语言学简明教程Cha

语言学简明教程Cha

Chapter6GrammarandText6.1IntroductionText(语篇)—achunkoflnguagespokenorwrittenforcommunicationinactualcircumstances.Atextissentencesofanylengthputtogether,withtexture.Texture(语篇织体)iswhatbindsatexttogether,intrinsicallyandcontextually.1\nThischapterexploreshowgrammarisrelatedtotext.-----FunctionalGrammarM.A.K.HallidayMichaelAlexanderKirkwoodHalliday(oftenM.A.K.Halliday)(born1925)isaBritishlinguistwhodevelopedaninternationallyinfluentialgrammarmodel,thesystemicfunctionalgrammar(whichalsogoesbythenameofsystemicfunctionallinguistics[SFL]).2\nFunctionalGrammar:basicviewsLanguageistheproductofsocialactivities.Languageiswhatitisbecauseithastoservecertainsocialfunctions.SocialdemandsonLhashelpedtoshapeitsstructure.韩礼德认为语言的性质决定人们对语言的要求，即语言所必须完成的功能。尽管这种功能千变万化，我们可以把它们归纳为若干个有限的抽象的功能，这就是“纯理功能”或“元功能”，这是种种语言用途所固有的。纯理论功能包括三方面：ThreeMetafunctions:Ideationalfunction（概念功能）Interpersonalfunction（人际功能）Textualfunction（语篇功能）3\nIdeationalfunction（概念功能）:toconveynewinformationunknowntothehearer.语言是对存在于主客观世界的过程和事物的反映，这是“经验”功能。逻辑功能以表现为并列关系和从属关系的线性的循环结构的形式出现。由于两者都是建立于说话人对外部世界和内心世界的经验，与其它功能相比较是中性的，因而可统称为“概念”功能。“观察者”的功能（指说话人对主客观世界的观察）4\nInterpersonalfunction（人际功能）:toexpresssocialandpersonalrelations;thewaysspeakerentersintoaspeechsituationandperformsaspeechact.语言是社会人有意义的活动，是做事的手段，是动作，因此它的功能之一必然是反映人与人之间的关系，如反映说话人和听话人之间的社会地位和亲疏关系。这个纯理功能称为“人际”功能。“闯入者”的功能，（指向他人灌输自己的思想）5\nTextualfunction（语篇功能）:tomakeanystretchofspokenorwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtextandmakealivingmessagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.实际使用中的语言的基本单位不是词或句这样的语法单位，而是表达相对完整思想的语篇。上述两种功能部分最后要由说话人把它们组织成语篇才能实现。这就是“语篇”功能。语篇功能满足了使实际应用中的语言前后相关联的要求，使实际的上下文具备一定的结构，从而使实际的篇章区别于语法或者词典中一个个孤立的条目。它提供了一系列潜在的可用的意义，使语言结构的组成成为可能。“相关”功能（指语篇的完整性、一致性和衔接性）。6\nAnexample（1）Johnsawahandbaginafield.Johnwalkedacrossafieldandpickedupahandbag.JohntookahandbagtothepolicestationandJohnhandedinahandbagaslostproperty.WhenJohnhandedahandbagaslostproperty,Johnwenthome.（2）Johnsawahandbaginafield.Hewalkedacrossthefieldandpickedupthehandbag.Hetookthehandbagtothepolicestationandhandeditinaslostproperty.Whenhehaddonethis，hewenthome.7\nThematicstructureTextualfunctionInformationstructureCohesion8\n6.2ThemeandTextualfunctionCompare:AhalfpennyisthesmallestEnglishcoin.ThesmallestEnglishcoinisahalfpenny.Themeisthepointofdepartureinasentence.Itistheelementwhichservestorelatethemessageofthesentencetotheunfoldingtext.TherestoftheclauseistheRheme.Theme+Rheme9\nDifferentthemesshowthedifferentconcernsofthewriter,e.g.:(1)Thebutcherknifewasfoundinthegardenbythepolice.(bywho)(2)Thepolicefoundthebutcherknifeinthegarden.(where)(3)Inthegardenthepolicefoundthebutcherknife.(what)10\nThematicprogression(主位推进模式)Themehasafunctionoforganizingtheinformationintoatext.Themeisconcernedwiththeorganizationofinformationwithinindividualclauseand,throughthis,withtheorganizationofthelargertext.Danes(1974)identifiedanumberofmodelsofThematicprogression:ThecontinuousorconstantthemepatternThelinearthemepatternThesplitrhemepattern11\nThecontinuousorconstantthemepatternTheyarebasicallytimidorself-conscious.Theylackfranknessandareusuallyverysensitivebuthatetoadmitit.Theyaremotivatedeitherbygreatambitionorextremelaziness….AcommonthemeshardbyeachclauseandthisthemeequateswithGIVENinformation.12\n(2)ThelinearthemepatternThemilkgoesfirsttoaclarifier.Theclarfierisamachineforapplyingcentrifugalforce.Itconsistsofarapidlyrevolvingbowlcontainingseveraldiscs.Thediscsseparatethemilkintothinstreams.Thestreamsofmilkthenpassintoapreheater.Thepreheater……13\n(3)ThesplitrhemepatternForme,teachingisared-eye,sweaty-palm,sinkingstomachprofession.RedeyebecauseIneverfellreadytoteach,nomatterhow….Sweaty-palmbecauseI’malwaysnervousbeforeIwalkintothatclassroom….Sinkingstomach,becauseIwalkoutoftheclassroomanhourlaterandconvincedthatIwasevenmoreboringthanusual.14\nTypesofThemes:Accordingtothecomplexity,HallidayclassifiesThemeintothreekinds:simpleTheme,multipleThemeandclausalTheme.HallidaygivesadetailedanalysisonEnglishthematicstructure.StudytheexamplesonP116-7.15\nExamplesofsimpleThemeThebusiscomingJohnandMariagotoschooltogetherOnthetable,underthebookliesapieceofpaperSimpleThemeRheme16\n6.3InformationStructureAninformationunitconsistsofNEWandGIVENinformation;thenewbeingobligatoryandthegivenbeingoptional.GIVEN…andNEWinformationThesystemofinformationusesintonationtohighlightwhatisparticularlynewsworthyinthemessage.It’saFINEday//andwecanhaveanOUTing//tonegroup---theunitofinformationcontainingone,andonlyone,TONICSYLLABLE(调核音节)，tofocusthenewinformationinthetonegroup.17\nTwokindsofrhythminlanguage:SyllableTiming--thetimingofallsyllablestendstobeequal,regardlessoftheirstress.(Chinese)FootTiming(or:StressTiming)--innormalcontinuousspeech,thelengthoftimebetweenstressedsyllablesissimilarhowevermanyother(relativelylessaccentedsyllables)occurinbetween.(English)Foot(音步)startswithastressedsyllable,inthetonegroup,andendsbeforethenextstressedsyllable.18\nArankscale:Tonegroup║Foot│SyllablePhonemePhone║The│girlover│there║whoisin│red║usedtobeour│monitor.║SeeP119ofyourcoursebook19\nThetextualsystemofinformationiscomplementarytotheme:inthedefaultcase,thethemeoftheclausefallswithintheGIVENinformationandtheNEWassignedbythatsystemfallswithintherheme.Indefaultcase,themeandgiveninformationprecederhemesandnewinformation.20\n6.4CohesionWhatbindsatexttogether?Cohesion(衔接)---theelementsthatbindatexttogetherormakeapileofsentencesatextoraneffectivecomponentofatext.21\nFourkindsofcohesivedevicesinEnglish:ReferenceSubstitutionandEllipsisConjunctionLexicalcohesion22\nReference(co-referentiality)-referstohowthewriter/speakerintroducesparticipants(people,placeandthings)andthenkeeptrackofthemoncetheyenterthetext.e.g.Hewonafirstprizeandwiththemoneyheboughtanewcomputerwhichbroughthimalotoffun.23\nSubstitutionandEllipsis(co-classification)Typesofsubstitution:Nominal:one,ones,sameVerbal:doClausal:so,notYouthinkJoanalreadyknows?—Ithinkeverybodydoes.Thesebiscuitsarestale.---Getsomefreshones.They’vefailed,then?---Iregretso.Ellipsis:Joanboughtsomecarnations,andCathysomesweetpeas.24\nConjunction/conjunctiveadjunctse.g.Hewasverysick.Infact,heneededabloodtransfusion.(2)Heisaheadache.Imeanhenevergetsalongwithhiscolleagues.(3)Heworkedveryhard.Asaresult,hecameoutfirstinthefinalexam.25\nFourclassesofcohesiveconjunction(Halliday&Hasan,1976.CohesioninEnglish.London:Longman.):Additive:and,andalso,furthermore,inaddition,bytheway,thatis,Imean,forinstance,likewise,ontheotherhand,bycontrastetc.Adversative:yet,though,but,neverthless,despitethis,infact,onthotherhand,instead,onthecontrary,atleast,rather,inanycase,atanyrate,whicheverwayitisetc.Causal:so,hence,consequently,therefore,forthisreason,asaresult,for,because,itfollows,tothisend,inthatcase,thatbeingso,underthecircumstances,inthisrespect,asidefromthisetc.Temporal:then,next,atthesametime,atfirst…intheend,onanotheroccasion,inconclusion,uptonow,hitherto,tosumup,toreturntothepointetc.26\nLexicalcohesion(co-extension)referstothecohesiveeffectoftheuseoflexicalitemsintextswherethechoiceofanitemiscloselyrelatedtothechoicesofotheritems,intermsofsynonymsy,near-synonymy,antonymy,hyponymyandcollocationetc.TypesoflexicalcohesionReferentialrelationReiterationsameword(repetition)samereferentsynonyms(ornear-syn)inclusivesuperordinateexclusivegeneralwordunrelated2.Collocation27\nStudytheexample:Singasongofsixpence,apocketfullofrye,Four-and-twentyblackbirdsbakedinapie,Whenthepiewasopened,thebirdsbegantosing,Wasn’tthatadaintydishtosetbeforeaking?Thekingwasinhiscounting-house,countingouthismoney,Thequeenwasintheparlour,eatingbreadandhoney,Themaidwasinthgarden,hangingoutthecolthes,Alongcameablackbirdandpeckedoffhernose.28\n296.5ConversationanalysisStudytheexampleonP127ofyourcoursebook29