英语语言学复习总结

英语语言学复习总结

1、Howdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itisascientificstudiesbecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Inordertodiscoverthenatureandrulesoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguisthastodofirstistocollectandobservelanguagefacts,whicharefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem;thenheformulatessomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.Butthehypotheses,thusformedhavetobecheckedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.Inlinguistics,asinanyotherdiscipline,dataandtheorystandinadialecticalcomplementation;thatis,atheorywithoutthesupportofdatacanhardlyclaimvalidity,anddatawithoutbeingexplainedbysometheoryremainamuddledmassofthings.   2、Thedesign/definingfeaturesofhumanlanguage(CharlesHockett)(1)Arbitrariness----Nological(motivatedorintrinsic)connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings. -----NonaturalandinevitablelinkbetweenthesoundandthemeaningException:OnomatopoeicwordsandSomecompoundwords.(2)Productivity/creativityWecanspeakanendlessnumberofsentenceswithalimitedvocabularyandonesentencecanexpandintoendlesstheoreticallypossiblesentencesinthewayofrecurringException:andbeedancingisusedonlytoindicatefoodsources,whichistheonlykindofmessagethatcanbesentthroughthedancing.(3)Duality\n§Lowerlevel----sounds(meaningless)§Higherlevel----meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)Exception:thegroupingofthethreesounds/k/,/a:/,and/p/canmeaneitherakindoffish(crap),orapublicplaceforrestandamusement(park).(4)DisplacementDisplacementmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.Exception:Yesterdaywhichbookdidyouread?(5)CulturaltransmissionLanguagecantransmitCulturewhichthelanguagecontains.Exception；anEnglishspeakerandaChinesespeakerarebothabletousealanguage,buttheyarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.  3、wordformation(1)CompoundItreferstothosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform. icecream,sunrise,paperbag(2) DerivationItreferstotheformationofnewwordsbyaddingaffixestootherwordsormorphemes.Unconscious,national,nationalize(3)Blending\nItreferstotheformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.Smoke+fog=smog烟雾(4)Abbreviation1)cuttingthefinalpart(orwithaslightvariation) advertisement-----ad2)cuttingtheinitialpart   aeroplane-----plane3)cuttingboththeinitialandfinalpartsaccordingly  refrigerator----fridge(5)Acronym(I)Itismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadword.WB:WorldBankAcronym(II)Thisprocessisalsowidelyusedinshorteningextremelylongwordsofwordgroupsinscience,technologyandotherspecialfields.VAT:valueaddedtax增殖税(6)Back-formationItreferstoanabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguageEditor------edit(7)BorrowingLatin:cancer,page,i.e.(thatis)e.g.(forexample)etc.(etcetera)Chinese:taji,chowmein,kung-fuJapanese:JudoFrench,German,Italian,Spanish(8)Invention\nSinceeconomicactivitiesarethemostimportantanddynamicinhumanlife,manynewlexicalitemscomedirectlyfromtheconsumeritems,theirproducersortheirbrandnamessuchasKodak,Coke,nylon,andotherstocopewiththeInventionofnewentities.4.XPrule1.XPrule:specifier+head+complement2.XPrule:(Specifier)X’X’àX(complement)3.XPrule:(Specifier)X(Complement*) 4.XPrule:(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)Complement:(ingrammar)thatpartofthesentencewhichfollowstheverbandwhichthuscompletesthesentence.Features:Ø     oneormorecomplementsarepermittedØ     (eg.Astoryaboutasentimentalgirlwithpurpleumbrella…)Ø     wordsthatcantakeCParenotverbsalone.As,NsandPscanalltakeCPØ     (e.g.takeit;poorasachuchmouse;themanwithhat;rightnearthefireplace)Ø     Acertainlexicalitemrequiresacertaintypeofcomplement.