语言学重点整理

语言学重点整理

(onomatopoeia拟声)Someoneeatingcrisps.GROWLUnit12.DualityAlightbeingswitchedon.POPThefunctionsoflanguageSoundlevel–lowerlevel(limitednumber,Afiercedog.CRUNCH1)Phatic(寒暄)2)Directive(指示)3)informative(信息)4)meaningless)Asmallbellbeingrung.CLICKinterrogative(提问)5)expressive(表达)6)evocative(煽Word/sentencelevel-higherlevel(unlimitedPhonetics情)7)performative(执行)number,meaningful)Thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;Whatislinguistics?3.ProductivityItisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheLinguisticsisthescientificstudyofthegeneralprinciplesE.g.Heboughtabookwhichwaswrittenbyaworld’slanguagesuponwhichalllanguagesareconstructedandoperateasteacherwhotaughtinaschoolwhichwasknown3branchesofphoneticssystemsofcommunicationinthesocietiesinwhichtheyforitsgraduateswho…Articulatoryphonetics(发声语音学)AuditoryphoneticsareusedHumanlanguagehasthepropertyofproduceand(听觉语音学)Acousticphonetics(声学语音学)Thescopeoflinguistics:understandunlimitednumberofsentencesOrgansofspeech1.Thecoreoflinguistics(majorbranchesofgeneralcomposedbylimitednumberofsoundsandrules.Thepharyngealcavity咽腔Theoralcavity口腔Thelignuistics):4.Displacementnasalcavity鼻腔1)phonetics2)phonology3)morphology4)syntax5)WecantalkaboutthingswhicharepresentornotOrthographicrepresentationofspeechsoundssemantics6)pragmaticspresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,IPA---(InternationalPhoneticAlphabet)国际音标2.Interdisciplinarybranchesoflinguisticstudy.present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Broadtranscriptions(onlylettersymbols)1)Sociolinguistics(language&.Society)ThisfeatureenableshumantogeneralizeandNarrowtranscriptions(lettersymbols+diacritics)2)Psycholinguistics(languageacquisition)extractthingsfromthecomplexphenomena.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds3)StylisticLinguistics(language&.Literature)5.CulturaltransmissionConsonants:(obstructionofairstream)4)AppliedLinguistics(languageteaching)Humanisbornwiththe(potential)abilityto---mannerofarticulation5)otheranthropologicallinguisticstudyacquirelanguage,butthedetails(rules,associated---placeofarticulationSiximportantdistinctionsinlinguisticssocialandculturalaspects)ofanylanguageVowels:1.Prescriptivevs.descriptivesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadFrontvowelsCentralvowelsBackvowels2.Synchronicvs.diachronichavetobetaughtandlearned.---theplaceoftongue3.Speechvs.writing---theopennessofmouthUnit24.Languevs.parole---theshapeoflips5.Competencevs.performancePhonetics&.Phonology---thelengthofsound6.Traditionalgrammarvs.modernlinguistics1.Matchthefollowingsentencestotheonomatopoeiathat---thetensionoflarynxDesignfeaturesoflanguage:describesthem.Howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocus1.ArbitrarinessAplatebeingdroppedonthefloor.ofstudy?NointrinsicconnectionbetweenlanguageTINKLEPhonetics---generalnatureofsoundsinalllanguagessymbolsandwhatitstandsfor.Aballoonbeingburst.BANG(thefocusisthedifferencebetweensounds)ep:Themurmuroushauntoffliesonsummereves.Agunbeingshot.SMASHPhonology---patternsofsounddistributionina\nparticularlanguagecontexts([p],[ph])Threesensesof“word”(thefocusisthesimilaritybetweensounds)(particularphoneticunit)•1.Aphysicallydefinableunit–Whataresequentialrule,theassimilationrule,and•aseriesofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweendeletionrule?Examples.twopausesorblanks.Sequentialrule(patterningofsounds)•2.ThecommonfactorunderlyingasetofAssimilationrule(copyingafeatureofthefollowingforms—aunitofvocabulary,oralexemeconsonant)impossibleillegal•3.Agrammaticalunit–Deletionrule(acertainsoundmaybedeleted)sign•alevelbetweenmorphemeandwordgroupdesignresignTheidentificationofwordsHowdothethreesuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglish•1.Stabilitydiffermeaning?