语言学一些概念

语言学一些概念

Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics1.9.1Descriptivevs.prescriptiveTosaythatlinguisticsisadescriptivescienceistosaythatthelinguisttriestodiscoverandrecordtherulestowhichthemembersofalanguage-communityactuallyconformanddoesnotseektoimposeuponthemotherrules,ornorms,ofcorrectness・Prescriptivelinguisticsaimstolaydownrulesforthecorrectuseoflanguageandsettlethedisputesoverusageonceandforall.Forexample,"DorftsayX.”isaprescriptivecommand;"Peopledon'tsayX：isadescriptivestatemeiH・Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.Inthe18thcentury,allthemainEuropeanlanguageswerestudiedprescriptive!y.However,modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptivebecausethenatureoflinguisticsasasciencedeterminesitspreoccupationwithdescriptioninsteadofprescription.1.9.2Synchronicvs.diachronicAsynchronicstudytakesafixedinstant(usuallyatpresent)asitspointofobservation.Saussure'sdiachronicdescriptionisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.E.g・astudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakespeare^timewouldbesynchronic,andastudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesincethenwouldbeadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy・Thereasonisthatunlessthevariousstateofalanguagearesuccessfullystudieditwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.1.93Langue&paroleSaussuredistinguishedthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguisticsaslangueandparole・Langueisrelativestableandsystematic,paroleissubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints;langueisnotspokenbyanindividual,paroleisalwaysanaturallyoccurringevent.Whatalinguistshoulddo,accordingtoSaussure,istodrawrulesfromamassofconfusedfacts,i.e.lodiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethemthesubjectoflinguistics.1.9.4CompetenceandperformanceAccordingtoChomsky,alanguageuser'sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledthelinguisticcompetence,andtheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituationsiscalledperformance・Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandandindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities・Aspeaker'scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninflucneedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors・Soaspeaker'sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchhissupposedcompetence.Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance・Chomsky'scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,Saussure'slangue-paroledislinciion.Langueisasocialproductandasetofconventionsofacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofmindofeachindividual.SaussurelooksatlanguagcmorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanChomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically・1.9.5Eticvs.emicIThesetwotermsarestillveryvaguelome.AfterIreadJiDaohong'sbook,Icanunderstandthembetter,butbecausetheyarevaguelymentionedinHu'sbook,itseemsverydifficultformetounderstandthemfully・一icywarmtca]\nBeingeticmeansresearchersmakingfartoomany,aswellasbehaviorallyandinconsequential,differentiations,justasoftenthecasewithphoneticsvs.phonemicsanalysisinlinguisticsproper.Ancmicsetofspeechactsandeventsmustbeonethatisvalidatedasmcaningfulviafinalresourcetothenativemembersofaspeechcommunityratherthanviaappealtotheinvestigator'singenuityorintuitionalone・Followingthesuffixformationsof(phon)elicsvs(phon)emics,thesetermswereintroducedintothesocialsciencesbyKennethPike(1967)todenotethedistinctionbetweenthematerialandfunctionalstudyoflanguage:phoneticsstudiestheacousticallymeasurableandarticulatorilydefinableimmediatesoundutterances,whereasphonemicsanalyzesthespecificselectioneachlanguagemakesfromthatuniversalcataloguefromafunctionalaspect.EndofChapter12.8Phonemesandallophones2.&1MinimalpairsMinimalpairsarctwowordsinalanguagcwhichdifferfromeachotherbyonlyonedistinctivesoundandwhichalsodifferinmeaning.E・g・theEnglishwordstieanddieareminimalpairsastheydifferinmeaningandintheirinitialphonemes/t/and/d/・Byidentifyingtheminimalpairsofalanguage,aphonologistcanfindoutwhichsoundsubstitutionscausedifferencesofmeaning・2•&2Thephonemetheory2.8.3AllophonesAphonemeisthesmallestlinguisticunitofsoundthatcansignaladifferenceinmeaning.Anyofthedifferentformsofaphonemeiscalleditsallophones・E.g.inEnglish,whenthephoneme/□/occursat(hebeginningofthewordlikepeak/itissaidwithalittlepuffofair,itisaspirated.Butwhen/□/occursinthewordlikespeak/itissaidwithoutthepuffoftheair,itisunaspirated・Boththeaspirated[口二]inpeakandtheunaspirated[□']inspeakhavethesamephonemicfunction,i.e.theyarebothheardandidentifiedas/□/andnotas/&/;theyarebothallophonesofthephoneme/□/・2.9Phonologicalprocesses2.9.1AssimilationAssimilation:Aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsonicorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound・Regressiveassimilation:Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecallitregressiveassimilation.Progressiveassimilation:Ifaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,wecallitprogressiveassimilation.Devoicing:Aprocessbywhichvoicedsoundsbecomevoiceless・DevoicingofvoicedconsonantsoftenoccursinEnglishwhentheyareattheendofaword.Thecounterpointofphonologyandmorphology1.Allomorph:Anyofthedifferentformsofamorpheme.2.Morphophonology/morphophonemics:Morphophonologyisabranchoflinguisticsreferringtotheanalysisandclassificationofthephonologicalfactorsthataffecttheappearanceofmorphemes,andcorrespondingly,thegrammaticalfactorsthataffecttheappearanceofphonemes・Itisalsocalledmorphonologyormorphonemics・3・Assimilation:Assimilationreferstothechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound,whichismorespecificallycalled"contact"or"contiguous'、assimilation.\n4.Dissimilation:Dissimilationreferstotheinfluenceexercisedbyonesoundsegmentuponthearticulationofanother,sothatthesoundsbecomelessalike,ordifferent.Tenseandaspect[Forthesetwosections,pleaseconsultmaterialsontraditionalEnglishgrammar.一icywarmtea]4.L3ConcordandgovernmentConcord(a.k.a・agreement)maybedefinedastherequirement(hattheformsoftwoormorewordsinasyntacticrelationshipshouldagreewitheachotherintermsofsomecategories・E.g.inEnglishthedeterminerandthenounitprecedesshouldconcordinnumberasinthisman,thesemen・Andtheformofasubjectshouldagreewiththatoftheverbintermsofnumberinthepresenttense,e.g・HespeaksEnglish;TheyspeakEnglish.Governmentisanothertypeofcontrolovertheformofsomewordsbyotherwordsincertainsyntacticconstruction.Itdiffersfromconcordinthatthisisarelationshipinwhichawordofacertainclassdeterminestheformofothersintermsofcertaincategory・E.g.inEnglish,thepronounafteraverboraprepositionshouldbeintheobjectformasinShegavehimabook;Shegaveabooktohim.Inotherwords,theverb,orthepreposition,governstheformofthepronounafterit.Theformeristhegovernor,andlhelatteristhegoverned・.2Thereferentialtheory1.Thereferentialtheory:Thetheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemcaningofawordtothethingitrefersto,orstandsfor,isknownasthereferentialtheory・2.ThesemantictriangletheoryOgdenandRichardspresentedtheclassic"SemanticTriangle"asmanifestedinthefollowingdiagram,inwhichthe"symbol"referstothelinguistelements(word,sentence,etc.),the"referenf,referstotheobjectintheworldofexperience,andthe"thought"orureferenee"referstoconceptornotion.Thusthesymbolofawordsignifies"things"byvirtueofthe"concept,Massociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindofthespeakerofthelanguage・Theconceptthusconsideredisthemeaningoftheword・Theconnection(representedwithadottedline)betweensymbolandreferentismadepossibleonlythrough44concept.MConcept/notionSymbolobjectWordstandsforrealitySignifierreferentCodesignified