专八语言学必背

专八语言学必背

专八语言学必背1.WhatisLanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.2.WhatisLinguistics(语言学)?Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.3.SomeBasicDistinctions(区分)inLinguistics3.1SpeechandWritingOnegeneralprinciple(原则)oflinguisticanalysisistheprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Writinggiveslanguagenewscope(范畴)andusesthatspeechdoesnothave.3.2Descriptive(描述性)orPrescriptive(说明性)Alinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalysesfactsobserved;itisprescriptiveifittriestolaydownrulesfor"correct"behavior.3.3Synchronic(共时)andDiachronic(历时)StudiesThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyandThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.3.4Langue(语言)andParole(言语)ThisisadistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistF.DeSaussure(索绪尔）earlylastcentury.languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualized(实际的)language,orrealizationoflangue.3.5Competence(能力)andPerformance(行为)Competenceistheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances(发声).4.TheScopeofLinguisticsGenerallinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageasawhole.Phonetics(语音学)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Phonology(音韵学)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesoundpatternsoflanguages.Morphology(词法)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestheformofwords.Syntax(句法)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestherulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentences.Semantics(语义学)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthemeaningoflanguage.Appliedlinguistics(应用语言学)isthestudyoftheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthemind.HistoricalLinguistics(历史语言学)isthestudyoflanguagechanges.Anthropologicallinguistics(人文语言学)usesthetheoriesandmethodsofanthropologytostudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtotheculturalpatternsandbeliefsofman.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学)studiestheneurologicalbasisoflanguagedevelopmentanduseinhumanbeings.Mathematicallinguistics(数学语言学)studiesthemathematicalfeaturesoflanguage,oftenemployingmodelsandconceptsofmathematics.Computationallinguistics(计算语言学)isanapproachtolinguisticsinwhichmathematicaltechniquesandconcepts(概念)areapplied,oftenwiththeaidofacomputerII.Phonetics(语音学）1.scopeofphoneticsSpeechsoundsmaybestudiedfromdifferentangles,thuswehaveatleastthreebranchesofphonetics:Articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学）wemayexaminethewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinate(协调）intheprocess.Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）wemaylookintotheimpressionaspeakermakesonthehearerasmediated(调节）bytheear,theauditorynerve(神经）andthebrain.Acousticphonetics(声学语音学）westudythephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmitted（传送）betweenmouthandear.\n2.ThevocalorgansThevocalorgansmaybeviewedasconsistingofthreeparts,theinitiatoroftheair-stream,(气流发生器官）theproducerofvoice（声音发生器官）andtheresonatingcavities.（声音共振器官）3.Consonants(辅音）Placesofarticulation(发音部位）:bilabial,(双唇）Labiodentals,（唇齿）dental,（齿）alveolar,（齿龈）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齿龈）palatal,（上颚）velar,（软腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal(声门）Mannersofarticulation:plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（颤音）lateral,（边音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）4.Vowels(元音）Theclassificationofvowels:theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low),thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back),andthedegreeofliprounding(rounded,unrounded)III.Phonology（音韵学）1.phonemes(音素）：adistinctive(有区别的）soundinalanguage.2.Allophones(音位变体）：Thenondistinctivesoundsaremembersofthesamephoneme.3.Minimalpairs(最小对立体）：wordformswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.4.Freevariation(自由变异）：Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironment(环境）,theydoesnotproduceadifferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword.5.Complementarydistribution(互补分布）：Notallthespeechsoundsoccurinthesameenvironment.Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment6.Suprasegmentalphonology(超音段音位）：thestudyofphonologicalproperties(性质)ofunitslagerthanthesegment-phoneme.Theyaresyllable(音节）,stress,wordstress,sentencestress.pitch（音调）andintonation（语调）.IV.Morphology（词法）1.inflection(构形法）：thegrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes.(屈折词缀）2.Word-formation(构词）：theprocesses(过程）ofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.