Ø     (e.g.cometoschool;gotobed;lookthroughit) Modifier:isusedtospecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.ModifierpositioninEnglishModifierPositionexample\nAPPrecedestheheadaverycarefulgirlPPFollowstheheadopenwithcareAdvPPrecedesorfollowstheheadreadcarefully;carefullyread 5.请从Behaviorism的角度来举例说明其意义：Behavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.” S__TangWanyi_____r--------s______Vicky______RWhenTangWanyiseesanappleandwantstohaveit,shehasaphysicalstimulus,(representedbythecapitalletters),whichgivesrisetoaverbalresponse(r)toVicky.Forinstance,shemightsaytoVicky”I’mthirsty”.WhatshesaysresultsinaverbalstimulustoVicky(representedbythesmallletterS).Thisstimulus,initsturn,leadstoanon-verbalresponsefromVicky,suchaspickingtheappleforher.  6.synonymy(同义现象)Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms1)Dialectalsynonyms----synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects（地区方言）autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol–gasoline地方2)Stylisticsynonyms----synonymsdifferinginstyle,（文体风格上不同）  kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence; 3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning（examplesinMandarin)（情感上和评价判断上的不同）合作者/同谋；结果/下场；鼓励/…；领袖/…；赞扬/…团结\n4)Collocationalsynonyms（搭配意义上的不同）Agroupofpeople;aherdofwolves;aswarmofbees5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms(语义不同)surprise/astonish;finish/complete  7、locutionaryact,illocutionaryact，perlocutionaryactForexample,“Itiscoldinhere.”Itslocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliteralmeaning“theweatherisclodinhere”;Itsillocutionaryactcanbearequestofthehearer“toshutthewindow”;Itsperlocutionaryactistheeffectbroughtabout;itcanbe“thehearer’sshuttingthewindoworhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest”.(作业本)Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen①   thelocutionaryactperformedbythespeakerishisutteranceofallthewords”you”,”have”,”door”,”open”,etc.thusexpressingwhatthewordsliterallymean②   theillocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhatbymakingsuchanutterancehehasexpressedhisintentionofspeaking.i.e.askingsomeonetoclosethedoor.③   Theperlocutionaryactreferstotheeffect(result)oftheutterance.Itcanbe“thehearerclosethedoororrefusetocomplywiththerequest.  8、FourmaximsofCP(I)\nThemaximofquality----Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.----Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.Themaximofquantity----Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequiredforthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange.----Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Themaximofrelation----Berelevant(makeyourcontributionrelevant).Themaximofmanner----Avoidobscurityofexpression.----Avoidambiguity.----Bebrief.----Beorderly.（先判断在分析，先判断是不是relation从literalmeaning是不是同一个主题）Conversationalimplicature会话含义，言外之意；会话含意Inrealcommunication,however,speakersdonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Thesemaximscanbeviolatedforvariousreasons.Whenanyofthemaximsisviolated,i.e.boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation,ourlanguagebecomesindirect,thenconversationalimplicaturearises.   填空，definition 判断  选择\nPhonetics:thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunicationledtoestablishmentofphonetics Phonology:howsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication. Morphology:isconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.Itstudiestheminimalunitsofmeaningmorphemesandword-formationprocesses Syntax:thestudyofhowwordcombinetoformsentencesandtheruleswhichgoverntheformationofsentences. Semantics:itexamineshowmeaningisencodedinlanguage.Itisconcernedwith1)meaningsofthewords.2)levelsoflanguagebelowthewordandaboveit Pragmatics:thestudyoftheuseoflanguageincommunication,particularlytherelationshipsbetweensentencesandthecontextsandsituationinwhichtheyareused. Sociolinguistics:thestudyofallthesesocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyformthecoreofthebranch Psycholinguistics:relatesthestudyoflanguagetopsychology.Itaimstoanswersuchquestionsashowthehumanmindworkswhenweuselanguage,how….,how… Articulatoryphonetics发音语音学\n----fromthespeakers’pointofview,“howspeakersproducespeechsounds”--------speakingAcousticphonetics声学语音学；----fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother.-------soundingAuditoryphonetics听觉语音学----fromthehearers’pointofview,“howsoundsareperceived”--------listening  Classificationofconsonants----Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtotwodimensions: §Themannerofarticulation §Theplaceofarticulation  Broadtranscription----usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose,withoutdiacritics,e.g.clear[l],[pit]  Narrowtranscription----usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,withdiacritics,e.g.dark[l],aspirated[p]\n Semantics----thestudyoflanguagemeaning.Meaningiscentraltothestudyofcommunication. Namingtheory’sLimitations1)Applicabletonounsonly.2)Therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworld.3)Therearenounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjectsbutabstractnotions. ConclusiononsemantictriangleThesymbolorformreferstothelinguisticelements(wordsandphrases);Thereferentreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience;Thoughtorreferencereferstoconcept.Relations:Thesymbolorawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeaker; andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.  7.Antonymy(反义现象)Antonymy:referstotheoppositenessofmeaning.1.Gradableantonyms----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair.Old-young,hot-cold,tall-short2.Complementaryantonyms----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.Alive-dead,male-female,…\n3.Relationalopposites----exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsHusband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,employer-employee,give-receive…  8.Homonymy（同形异义）Homonymy----thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Homophone----whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,rain-reign,night/knight,…Homogragh----whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling.tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),…Completehomonym----whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,ball(E,F),bank,watch,scale,fast,… Polysemy----thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.§“table”maymean:§1.Apieceoffurniture§2.Allthepeopleseatedatatable§3.Thefoodthatisputonatable§4.Athinflatpieceofstone,metalwood,etc.§5.Orderlyarrangementoffacts,figures,etc.  …… XentailsY(蕴含关系)§X:Johnmarriedablondheiress.§Y:Johnmarriedablond. \n§X:MarryhasbeentoBeijing.§Y:MarryhasbeentoChina. §Entailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.§IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.XpresupposesY（预射关系）§X:Hisbikeneedsrepairing.§Y:Hehasabike. §Paulhasgivenupsmoking.§Pauloncesmoked. §IfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue. TheRelatednessbetweenLanguageandSocietyTherearemanyindicationsoftheinter-relationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.1.Languageisoftenusedtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships2.Theuseoflanguageisinpartdeterminedbytheuser’ssocialbackground.(socialclass,age,sex,educationlevel,etc.)3.Language,especiallythestructureofitslexicon,reflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironmentsofasociety.(“snow”forEskimo)4.Asasocialphenomenonlanguageiscloselyrelatedtothestructureofthesocietyinwhichitisused,theevaluationofalinguisticformisentirelysocial(thepostvocalic[r]).  \nPredicationanalysis(III)1) Themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords,e.g“Thedogbitestheman”issemanticallydifferentfrom“Themanbitesthedog”thoughtheircomponentsareexactlythesame.2) Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning,e.g.*Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously.*Sincerityshookhandswiththeblackapple.Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.  Accordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,wemayclassifythepredicationsintothefollowingtypes:One-placepredication:smoke,grow,rise,run,…Two-placepredication:like,love,save,bite,beat,…Three-placepredication:give,sent,promise,call,…No-placepredication:Itishot.Ilikeyou(twoplace)Itishot(noplace)…  Performatives’Features(Austin’s) “Ideclarethemeetingopen.”1.firstperson,singularsubject2.simplepresenttense\n3.indicativemood4.activevoice5.performativeverbs基本上所有的动词都是perfomatives  Searle’sClassificationofSpeechActs(1969)（判断出是那一种）Assertives/representatives（陈述）----Statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue,e.g.Ithinkthefilmismoving.I’mcertainIhaveneverseenthemanbefore.Isolemnlyswearthathehadgotit.  …Ithinkitisgood.Directives（指令）----Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething,e.g.Iorderyoutoleaverightnow.Openthewindow,please.Yourmoneyoryourlife! …Sitdown,please.Commissives（承诺）\n----Committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction,suchaspromiseorathreat.e.g.Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.If youdonotstopfighting,I’llcallthepolice.Ipromisetocome.Expressives（表达）----Expressingthespeaker’spsychologicalstate(feelingandattitudes)aboutsomething,suchasanaplology,acomplaint,tothanksomeone,tocongratulatesomeone.e.g.I’msorryforbeinglate. Iapologizeforthesufferingsthatthewarhascausedtoyourpeople.  …Youaresowonderful!Declarations（宣告）----Bringingaboutanimmediatechangeintheexistingstateoraffairs,e.g.Inowappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.Youarefired.Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.  …Inowpronounceyoumanandwife. Note:Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposebutdifferintheirstrengthorforce,e.g.(1)Iguess/amsure/swearheisthemurderer.e.g.(2)Inordertogetsomeoneopenthedoor,wecanchooseonefromavarietyoftheformsinbelow:\n Couldyouopenthedoor,please! Canyouopenthedoor! Doyoumindopeningthedoor? Openthedoor! Thedoorplease!  Languagechangeperiods1)449—1100:OldEnglishBeginning:English-speakingAnglo-SaxonandJutesinvadedintotheBritishIslesTheEnd:“NormanConquest”:thearrivalofNormanFrenchinvadersGlæs;        guma;             gat----glass      ---man            ---goat“Beowulf”---England8centurypoem,bravewarrior2)1100—1500Middle EnglishBeginning:“NormanConquest”:thearrivalofNormanFrenchinvadersTheEnd:“EuropeanRenaissanceMovement”LatinandFrench“TheCanterburyTales”----GeoffreyChaucer(1345-1400)3)1500—thepresentModernEnglishBeginning:“EuropeanRenaissanceMovement”\nTheEnd:thepresentDiphthongsappears:ai,au,ei,eu,ou,oiBecauseofpressingindustryoverspreading,thespellingformsaredetermined/lesschanges. RegionaldialectReason:Thisdifferentiationisaccountedforthelackofcommunicationintheolddayswhentravelwasdifficult. FemaleSpeech’sFeatures1.Womenareusuallymorestatus-consciousthanmenintheEnglish-speakingworld;therefore,theirspeechcloselyapproachesthestandardvarietythanthespeechofmen.2.Thefemalespeakerstendtohaveawiderrangeintheirintonation.3.Femalespeechis,onthewhole,lessassertiveandthussoundstobemorepolitethanmalespeech.  Register:aSpeechVarietyusedbyaparticulargroupofpeople,usuallysharingthesameoccupation(e.g.doctors,lawyers)orthesameinterests(e.g.stampcollectors,baseballfans).Inabroadersense,accordingtoHalliday,“languagevariesasitsfunctionvaries;itdiffersindifferentsituations.”Thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.Hallidayfurtherdistinguishesthreesocialvariablesthatdeterminetheregister:§fieldofdiscourse,§tenorofdiscourse,§modeofdiscourse\nFieldofdiscourse:whatisgoingon:totheareaofoperationofthelanguageactivity.Itisconcernedwiththepurpose(why)andsubjectmatter(aboutwhat)ofcommunication.Itcanbeeithertechnicalornon-technical.)Tenorofdiscourse:theroleofrelationshipinthesituationinquestion:whoaretheparticipantsinthecommunicationandinwhatrelationshiptheystandtoeachother.