowing:tea,algebra15.Comparethefollowingderivedwords:inhowfardotheydiffer?LabOED16.Comparethefollowingderivedwords:inhowfardotheydiffer??labbabysit(from:babysitter)17.Comparethefollowingderivedwords:inhowfardotheydiffer??institution-al?skin-deep18.Comparethefollowingderivedwords:inhowfardotheydiffer??tostrength-en?tohouse(e.g.thisbuildinghouses500families)19.Assignments?Distinguishthefollowingterms:?Openclasswordsandclosedclasswords?Boundmorphemeandfreemorpheme?Inflectionalmorphemeandderivationalmorpheme?Listsomerulesofwordformation4.syntax1.Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.2.Syntacticrules?HowdoweCOMBINEWORDStomakeSENTENCES?Syntaxusestrees(justasinmorphology)butthetreesarebuiltonWORDSinsteadofmorphemes.Wordsarethefundamentalunitsofsentences.Thelawsofcombinationforwordsarethesyntacticrules.3.SentenceStructure?Weknowthatthereisstructureinsentencesseparatefromthemeaningofthesentencebecauseofthedifferencebetween"wellformednonsense"(1)and"totalgibberish"(2):?(1)Colorlessgreenideassleepfuriously.?(2)Greensleepfuriouslyideascolorless.?Whichsoundsbetter?4.Word-levelcategories?Majorlexicalcategories?N(Noun)book,boy?V(Verb)run,buy?A(Adjective)happy,heavy?P(Preposition)about,in?Minorlexicalcategories?Det(determiner)the,athis?Deg(Degreeword)quite,very?Qual(Qualifier)often,always?Aux(Auxiliary)must,should?Con(Conjunction)and,but5.Threecriteriaforjudgingtheword’scategories?1.meaningNoun—entity?2.inflection-ed,-s?3.distributionthegirlDet+N6.Phrasecategories?Phrasesareconstructedoutofa"head"plusothermaterialinto:•NounPhrase(NP)•VerbPhrase(VP)•AdjectivePhrase(AP)•PrepositionalPhrase(PP)7.Head,specifier,complement?Head:thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformed?Specifier:thewordsontheleftsideoftheheads?complement:thewordsontherightsideoftheheads精彩文档\n实用标准文案?E.g.atouchingstoryaboutasentimentalgirl8.PhraseStructureRules•NP→(Det)N(PP)•VP→(Qual)V(NP)•AP→(Deg)A(PP)•PP→(Deg)P(NP)9.XPruleX=N,V,AorP?XP→(specifier)X(complement)10.X–theory?XP→(specifier)X?X-→X(complement)11.Co-ordinationrules?X→XConX12.XPrule(revised):?XP→(specifier)X(complement)?Matrixclause?Complementphrase(CP)?Complementclause?Complementizers(Cs)13.Modifier?AP?PP?AdvP?TheexpandedXPrules?XP→(spec)(Mod)X(complement*)(Mod)14.TheSrule?SNPVP?DetNVPDetN||||||?Thecatisonthemat15.TransformationalRules?Oncewehavebuiltabasictree,wethenmightwanttochangeit,forexampletoturnitintoaquestion.1.Johnisgoingtoschool.2.IsJohngoingtoschool??Whathappenedbetween(1)and(2)?"Is"movedtothefront.Howdidwemaketheyes/noquestion?Whatchangedidwemake?16.Deepstructureandsurfacestructure:Deepstructureisalevelofsyntacticrepresentationthatresultsfrominsertionoflexicalitemsintothetreestructuregeneratedbythephrasestructurerules.?Surfacestructureisalevelofsyntacticrepresentationthatresultsfromtheapplicationofwhatevertransformationsareneededtoyieldthefinalsyntacticformofthesentence.17.Theorganizationofthesyntacticcomponent?TheXPrule?Deepstructure?transformations?Surfacestructure18.WhMovement?Movethewhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence?MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP19.WordOrder?Recallthatlanguagescanchoosetheorderoftheconstituentsinaphrasestructurerule.•English:PP→PNP•Japanese:PP→NPP20.SVO?Wecansaythattheoverallword-orderinasimplesentenceisSubject-Verb-ObjectorSVO.Therearetwochoicesforeachrule:精彩文档\n实用标准文案1.Sentence:S→NPVPS→VPNP2.VerbPhrase:VP→VNPVP→NPV21.Assignments?Drawtwopossibletreesforthesentence“Theboysawthemanwiththetelescope.”5.Semantics1.Semanticsisthestudyofmeaning.2.TheMeaningsofMeaning?Everydayuseandambiguityofthewordmean(ing)?