自考《现代语言学》复习讲义

自考《现代语言学》复习讲义

自考《现代语言学》复习讲义一、常考题型1.填空2.单项选择3.判断正误4.解释词语并举例说明对名词解释并举一两个例子进行说明5.回答问题做题要求：用英文进行答题。二、各章节学习要点Chapter1Introduction（绪论）1.Whatislinguistics?1.1Definition（语言学的定义）P.1Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Linguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,e.g.,English,Chinese,Arabic,andLatin,butinlanguageingeneral.1.2TheScopeoflinguistics（语言学的研究范畴）P.2—4Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics(普通语言学).Thisdealswiththebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudy,incontrasttothosebranchesofstudywhichrelatelinguisticstotheresearchofotherareas.Mainbranchesoflinguistics语言学的主要分支：1）phonetics（语音学）2)phonology（音系学）3)morphology（形态学）4)syntax（句法学）5)semantics（语义学）6)pragmatics（语用学）Thestudyofalltheseaspectsoflanguageformsthecoreoflinguistics.Findingsinlinguisticstudiescanoftenbeapplie3dtothesolutionofsuchpracticalproblemsasthe\nrecoveryofspeechability.Thestudyofsuchapplicationsisgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.Macrolinguistics宏观语言学：1)Psycholingusitcs(心理语言学)；2)Sociolinguistics(社会语言学)；3)Anthropologicallinguistics(人类语言学)；4)Computationallinguistics(计算语言学)1.3SomeimportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsP.4—71.3.1Prescriptivevs.descriptive（规定性和描述性）Examples:Don’tsayX.Peopledon’tsayX.Modernlinguistics,i.e.,linguisticstudycarriedoutinthiscenturyismostlydescriptive.1.3.2Synchronicvs.diachronic（共时性和历时性）Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy.1.3.3Speechandwriting（口头语和书面语）Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.1.3.4Langueandparole（语言和言语）ThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebytheSwisslinguistF.deSaussureintheearly20thcentury.1.3.5Competenceandperformance（语言能力和语言运用）SimilartoSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleisthedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance,whichwasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.WhileSaussure’sdistinctionandChomsky’sareverysimilar,theydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.2.Whatislanguage?2.1Definitionsoflanguagep.9Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.(语言是人类在交际中使用的一套任意的声音符号系统。)Languagedistinguishesusfromanimalsbecauseitisfarmoresophisticatedthananyanimalcommunicationsystem.2.2Designfeaturesp.11—14DesignfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunicationAframeworkwasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistCharlesHockett.Hespecifiedtwelvedesign\nfeatures,fiveofwhichwillbediscussedhere.1)Arbitrariness（任意性）Languageisarbitrary.Thismeansthatthereisnologicalrelationshipbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Whilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.Thearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.2)Productivity(创造性)Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage.3)Duality(双重性)Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerorthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whichismeaningless.4)Displacement（移位性）Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfutureorinfar-awayplaces.Incontrast,noanimalcommunicationpossessthisfeature.5)Culturaltransmission(文化传递性)Whilehumancapacityoflanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewereallbornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.Chapter2Phonology(音系学)1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage（语言的声音媒介）p.15—16Speechandwritingarethetwomediaorsubstancesusedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.Forlinguists,thestudyofsoundsisofgreaterimportancethanthatofwriting;theirdadaforinvestigationandanalysisaremostlydrawnfromauthentic,everydayspeech.2.Phonetics(语音学)2.1Whatisphonetics?p.16—17Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学)；auditoryphonetics(听觉语音学)；acousticphonetics(声学语音学)Ofthethreebranchesofphonetics,thelongestestablished,anduntilrecentlythemosthighlydeveloped,isarticulatoryphonetics.2.2Organsofspeech(发音器官)p.17—22Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantareasorcavities:the\npharyngealcavity(咽腔)—thethroat,theoralcavity(口腔)—themouth,andthenasalcavity(鼻腔)—thenose.(人类的发声器官都被包括在三个重要的地方或腔道里；咽腔—即咽喉；口腔—即嘴；和鼻腔—即鼻子。)