（表明词法关系）Theyarecompound(合成）andderivation(派生）.3.Morpheme(词素）：thesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent.4.Allomorph(同质异象变体）：somemorphemeshaveconsiderablevariation,forinstance,alternateshapesorphoneticforms.5.Typesofmorphemes:Theyareroots,(词根）affix（词缀）andstem（词干）.6.Lexicon(语言词汇）：initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.7.Closed-classwords(封闭性）andopen-classwords(开放性）：theformerwhosemembershipisfixedorlimitedandthelatterwhosemembershipisinprinciple(实际上）indefiniteorunlimited.8.Wordclass(词性）：Itdisplaysawiderrangeofmorepreciselydefinedclasses.9.Lexeme(词位）：thesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.10.Idiom(习语，成语）：Mostphrasallexemesareidioms.Itisespeciallytrueforasequenceofwords(词序）whichissemantically（语义上）andoftensyntactically(句法上）restricted.（限制）11.Collocation(搭配）：thehabitual(习惯的）co-occurrences（同时出现）ofindividuallexicalitems.V.Syntax(句法）1.Positionalrelationorwordorder（词序）：thesequential(顺序）arrangementofwordsinalanguage.2.Constructionorconstituent(句子结构）：theoverallprocessofinternal(内部）organizationofagrammaticalunit.3.Syntacticfunction(句法功能）：therelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Thenamesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicates,modifiers(修饰语）complements（补语）,4.Category(范畴）：Itreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Thecategoriesofthenounincludenumber,gender,caseandcountability.5.Phrase:asingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalof\nclause.6.Clause:agroupofwordswithitsownsubjectandpredicate,ifitisincludedinalargersentence.7.Sentence:Itistheminimumpartoflanguagethatexpressesacompletethought.VI.Semantics1.Conceptualismormentalism(概念主义）：FollowingF.DeSaussure(索学尔）'s"sign"theory,thelinguisticsignissaidtoconsistofasignifier（所指）andsignified（被指）,i.e.,asoundimageandaconcept,likedbyapsychological（心理的）"associative"bond.（相关联系）2.Mechanism(机械主义）：Somelinguists,Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德）forexample,turnedtosciencetocounter（反）-acttheprecioustheoriesandthisleadstowhatcallthemechanisticapproach（方法）.Thenatureofthistheoryhasnothingtodowiththescientificstudyofmentalphenomena.（智力现象）3.Contextualism（语境主义）：Itisbasedonthepresumption(假定）thatonecanderivemeaningfromorreduceittoobservablecontext.4.Behaviorism(行为主义）：Behaviouristsattempttodefine(定义）themeaningofalanguageformas"thesituation(情景）inwhichthespeakerutters（说话）itandtheresponse（反应）itcallsforthinthehearer."5.functionalism(功能主义）：functionalistsasrepresented(代表）bythePragueschool（布拉格学派）linguistsandneo-Firthian（新弗斯）linguists,approachtheproblemfromanentirelyneworientation（方法）.Theyargue（争辩）thatmeaningcouldonlybeinterpreted（解释）fromitsuseorfunctioninsociallife.6.Senserelationships:Whilereferencedealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelements,words,sentences,etc.,andthenon-linguisticworldofexperience,senserelatestothecomplexsystemofrelationshipsthatholdbetweenthelinguisticelementsthemselves.Theyincludesynonymy(同义词），antonymy(反义词）,hyponymy(下层次）Polysemy(一词多义）andHomonymy(同音异义词）7.Semanticanalysis:Itincludes1)componential（成分）analysiswhichdefinesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents.(意义成分）2)predication(表述）analysisinwhichthemeaningofasentenceisnotmerelythesumofthemeaningsofthewordswhichcomposeit.3)relationalcomponentsinwhichthesemanticanalysisofsomewordspresentsacomplicatedpicture,becausetheyshowrelationsbetweentwoandperhapsmoreterms.VII.Languagevariation(语言变化）1.Lexicalchange(词汇的变化）：changesinlexis.2.Invention:(新造词）newentities.3.Compounding合成词）Newwordsaresometimesconstructedbycombiningtwooldwords.4.Blending:(混合词）：Itisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtworootsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstrootandthefinalpartofthesecondroot,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetworoots.5.Abbreviationorclipping(缩写）Anewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpartorcuttingtheinitialpart.6.acronym取首字母的缩写词）Itismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodified(修饰）headword.7.metanalysis(再分化）Itreferstoaprocessthroughwhichadivisionismadewheretherewerenotebefore.8.Back-formation(逆构词）Itreferstoanabnormal(非正常）typeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeleting(去掉）animaginedaffixfromalongerformalreadypresentinthelanguage.9.Analogicalcreation:(类比造词）Itcanaccountfor（说明）theco-existenceoftwoforms,regularandirregular,intheconjugation(结合）ofsomeEnglishverbs.10.Borrowing（借用）：Englishinitsdevelopmenthasmanagedtowidenhervocabularybyborrowingwordsfromotherlanguages.11.Phonologicalchange(音变）：Itisrelatedtolanguagevariationinthephonologicalsystemoflanguage.Itincludesloss,(省音）addition,（加音）assimilation,（同化）dissimilation.（异化）12.Grammaticalchange:Changesinbothmorphology（词法）andsyntax（句法）arelistedunderthisheading.13.Semanticchange:(语义变化）Itincludesbroadening,（语义扩大）narrowing,（语义缩小）meaningshift,（意义转化）classshift（词性转换）andfolk\netymology.（词源变化）14.Orthographicchange：(正字法）Changescanalsobefoundatthegrapheticlevel.