(1)Daddy,whatdoes'unique'mean?(2)WhenMarytalksabout"herex"shemeansme.(3)'Purchase'meansthesameas'buy'.(4)Gwailoumeans"foreigndevil".(5)Whenhedrinksitmeanshe'sdepressed.(6)Ididn'tmeantohurtyou.3.OgdenandRichards'TheMeaningofMeaning(1923)?sixteendifferentmeaningsofthewords"mean/meaning"weredistinguished.Herearesomeofthem:?Johnmeanstowrite.'intends’?Agreenlightmeansgo.'indicates'Healthmeanseverything.'hasimportance'?Hislookwasfullofmeaning.'specialimport'?Whatisthemeaningoflife?'point,purpose'?Whatdoes'capitalist'meantoyou?'convey'?Whatdoes‘cornea‘(角膜)mean?'refertointheworld'4.Whatdoesmeaningmeaninlinguistics??Itisthelastkindofusethatcomesclosesttothefocusoflinguisticsemantics.Inmodernlinguistics,themeaningisstudiedbymakingdetailedanalysesofthewaywordsandsentencesareusedinspecificcontexts("meaning"isnotsomekindof"entity"separatefromlanguage-anymorethanmeasuressuchas"height"or"length"havesomekindofindependentexistence).Thisisanapproachsharedbyanumberofphilosophersandpsychologists.LudwigWittgenstein(1889-1951),inparticular,stresseditsimportanceinhisdictum:"Themeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage."5.4viewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning?Thenamingtheory?Theconceptualtheory?Contextualism?behaviorism6.Thenamingtheory?Plato?Wordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.?Limitationsofthetheory:itcanbeapplicabletonounsonly,butverbs,adjectives,andadverbsarenotnamesorlabels;imaginarythingslike“dragon”;abstractnounslike“joy”7.Theconceptualtheory?Ogden&Richards'Triangle?THOUGHT(concepts,images,schemas)/\(Sense)/\/\(language)WORDS--------WORLD(things,situations)(Reference)?Note:(i)Referenceasanindirectrelation精彩文档\n实用标准文案(ii)Senseasapsychologicalnotion?Whatisthelinkbetweenthelanguageandconcept?8.Contextualism?LudwigWittgenstein?Malinowski?J.R.Firth?2kindsofcontexts:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext9.Behaviorism?Bloomfield1926,1935Behaviorismvs.mentalism?Humanandanimalbehavior?Stimulusandresponse?S->r...s->RJackandJill10.Lexicalmeaning?Senseandreference?SensereferstothemeaningofaNounPhrasewhichdeterminesitsreferent;?ReferencereferstothatpartofmeaningofaNounPhrasewhichisitsreferent.?Senseisabstractandde-contextualized;?Referenceisconcreteandcontextualized.11.senserelationsbetweenwords?1.synonymy?2.polysemy?3.homonymy?4.hyponymy?5.antonymy11.1.synonymy?twowords,samemeaningnevercomplete;tendencytowarddivergence,e.gsmall-little,butcf.smallchangeandlittlesister?a)dialectalsynonyms?b)stylisticsynonyms?c)synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning?d)collocationalsynonyms?e)semanticallydifferentsynonyms11.2.polysemy?oneword,manymeanings?eye'organofsight','centerofhurricane','holeinneedle'11.3.homonymy?differentwords,samesound?bear'carry'bear'furrycreature'bare'naked'?cf.Homonymy,Homography:differentwords,samespellingbow'knottedribbon'bow'frontofship'11.4.hyponymy?superordinate(hyponym)tosubordinateAlso:co-hyponyms?Problematicsuperordinates:?aunt-uncle>nonesweet-sour-bitter>Tastes,butnoAdjchair-sofa-couch>?sittingfurniture(Sitzmöbel)11.5.antonymy(1)Gradable(scalar)antonyms:cold..hot(2)Complementaryantonyms:dead-alive(3)Relationalopposites:teach-learnhusband-wife12.sixsenserelationsbetweensentences精彩文档\n实用标准文案?a)XissynonymouswithY?b)XisinconsistentwithY?c)XentailsY(YisanentailmentofX)?d)XpresupposesY(YisaprerequisiteofX)?e)Xisacontradiction??f)Xissemanticallyanomalous?13.Analysisofmeaning?Componentialanalysis?Predicationanalysis?grammaticalmeaning?semanticmeaning