•2.Relativeuninterruptibility---distinguishingmeaning(involvingabovethelevelof•3.AminimumfreeformIntermsofmannerofarticulation,Englishconsonantsthesegments:syllable,word,sentence)Subclassificationofwordscanbeclassifiedas:Stress(重音)---wordstress(syllable)•1.Closed-classwordsvs.open-classwordsStops(爆破音)Fricatives(摩擦音)Affricatives(破擦---sentencestress(n.v.adj.adv.Numbers,pron.)•(fixedorlimited)(indefiniteorunlimited)音)Liquids/Lateral(滑音)Nasals(鼻音)Glides(半元音)Tone(声调)---pitchvariations(tonelanguage:•2.Grammaticalwordsvs.lexicalwordsIntermsofplaceofarticulationconsonantscanbeChinese)•3.Functionwords(conj.prep.article.pron.)typedas:Bilabial(双唇音)Labio-dental(唇齿Intonation(语调)---pitch,stressandsoundlength•vs.Contentwords(verb.noun.adj.adv.)音)Dental(舌齿音)Alveolar(舌齿龈音)Palatal(硬颚insentences(nucleus)Morpheme音)Velar(软颚音)Glottal(声门音)•TheminimalunitsofmeaningUnit3Phonology•E.g.nationPhonologyisthescientificstudyofthesoundsystem(orWhatismorphology?•national–nation+alpattern)ofallhumanlanguagesorofaparticularAbranchofgrammar•international–inter+nation+allanguage.Thestudyoftheway(theinternalstructureandtherules)•internationalism--inter+nation+al+ismWhatarephone,phoneme,allophones?inwhichthesymbolsinalanguage(morpheme)are•EverywordineverylanguageiscomposedofonePhoneme（音位）---theminimalsegmentsofarrangedandcombinedtoformwords.ormoremorphemes.languagesystems(distinguishingmeaning)Whatis“word”?Conceptsofwordformation(abstractunit/p/,/b/,/e/…)•Aunitofexpressionwhichhasuniversalintuitive•Morphemes:Phone（音子）---phoneticunitorsegment(can([b]recognitionbynativespeakers,whetheritisaminimalmeaningfulunitofalanguageinban&[p]pan)orcannot([p]inpeak&[ph]expressedinspokenorwrittenform.Or:thesmallestfunctioningunitinthecompositionofinspeak)distinguishmeaning)•E.g1)Itiswonderful./It’swonderful.words(particularphoneticunit)•2)writewriteswrotewritingwritten•Morphs:Allophones（音位变体）---thedifferentphones•fatfatterfattestdiscreteunitsthatrealizemorphemes(abstractthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphonetic•housewifehousewivesunits)inspeech“theyareactualspoken,minimalcarriers\nofmeaning”joiningtwoormorestems(28%-30%)sentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformation•Allomorphs:3.Conversion(functionalshift;zero-derivation)(26%)ofsentences.somemorphemesarerealizedbymorethanoneconvertingwordclass;onlynewinagrammaticalsenseCategories范畴morphaccordingtotheirpositioninaword(different4.Shortening:clipping(8%-10%)•1.Word-levelcategoriesNoun.Verb.Adj.soundenvironment)1)acronymy（BBC,VOA,CEO,UNESCO)PrepConj.adv.Article.Prone.g.in-(il-,im-,ir-)2)phone=telephone,ad=advertisement•agroupoflinguisticitems（词类）whichfulfillTypesofmorphemeflu=influenzathesameorsimilarfunctions（句法功能）ina•1.Freemorphemevs.boundmorpheme3)plane取代了aeroplane,particularlanguagesuchasasentence,anoun•2.Rootandaffix(prefix,infix,suffix)zoo取代zoologicalgardens,phraseoraverb.•e.g.(free)blackbird,blackboardradar取代了Radiodirectionfindingandrange•2.Phrase-levelcategoriesNP,VP,AP,PP•(bound)-ceive(receive,perceive,conceive)5.Blending:(1%-5%)•syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainword•-mit(remit,permit,commit,submit)brunch,motel,category•Rootisthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbecarbecue(car+barbecue),•Theprettygirl---NPphraselevelfurtheranalysedwithouttotallossofidentity.workfare(work+welfare)工作福利•girl---Nwordlevel•Affix---medicare(medical+care)医疗保健•dramaticallyrise---VPphraselevel•1.Inflectionalaffix(morpheme)屈折词缀6.Back-formation•rise---Vwordlevel不改变词类---functionalorgrammaticalfeaturepeddler→peddle,burglar→burgle,•3.Sentence-levelcategories•2.Derivationalaffix(morpheme)--lexicalordonation→donate,aggression→aggress•Concordance(一致关系）－性、数的一致meaningfulfeature派生词缀7.Wordsfrompropernames•Government(支配关系）－－动词和介词决定后•(不改变词类）un+conscious,book+let,tall+ish•Openclassnounverbadjectiveadverb面代词的形式•(改变词类）work+er,pay+ee,accept+able•vs.closedclasspronounprepositionauxiliaryverbmodelverbparticledeterminer•Morphemes(Derivationalmorphemesvs.inflectionalmorphemes)•Morphology•Morphologicalrulesofwordformation•(derivationandcompounding)Unit4Whatissyntax？SevenproductivemeansofWF•Syntax---syn(一起，共同)+tax(安排，排列）Unit61.Affixation(derivation):prefixation--derivatives•Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwords(30%-40%)suffixation(wordgroups,phrases)arecombinedtoformWhatissemantics?2.Compounding(composition)—compounds(interrelationshipsbetweenelementsof)Thestudyofmeaning\n2.Austin’sSpeechActTheory言语行为理论isrequired.Locutionaryact(言内行为）2.Themaximofquality(质的准则)－－theactofsayingsomething,conveyingliteralDonotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.meaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence(semantic/sentencemeaning)3.Themaximofrelation(关系准则)Illocutionaryact(言外行为）Berelevant.－－theactinsayingsomething,itsforceisidentical4.Themaximofmanner(方式准则）withthespeaker’sintention.(utterancemeaning)Avoidobscurityofexpression.perlocutionaryact(言后行为）Avoidambiguity.Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning－－theactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingBebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).Thenamingtheory(命名说)(Plato:wordsarejustsomething,theconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtBeorderly.namesorlabelsforwords)\aboutbytheutterance---PolitenessPrinciple(Leech)礼貌原则Theconceptualistview(概念说)(word,concept,Searl’sclassificaitonofillocutionaryspeechactsTheMaximoftactgenerosityapprobationreferent)1.Representatives(陈述）modestyagreementsympathyContextualism(语境说)(Situation,use,context)E.g.(Iswear)Ihaveneverseenthemanbefore.Unit10Behaviorism(行为主义说)(closetocontextualism)(Istatetoyou)theearthisaglobe.Typesofmeaning2.Directives(指令）ThescopeofsociolinguisticsGrammaticalMeaningLexicalmeaningE.g.openthewindow!1.Abird’s-eyeviewofthelanguageusedinsociety.ConnotativemeaningStylisticmeaningDon’tyouthinkit’sabitstuffyhere?macro-sociolinguisticsAffectivemeaningCollocativemeaning3.Commissives(承诺）2.Aworm’s-eyeviewoflanguageinuse.Senserelations(ofword/sentences)E.g.Ipromisetocome.micro-sociolinguistics1.Polysemy多义关系I’llbringthebookwithoutfail.Varietiesoflanguage2.Homonymy同音(同形/异形)异义关系4.Expressives(表达）1.Dialectsvarieties(relatedtotheuser)3.Synonymy同义关系E.g.I’msorryforthemessIhavemade.regionaldialect,sociolect,gendervariety,age,4.Antonymy反义关系It’sreallykindofyoutohavethoughtofme.idiolect,ethnicdialect)5.Hyponymy上下义关系5.Declarations(宣称）2.Register(relatedtotheuse)E.g.Ideclarethemeetingopen.3.DegreeofformalityUnit8Iappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.Standarddialect1.Semanticsvs.pragmatics3Grice’sConversationalimplicature会话含义理论AsuperimposedsociallyprestigiousdialectofaSemantics:traditionalstudyofmeaningassomething---CooperativePrinciple(Grice)合作原则language(government,judiciarysystem,education,intrinsicandinherent(isolatedfromlanguage1.Themaximofquantity(量的准则)massmedia)—particularvarietyuse)—abstract,decontextualizedMakeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequiredPidginandCreolePragmatics:newwayofstudymeaningthatisapart(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange).Pidginofthecontext–concrete,context-depended.DonotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanMixedorblendedlanguages\nUsedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesForrestrictedpurposes(trading,doingmissionarywork,employment)BasedonanEuropeanlanguageLimitedvocabulary,veryreduced(simplified)grammaticalstructureCreoleWhenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage.E.g.theEnglish-basedCreoleofJamaicatheFrench-basedCreoleofHaitiBilingualismanddiglossiaBilingualismTwolanguagesareusedsidebysideEachonehasadifferentroletoplayLanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchangesE.g.Paraguay(Spanish,Guarani)Canada(French,English),Australia,NewZealand,Singapore,partofU.S.A.DiglossiaTwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity(Hvs.L)EachhasadefiniteroletoplaySpecializationoffunctionofthetwovarieties•LAD(LanguageAcquisitionDevice)•CPHCriticalPeriodHypothesisStagesinCLD•1.Phonologicaldevelopment•2.Vocabularydevelopment•3.Grammaticaldevelopment•4.Pragmaticdevelopment