(customer-shop-assistant,teacher-student,etc.)Modeofdiscourse: themeansofcommunication.Itisconcernedwithhowcommunicationiscarriedout. (oral,written,ontheline…)  StandardVariety:=standarddialect=standardlanguage:thevarietyofalanguagewhichhasthehighestStatusinacommunityofnationandwhichisusuallybasedonthespeechandwritingofeducatednativespeakersofthelanguage.Thestandardvarietyisasuperimposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectofalanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecondlanguage.  EdwardSapirandBenjaminWhorf,proclaimedthatthestructureofthelanguagepeoplehabituallyuseinfluencesthewaystheythinkandbehave,i.e.differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround,theythinkandspeakdifferently,thisisalsoknownaslinguisticrelativity.SapirandWhorfbelievethatlanguagefilterspeople’sperceptionandthewaytheycategorizeexperiences.ThisinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtisnowknownasSapir-WhorfHypothesis.\n(文化影响语言，语言影响文化)  Theinadequacyofbehavioristview1.Whattheyimitatemustbebasedonwhatthechildrenhavealreadyknowninsteadofwhatis“available”intheenvironment.2.Theyimitatewordsselectivelyandaccordingtotheirownunderstandingsofthe soundsorpatterns.3.howchildrenacquirecomplexlanguagesystem.  Languageacquisitiondevice:LAD thecapacitytoacquireone’sFirstlanguage,whenthiscapacityispicturedasasortofmechanismorapparatus.  UniversalGrammar:atheorywhichclaimstoaccountforthegrammaticalcompetenceofeveryadultnomatterwhatlanguageheorshespeaks.（了解一下UG）（prototype原型）ItclaimsthateveryspeakerknowsasetofprincipleswhichapplytoalllanguagesandalsoasetofParametersthatcanvaryfromonelanguagetoanother,butonlywithincertainlimits.AccordingtoUGtheory,acquiringalanguagemeansapplyingtheprinciplesofUGgrammartoaparticularlanguage,e.g.English,FrenchorGerman,andlearning whichvalueisappropriateforeachparameter.  Motherese’sFeatures\n1.shorterutterancesthanspeechtootheradults2.grammaticallysimpleutterances3.fewabstractordifficultwords,withalotofrepetition4.clearerpronunciation,sometimeswithexaggeratedIntonationpatternsCommentBehavioristsviewsoundsreasonableinexplainingtheroutineaspects;Theinnatistaccountsmostplausibleinexplainingchildren’sacquiringcomplexsystem;Andtheinteractionistdescriptionconvincinginunderstandinghowchildrenlearnandusethelanguageappropriatelyfromtheirenvironment.  CriticalPeriodHypothesis(CPH)----EricLennebergarguesthattheLAD,likeotherbiologicalfunctions,workssuccessfullyonlywhenitisstimulatedattherighttime----aspecificandlimitedtimeperiodforlanguageacquisition.ThestrongversionofCPHsuggeststhatchildrenmustacquiretheirfirstlanguagebypubertyortheywillneverbeabletolearnfromsubsequentexposure.Theweakversionholdsthatlanguagelearningwillbemoredifficultandincompleteafterpuberty.(SupportinVictor’sandGenie’scases)  Vocabularydevelopment1)Under-extension(外延缩小）2)Over-extension（外延延伸）3)Prototypetheory\nGrammaticaldevelopment1)Telegraphicspeech(2)2)Sentencesofthreemainelements(2.5)     Contrastiveanalysis(CA)thecomparisonofthelinguisticsystemsoftwolanguages,forexamplethesoundsystemorthegrammaticalsystem.Contrastiveanalysiswasdevelopedandpracticedinthe1950sand1960s,asanapplicationofStructuralLinguisticstolanguageteaching,andisbasedonthefollowingassumptions1.Themaindifficultiesinlearninganewlanguagearecausedbyinterferencefromthefirstlanguage.（languagetransfer）2.Thesedifficultiescanbepredictedbycontrastiveanalysis.3.Teachingmaterialscanmakeuseofcontrastiveanalysistoreducetheeffectsofinterference1970s,itdeclinedandwasreplacedbyErrorAnalysis§Languagetransfer：theeffectofonelanguageonthelearningofanother.Twotypesoflanguagetransfermayoccur.§*“IamheresinceMonday.”