13.1Componentialanalysis?FeaturesinSemanticTheory?man=[+human][+adult][+male]woman=[+human][+adult][+female]girl=[+human][-adult][+female]boy=[+human][-adult][+male]?stool=[+sitting][+legs][-back][-arms][+singleperson]chair=[+sitting][+legs][+back][+/-arms][+singleperson]sofa=[+sitting][+/-legs][+back][+arms][-singleperson]etc?cow=[+bovine][+adult][+female]?ewe=[+ovine][+adult][+female]bull=[+bovine][+adult][+male]?ram=[+ovine][+adult][+male]calf=[+bovine][-adult]?lamb=[+ovine][-adult]?Butshouldcalf=[+/-female][+/-male]orsimplyunspecified??Andwhatabout:steer?=[+bovine][+adult][-male][-female]13.2Predicationanalysis?ItisproposedbyG.Leech.Inhisframeworkofanalysis,thebasicunitiscalledpredication,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargumentsandpredicate.Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication.Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.14.Interdisciplinarynatureofsemantics(1)?philosophy:definitions,truth,logic?linguistics:lexical,grammaticalmeaning;structuralambiguity?psychology:concepts,categorization,learning?law:interpretation,entailmenttranslation:translatability,paraphrase?computerscience:processingandrepresentationofinformation15.Interdisciplinarynatureofsemantics(2)?musicology:musicalmeaning(JosephSwain:MusicalLanguages,1997)?anthropology:culturalmeaning,relativity?literarycriticism:interpretation,ambiguity,metaphor?religion(AnnaWierzbicka,WhatdidJesusmean?,2001)16.Assignments:?Summarizethefourapproachestothestudiesonmeaning.精彩文档\n实用标准文案?Specifythefivemajorsenserelations?1.synonymy2.polysemy?3.homonymy4.hyponymy?5.antonymy?Definethefollowingterms:?componentialanalysis?Predicationanalysis6Pragmatics1.Pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontext2.Contextualistview?LudwigWittgenstein?Malinowski?J.R.Firth?2kindsofcontexts:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext3.SomeissuesinPragmatics?Deixis指示?Speechacts言语行为?Indirectlanguage间接语言?Conversation会话?Politeness礼貌?Cross-culturalcommunication跨文化交际?Presupposition预设4.PragmaticsandSemantics?aThereiscontinuumbetweenSemantics(thingsthataretruebytheDEFINITIONSandRULES)andPragrmatics(thingsthataretruebyvirtueoftheREALWORLD?Complementarism:semanticsstudiesmeaningintheabstract;pragmaticsstudiesmeaninginthecontext/use.5.Considerthefollowingsentences:•Therockatemylunch.Semanticallyfalse,because"eat"requiresanANIMATEsubject.•Thegiraffeatethehyena.Greyarea,doesSEMANTICSincludetheconceptVEGETARIAN??•Thegiraffeateonehundredpoundsofgrasstoday.Pragmatics,howmuchDOESagiraffeeatinaday?6.Context?AccordingtoFirth,contextincludestherelevantfeaturesofparticipants:persons,personalities,theverbalandnon-verbalactionoftheparticipants,therelevantobjectsandtheeffectoftheverbalaction.Hymes’notionofcontextincludesaddressor,addressee,topic,setting,channel,code,messageform,event,keyandpurpose.?Sharedknowledge7.Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning?Sentenceisoftenstudiedastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.Utteranceistheissuanceinanactualcontext.?Themeaningofasentenceisabstractanddecontextualized,whilethemeaningofanutteranceisconcreteandcontextdependent.8.SpeechActTheory?AustinnoticedthatsomesentencesarespecialinthattheyDOthings.OneclassisPERFORMATIVES.Whenspokensuchsentencesdothework:•I(hereby)declarethefairopen.