2.3Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds—broadandnarrowtranscriptions(语音的正字标音法—宽式标音法和严式标音法)Twowaystotranscribespeechsoundsarenowavailable.Oneisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonlyandtheotheristhetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics(附加符号).Theformeriscalledbroadtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooks.Thelatteriscallednarrowtranscription.Thisisreallythetranscriptionrequiredandusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.Withthehelpofthediacriticstheycanfaithfullyrepresentasmuchofthefinedetailsasitisnecessaryfortheirpurpose.Chapter3Morphology(形态学)1.Definition(形态学的定义)Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Morphologyisdividedintotwosub-branches:inflectionalmorphology(屈折形态学)andlexicalorderivationalmorphology（词汇或派生词汇学）.Theformerstudiestheinflectionsandthelatterthestudyofword-formation.2.Morpheme(词素)p.492.1Morpheme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage（词素：语言最小的意义单位）Justasaphonemeisthebasicunitinthestudyofphonology,soisamorphemethebasicunitinthestudyofmorphology.Themeaningmorphemesconveymaybeoftwokinds:lexicalmeaningandgrammaticalmeaning(词汇意义和语法意义).Themorphemessuchas“man”,“-ly”,“teach”,“-er”,“dark”,“-en”in“manly”,“teacher”,“darken”conveyalexicalmeaning,whilethemorphemessuchas“-es”,“-ed”,“-ing”in“teaches”,“played”,“raining”conveyagrammaticalmeaning.链接：Morphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical,e.g.boys---boy+-sindicatespluralitychecking---check+-ingdisappointment---dis-+appoint+-ment2.2Typesofmorphemesp.50Morphemesareclassifiedintofreemorphemesandboundmorphemes.\nfreemorpheme(自由词素)root(词根)morphemeboundmorpheme（粘着词素）inflectionalaffix(屈折词缀)prefix（前缀）affix(词缀)derivationalaffixsuffix（后缀)）Freemorphemesaremorphemeswhichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesorincombinationwithothermorphemes.Takehelp,quick,able,warmforexample,theycanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves,atthesametime,theycanalsobeusedincombinationwithothermorphemesasinhelper,quicken,disable,warm-hearted.Boundmorphemesaremorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.Boundmorphemesincludetwotypes:rootsandaffixes.Arootisoftenseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.Forexample,theroot“geo-”bearsthemeaningof“theearth”;whenitcombineswithanotherroot“-ology”,meaning“abranchoflearning”,wegettheword“geology”,whichmeans“thestudyoftheearth’sstructure.”Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.Inflectionalaffixesorinflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.TheinflectionalaffixesinEnglishinclude:-(e)s,indicatingpluralityofnouns-(e)s,indicatingthirdpersonsingular,presenttense-(e)d,indicatingpasttenseforallthreepersons-ing,indicatingprogressiveaspect-er,indicatingcomparativedegreeofadjectivesandadverbs-est,indicatingsuperlativedegreeofadjectivesandadverbs-‘s,indicatingthepossessivecaseofnounsDerivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.ThisisaverycommonwaytocreatenewwordsinEnglish.Suchawayofword-formationiscalledderivation(派生法)andthenewwordformedbyderivationiscalledaderivative(派生词).Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem(词干).Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.e.g.tolerateroot“toler-”+affix“-ate”quickfreemorpheme“quick”+affix“-ly”carelessnessfreemorpheme“care”+affix“-less”+derivative“careless”+affix“-ness”\nAccordingtotheitspositioninthenewword,affixesaredividedintotwokinds:prefixes(前缀)andsuffixes(后缀).(p.53)Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.Exceptionsaretheprefixes“be-”and“en(m)-”Addedtoadjectivesornounstheyturnthewordsintoverbs,e.g.little-belittle,large-enlarge,rich-enrich,body-embody.Suffixesareaddedtotheendofstems;theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.(p.54)2.2.3Morphologicalrulesp.54Inusingthemorphologicalrules,wemustguardagainstovergeneralization.Differentwordsmayrequiredifferentaffixestocreatethesamechange.AknowledgeofthederivationalaffixesandthemorphologicalrulesisveryhelpfulinourstudyofEnglishespeciallyforenlargingourvocabulary,butsuchaknowledgeisnottobeoverused.3.Compounding(复合法)p.55Likederivation,compoundingisanotherpopularandimportantwayofformingnewwordsinEnglish.Intermsofmorphemicanalysis,derivationcanbeviewedastheadditionofaffixestostemstoformnewwords,andcompoundingthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.3.1TypesofcompoundwordsTherearevariouswaystoclassifythecompoundwords.Oneofthemistolookatthepartsofspeechofthecomponentwords.Wordsofvariouspartsofspeechcanbecombinedtoformcompounds.3.2FeaturesofcompoundsDespitethevariousformations,allcompoundssharethefollowingfeature.1.Orthographically(从正字法的角度看)Acompoundcanbewrittenasonewordwithorwithoutahypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords.2.Syntactically(从句法的角度看)Thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement.3.Semantically(从语义的角度看）Themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumofthemeaningsofitscomponents.4.Phonetically(从发音的角度看）Thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.