英语语言学34章总结

英语语言学34章总结

Chapter3MorphologyDeflnition:Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Morphologyisdividedintotwosub-branches:inflectionalmorphologyandlexicalorderivationalmorphology.Theformerstudiestheinflectionsandthelatteristhestudyofwordformation.Morpheme:Thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.Themeaningmorphemesconveymaybeoftwokinds:lexicalmeaningandgrammaticalmeaning.Typesofmorphemesa)FreemorphemesFreemorphemesarethemorphemeswhichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesorincombinationwithothermorphemes.b)BoundmorphemesBoundmorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.TypesofboundmorphemesArootisoftenseenaspartofword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivationalMorphologicalrules:therulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypesofstemtoformanewword.TypesofcompoundwordsNoun+nounAdjective+nounAdjective+noun+edVerb+nounAdverb+nounNoun+verbVerb+adverbNoun+adjective-ingform+nounOtherformsFeaturesofcompoundsOrthographicallySyntacticallySemanticallyPhonetically\nChapter4SyntaxDeflnition:Syntaxstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.ThetermsyntaxcameoriginallyfromGreek.Itliterallymeantarrangement.Itmeansthatsentencesarestructuredaccordingtoaparticulararrangementofwords.Well-arrangedsentencesareconsideredgrammaticalsentences.Grammaticalsentencesareformedfollowingasetofsyntacticrules.Syntaxasasystemof:Syntaxconsistsofasetofabstractrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordstoformgrammaticalsentences.Asentenceisconsideredgrammaticalwhenitisinagreementwiththegrammaticalknowledgeinthemindofnativespeakers-Thebasiccomponentsofasentence:Asentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.Normally,asentenceconsistsofatleastasubjectanditspredicatewhichcontainsafiniteverboraverbphrase.Typesofsentence:ThesimplesentenceThecoordinatesentenceThecomplexsentenceThelinearwordorderofasentence:Whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinasequence.Meanwhile,theyareheardorreadasarrangedoneafteranotherinasequence.Thissequentialorderofwordsinasentencesuggeststhatthestructureofasentenceislinear.Thehierarchicalstructureofasentence:Thesuperficialarrangementofwordsinalinearsequencedoesnotentailthatsentencesaresimplylinearlystructured.Sentencestructureishierarchicalinnature.Treediagramsofsentencestructure:Thehierarchicalordercanbebestillustratedwithatreediagramofconstituentstructure.Inaddition,thehierarchicalstructureofsentencescanalsobeillustratedbyusingbracketsandsubscriptlabels.Lexicalcategories:Wordsareorganizedintogroupsoflexicalcategories,commonlyknownaspartsofspeech.Alanguagehasmajorandminorlexicalcategories.Majorlexicalcategoriesareopencategoriesthatnewwordsareconstantlyadded.Minorlexicalcategoriesareclosedcategoriesbecausethenumberofthelexicalitemsinthesecategoriesisfixedandnonewmembersareallowedfor.Phrasalcategories:Fourphrasalcategoriesarecommonlyrecognizedanddiscussed,namely,nounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),prepositionalphrase(PP),andadjectivephrase(AP).\nGrammaticalrelations:Thestructuralandlogicalfunctionrelationsofconstituentsarecalledgrammaticalrelations.Thegrammaticalrelationsofasentenceconcernthewayeachnounphraseinthesentencerelatestotheverb.Phrasalstructurerules:Thecombinationalpatterninalinearformulamaybecalledaphrasestructuralrule,orrewriterule.Therecursivenessofphrasestructurerules:theserulescangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences,andsentenceswithinfinitelength,duetotheirrecursiveproperties.X-bartheory:NP/VP/AP/PPallmustcontainoneobligatoryword,wecallXP.ThismeansthatXPmustcontainX,whereXPstandsrespectivelyforNP/VP/AP/PPandXmeansN/V/A/P.SyntacticmovementandmovementrulesNPmovementWHmovementWHOthertypesofmovementD-structureandS-structure:Whatsyntacticmovementsuggestsforthestudyofthegrammaristhatasentencestructuremayhavetwolevelsofsyntacticrepresentation,onethatexistsbeforemovementtakesplace,andtheotherthatoccursaftermovementtakesplace.Informallinguisticexploration,thesetwosyntacticrepresentationsarecommonlytermedasD-structure(thedeepstructure)andS-structure(thesurfacestructure).Movea-ageneralmovementruleJustasthereisageneralruleforallphrasestructurerules,thatis,theX-barschema,thereisageneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.ThismovementruleiscalledMoveAlpha.AlphaisaGreeksymbolusedheretorepresentanyconstituent,andwhatMoveAlphasaysis“moveanyconstituenttoanyplacetTheoryofuniversalgrammarUGisasystemoflinguisticknowledgeandahumanspecies-specificgiftwhichexistsinthemindorbrainofanormalhumanbeing.UGconsistsofasetofgeneralconditions,orgeneralprinciplesandalsocontainsasetofparameters.