("hereby"isagooddiagnosticofperformatives)?Performatives行事:Performativesweresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andwerenotverifiable.?Constatives言事:constativeswerestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andwerethusverifiable精彩文档\n实用标准文案9.Threekindsofacts?Locutionaryact言内行为:locutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.?Illocutionaryact言外行为:anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention.Itisanactperformedinsayingsomething.?Perlocutionaryact言后行为:perlocutionaryactistheactperformedbysayingsomething.10.Searle’sclassificationofspeechactsRepresentatives:statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue;?Directives:tryingtogetthehearertodosomething;?Commissives:committingthespeakerhimselftofuturecourseofaction;?Expressives:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate;?Declarations:bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething11.PrincipleofConversation?Gricediscoveredanumberofconversationalmaxims(rules)thatpeoplegenerallyobey.Twoofthemare:•Becooperative•BerelevantThefollowingdiscourserepresentsafailureofcooperation:•A:Doyouknowwhattimeitis?•B:Yes.Or,ifyouknowforsurethatyou'releavingonTuesdayit'smisleadingtosay:"I'mleavingonMondayorTuesday."12.Fourmaxims?Themaximofquantity?Themaximofquality?ThemaximofrelationThemaximofmanner13.ConversationalImplicature?conversationalimplicature:ConversationalimplicatureoccursonlywhenthemaximsofCooperativePrincipleare“flouted”.A:DoyouknowwhereMr.Xlives?B:Somewhereinthesouthernsuburbsofthecity.(saidwhenitisknowntobothAandBthatBhasMr.X’saddress.)A:Wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?B:I’mafraidI’mnotfeelingsowelltoday.A:Thehostessisanawfulbore.Don’tyouthink?B:Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,aren’tthey?(saidwhenitisknowntobothAandBthatitisentirelypossibleforBtomakeacommentonthehostess)A:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?B:yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.(saidwhenitisknowntobothAandBthatBhasnodifficultyinpronouncingtheword“ice-cream”).14.Leech’sPolitenessPrinciple?Tactmaxim?Generositymaxim?Approbationmaxim?Modestymaxim?Agreementmaxim?Sympathymaxim15.The6maximsofLeech’sPPtactgenerosity精彩文档\n实用标准文案approbationmodestyagreementsympathy16.TactMaxim:1.Minimizecosttoother2.MaximizebenefittootherGenerosityMaxim:1.Minimizebenefittoself2.MaximizecosttoselfApprobationMaxim:1.Minimizedispraiseofother2.MaximizepraiseofotherModestyMaxim:1.Minimizepraiseofself2.Maximizedispraiseofself17.AgreementMaxim:1.Minimizedisagreementbetweenselfandother2.MaximizeagreementbetweenselfandotherSympathyMaxim:1.Minimizeantipathybetweenselfandother2.Maximizesympathybetweenselfandother18.Politenessscale:DirectnessdirectCouldyoupossiblyanswerthephone?Wouldyoumindansweringthephone?Canyouanswerthephone?Willyouanswerthephone?Iwantyoutoanswerthephone.Answerthephone.indirect19.Politenessscale:Cost–benefitbenefitHaveanothersandwich.Enjoyyourholiday.Lookatthat.Sitdown.Handmethenewspaper.Peelthesepotatoes.Cost20.Presuppositions?Statementsorquestionsthatpresupposearelatedsentence."Leading"questionsorstatements."Whendidyoustopbeatingyourdonkey?"presupposes:•Youstoppedbeatingyourdonkey.•Youdidbeatyourdonkey.•Youbeatsomething.•Youhaveadonkey.•...?"I'llhavesomemorecoffee."presupposesthatyouhavealreadyhadsome.21.assignments?Speechacttheory?coperativeprinciple?conversationalimplicature7.LanguageChange1.Review精彩文档\n实用标准文案?Prescriptivevs.descriptive(Chapter1)?Thedefinitionoflanguage:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication(Chapter1)?Wordformation:affixation,composition,conversion,backformation,blend,shortening,coinage(Chapter3)Contextualism(Chapter5)Context(Chapter6)2.Alllanguageschangethroughtime?Languageschangeinthephonology,morphology,syntax,lexiconandsemanticcomponentsofthegrammar.3.Thechangesoflanguageatdifferentlevels(1)?Soundchange?Morphologicalandsyntacticchange?a)changein“agreement”rule?b)changeinnegationrule?c)processofsimplification?d)lossofinflections4.Thechangesoflanguageatdifferentlevels(2)?Vocabularychange?a)additionofnewwords(coinage,clippedwords,blending,acronyms,backformation,functionalshift,borrowing)?b)lossofwords?c)changesinthemeaningofwords(wideningofmeaning,narrowingofmeaning,meaningshift)5.Somerecenttrends?Movingtowardsgreaterinformality?TheinfluenceofAmericanEnglish?Theinfluenceofscienceandtechnologya)spacetravelb)computerandinternetlanguagec)ecology6.Causesoflanguagechange?a)Therapiddevelopmentofscienceandtechnologyhasledtothecreationofmanynewwords:fax,laser,telecom?b)Asmoreandmorewomenhavetakenupactivitiesformerlyreservedformen,moreneutraljobtitleshavebeencreated:chairman-chairperson,fireman-firefighter.?c)Thewaychildrenacquirethelanguageprovidesabasiccauseofchange.?d)“economyofmemory”and“theoryofleasteffort”.foe/foes,cow/cows(kine)cheap-cheaply?e)otherfactors,e.g.elaborationofgrammar7.Summary?Thelinguisticchangeiscomplex.?Thelinguisticchangeisgradual.?Theexactreasonsforlanguagechangearestillelusiveandneedtobefurtherinvestigated.8.Assignments?1.Illustratethevocabularychangewithexamples.?2.Whatarethepossiblecausesoflanguagechange?8.LanguageandSociety精彩文档\n实用标准文案1.Therelatednessbetweenlanguageandsociety?Languageisusedtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationship.?Thekindoflanguagetheuserschooseisinpartdeterminedbyhis/hersocialbackground.?Languageiscloselyrelatedtothestructureofthesocietyinwhichitisused,andtheevaluationofalinguisticformisentirelysocial.2.Speechcommunity?Forgenerallinguists,aspeechcommunityisdefinedasagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunityandsharethesamelanguageoraparticularvarietyofalanguage.?Forsociolinguists,aspeechcommunityisdefinedasagroupofpeoplewhodoinfacthavetheopportunitytointeractwitheachotherandwhosharenotjustasinglelanguagewithitsrelatedvarietiesbutalsoattitudestowardlinguisticnorms.3.speechvariety?Speechvariety,orlanguagevariety,referstoanydistinguishableformofspeechoragroupofspeakers.E.g.regionaldialects,sociolectsandregister.4.Twoapproachestosociolinguisticstudies?Therearetwoapproachestosociolinguisticstudies:abird’s-eyeviewoflanguage(macrosociolinguistics)andaworm’s-eyeviewoflanguage(micro-sociolinguistics).?abird’s-eyeviewoflanguage:wecanlookatsocietyasawholeandconsiderhowlanguagefunctionsinitandhowitreflectsthesocialdifferentiations.?aworm’s-eyeviewoflanguageistolookatlanguagefromthepointofviewofanindividualmemberwithinit.5.Varietiesoflanguage?Dialectalvarieties(regionaldialect,sociolect,languageandgender,languageandage,idiolect,ethnicdialect)?Register（语域）?Degreeofformality5.1Dialectalvarieties?regionaldialect(geographicalbarrier)?Sociolect(socialclass,ReceivedPronunciation)?languageandgender(pronunciation,lexicalitems,politeness)?languageandage(conservative)?Idiolect(personal)?ethnicdialect(lessprivilegedpopulation,racialdiscriminationorsegregation)5.2register?linguisticrepertoire（个人语言变体的总和）:thetotalityoflinguisticvarietiespossessedbyanindividualconstituteshislinguisticrepertoire.?Halliday’sregistertheory:fieldofdiscourse(whyandabout),tenorofdiscourse(towhom),andmodeofdiscourse(how)5.3Degreeofformality?Languageusedondifferentoccasionsdiffersinthedegreeofformality,whichisdeterminedbythesocialvariables,e,g,whowearetalkingwithandwhatwetalkingabout.AnAmericanlinguistMartinJoos,distinguishesfivestagesofformality,namely,intimate,casual,consultative,formalandfrozen.6.Standarddialect精彩文档\n实用标准文案?Thestandardvarietyisasuperimposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectofalanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandjudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions.?Features:?1)itisbasedonaselectedvarietyofthelanguage;?2)itisnotadialectachildacquiresnaturallylikehisregionaldialect;?3)ithassomespecialfunctions.7.PidginandCreole?Apidginisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.?Whenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage,itissaidtohavebecomeaCreole.8.Bilingualismanddiglossia?Insomespeechcommunity,twolanguagesareusedsidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay,andlanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.Thisconstitutesthesituationofbilingualism.?Diglossiareferstoasociolinguisticsituationsimilartobilingualism.Inadiglossicsituationtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.9.Assignments?Howislanguagerelatedtosociety??IllustrateHalliday’sregistertheorywithexamples?Specifysomekindsofvarietiesoflanguage.9.LanguageandCulture1.Thedefinitionofculture:Inabroadsense,culturemeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguagethatcharacterizesthelifeofhumancommunity.Inanarrowsense,culturemayrefertolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodcultureetc.Twotypesofculture:materialcultureandspiritualculture2.TherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureLanguageandcultureareinextricablyintertwined.Ontheonehand,languageasanintegralpartofhumanbeing,permeateshisthinkingandwayofviewingtheworld,languagebothexpressesandembodiesculturalreality;Ontheotherhand,language,asaproductofculture,helpperpetuatetheculture,andthechangesinlanguageusereflecttheculturalchangesinreturn.3.Sapir-WhorfHypothesisTheinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtisknownasSapir-WhorfHypothesis.linguisticdeterminism（语言决定论）andlinguisticrelativity（语言相对论）:Whorfsetsforthadoubleprinciple:theprincipleoflinguisticdeterminism,namely,thatthewayonethinksisdeterminedbythelanguageonespeaks,andtheprincipleoflinguisticrelativity,thatdifferencesamonglanguagesmustthereforebereflectedinthedifferencesintheworldviewsoftheirspeakers.4.Linguisticevidenceofculturaldifferences精彩文档\n实用标准文案1.Greetingsandtermsofaddress2.Thanksandcompliments3.Colorwords4.Privacyandtaboos5.Roundingoffnumbers6.Wordsandcultural-specificconnotations7.Cultural-relatedidioms,proverbsandmetaphors5.Thesignificanceofculturalteachingandlearning:Acculturation(文化适应):weneedtolearnenoughaboutthelanguage’sculturesothatwecancommunicateinthetargetlanguageproperlytoachievenotonlythelinguisticcompetencebutalsothepragmaticorcommunicativecompetenceaswell.6.Culturaloverlapanddiffusion1.Culturaloverlap（文化重叠）2.Culturaldiffusion（文化扩散）:throughcommunication,someelementsofcultureAentercultureBandbecomepartofcultureB,thusbringaboutculturaldiffusion,whichhasbeenshapedgraduallyandunceasingly.linguisticimperialismandculturalimperialism（文化帝国主义）:withtheincreasingculturaldiffusionhadbeenrecognizedatendencyofculturalimperialismowingtolinguisticimperialism.Linguisticimperialismisakindoflinguicismwhichcanbedefinedasthepromulgationofglobalideologiesthroughtheworldwideexpansionofonelanguage.7.InterculturalcommunicationorcrossculturalcommunicationItreferstocommunicationbetweenpeoplefromdifferentcultures,whichimpliesacomparisonbetweencultures.8.AssignmentsExplaintherelationbetweenlanguageandculture.WhatdoyouthinkofSapir-Whorfhypothesis?Giveexamplesorprooftosupportyourpointofview.10.Languageacquisition1.Threetheoriesofchildlanguageacquisition♦a)abehaviouristview（行为主义观）:languagelearningissimplyamatterofimitationandhabitformation♦b)aninnatistview（天生主义观）:humanbeingsarebiologicallyprogrammedforlanguage,orequippedwithLanguageAcquisitionDeviceorUniversalGrammar♦c)aninteractionistview（互动主义观）:languagedevelopsasaresultofthecomplexinterplaybetweenthehumancharacteristicsofthechildandtheenvironmentinwhichthechilddevelops.2.Cognitivefactorsinchildlanguagedevelopment♦1.languagedevelopmentisdependentonboththeconceptschildrenformabouttheworldandwhattheyfeelstimulatedtocommunicateatearlyandlaterstagesoftheirlanguagedevelopment.♦2.Thecognitivefactorsdeterminehowthechildmakessenseofthelinguisticsystemhimselfinsteadofwhatmeaningsthechildperceivesandexpresses.3.LanguageenvironmentandtheCriticalPeriodHypothesis♦CriticalPeriodHypothesis:LanguageAcquisitionDeviceworkssuccessfullyonlywhenitisstimulatedatrighttimes-aspecificandlimitedtimeperiodforlanguageacquisition.精彩文档\n实用标准文案♦ThestrongversionofCPH:childrenacquiretheirfirstlanguagebypubertyortheywillneverlearnfromsubsequentexposure.♦TheweakversionofCPH:languagelearningwillbemoredifficultandincompleteafterpuberty.4.Stagesinchildlanguagedevelopment♦Phonologicaldevelopment♦Vocabularydevelopment♦under-extension♦over-extension♦Grammaticaldevelopment♦Pragmaticdevelopment5.Atypicaldevelopment♦Hearingimpairment听力损伤♦Mentalretardation智力迟钝♦Autism孤独症♦Stuttering口吃♦Aphasia失语症♦Dyslexia诵读困难♦dysgraphia书写困难6.assignment♦Illustrateandcomparethethreetheoriesofchildlanguageacquisition.11SecondLanguageAcquisition1.Differentterms?TL?FL?SL?FLA?SLA(SLL)?IL2.Comparison?NL:TLcomparison(ContrastiveAnalysis)?IL:TLcomparison(ErrorAnalysis)?NL:ILcomparison(TransferAnalysis)3.ContrastiveAnalysis?NL:TLcomparison(ContrastiveAnalysis)?Positivetransfer(facilitate)?Negativetransfer(interfere)?Thepredictionsturnedtobeeitheruninformativeorinaccurate.4.ErrorAnalysis?IL:TLcomparison(ErrorAnalysis)?Interlingualerrors?Intralingualerrors?PerformanceAnalysis:thedivisionbetweenmistakes(failureinperformance)anderrors(failureincompetence)(p164)5.Interlanguage（中介语）?Interlanguagereferstolearners’independentsystemofsecondlanguagewhichisneitherthenativelanguagenorthesecondlanguage,butacontinuumorapproximationfromhisnativelanguagetothetargetlanguage.?Systematicity,permeability,fossilization6.Krashen’sInputHypothesis?Therearetwoindependentmeansofsecondlanguagelearning:acquisitionandlearning精彩文档\n实用标准文案?“comprehensibleinput”:“i+l”,irepresentslearners’currentstateofknowledge,thenextstageisa“i+l”.Byprovidingcomprehensibleinputwhichisbithigherthanthelearners’currentlevel,thelearners’LADwillbeactivatedandcontributetoacquisition.7.theindividualdifferencesinsecondlanguageacquisition?a)languageaptitude?b)motivation(instrumental,integrative,resultative,intrinsic)?c)learningstrategies(cognitive,metacognitive,affect/social)?d)ageofacquisition?e)personality8.Assignments?Whatisperformanceanalysis??WhatisyourunderstandingofKrashen'sInputHypothesis??Whatarethemainindividualdifferenceinsecondlanguageacquisition?12.LanguageandBrain1.Neurolinguistics•Therelationshipbetweenbrainandlanguage•Aphasia失语症•Dyslexia诵读困难2.Psycholinguistics•Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageprocessing.•Lexicaldecision词汇确定法•Theprimingexperiment启动实验•Timed-readingexperiment限时阅读实验•Eyemovementexperiment眼动实验•Event-relatedpotentialexperiment事件相关电位实验3.Psycholinguisticmodeling•Fourstagesofproduction:•Conceptualizing概念化•Formulating形式化•Articulating发音•Self-monitoring自我监控4.Assignments•neurolinguistics•psycholinguistics精彩文档