§“IhavebeenheresinceMonday.”§BecauseofthetransferoftheFrenchpattern§Jesuisicidepuislundi§Negativetransfer,负向转移alsoknownasinterference,istheuseofanativelanguagepatternorrulewhichleadstoanErrororinappropriateformintheTargetLanguage.Forexample,aFrenchlearnerofEnglishmayproducetheincorrectsentence§“table,transport,restaurant,surprise”\n§Positivetransfer,正向转移istransferwhichmakeslearningeasier,andmayoccurwhenboththenativelanguageandthetargetlanguagehavethesameform.Forexample,bothFrenchandEnglishhavetheword‘table’,whichcanhavethesamemeaninginbothlanguages.InterlingualerrorsInterlingualerrorsmainlyresultfromcross-linguisticinterferenceatdifferentlevelssuchasphonological,lexical,grammaticalordiscoursaletc.Forexamples,  a. Substitutionof[t]for[W]and[d]for[T]:threeàtree,thisàdis.  b. Shorteningoflongvowels:sheepàship,meetàmitIntralingualerrorsTheintralingualerrorsmainlyfromfaultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage,independentofthenativelanguage.§Twotypesoferrorshavebeenwellexploited:  overgeneralization&cross-associationTrueorFalse1.Inanexcitingargument,thespeakerscouldexpressthemselvesfluently?2.Inanexcitingargument,thespeakershavegrammaticalexpressionsallthetime?3.Afteryourlisteningothers’speech,couldyourepeatittotally?4.Aboutpre-schoolchildrenwhocannotreadbutcanspeak,doyouthinktheycanidentifythenounandverbinspeaking?(“anapple”isathing;“run”isanaction)5.Andalsoaboutpre-schoolchildrenwhocannotreadbutcanspeak,doyouthinktheycandefinetheterm“noun”?三、pairPrescriptivevsDescriptive\nHelovethatpicture.Weseeafilmyesterday.Prescriptive----laydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditiongrammar)“Givemethatcup.”“Couldyoubringmethatcup?”“Cup!”Descriptive----describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistics)  SynchronicvsdiachronicAGrammarofModernGreekTheStructureofShakespear’sEnglishSynchronicstudy----descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime  Languevsparole(F.deSaussure)Langue----theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.Parole----therealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions. Langueisthelexical,grammatical,andphonologicalconstitutionofalanguagetobeimplantedinthenativespeaker’smind(orbrain)inchildhoodasthecollectiveproductofthespeechcommunityenvisagedasasupra-individualentityinitsownright.Inspeakinghislanguagethespeakercouldonlyoperateorperformwithinthislangue;whatheactually\nutteredwasparole,andtheonlyindividualcontrolhecouldexercisewaswhentospeakandaboutwhattospeak. Theaimtodistinguishthemistoabstractlanguefromparole.Thereasontodistinguishthemisthatparoleissimplyamassoflinguisticfacts,toovariedandconfusingforsystematicinvestigation.  LangueParole1.abstractconcrete2allthemembersinactualuse3linguisticcompetenceofthespeakeractualphenomenaordataoflinguistics(utterance)4notaccessible5socialindividual6essentialaccidentalconclusionSocialbondconstituteslanguageActiveuseofspeaking   Competenceandperformance(Chomsky)Competence----theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagePerformance----theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.   \n1.Complementarydistribution2.Phonemiccontrast;3.Minimalpair.Complementarydistribution----allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts.Theyneveroccurinthesamecontext.Phonemiccontrast----similarsounds,meanwhilecanbeusedtodistinguishthetwophonemes,theyaresaidtoformaphonemiccontrast.Minimalpair----twowordsinalanguagewhichdifferfromeachotherbyonlyonedistinctivesound(onePhoneme)andwhichalsodifferinmeaning.  Derivationalmorpheme&inflectionalmorphemekindness;international;friendlyroot&affix-----Derivationalmorphemes(friendlytalks;talking;talked;boy’s;applesstem&affix-----Inflectionalmorphemes(friends)     Lexicalmeaning---basicnotionofmeaning\nsense:adog:adomesticcaninemammal,occurringinmanybreedsthatshowagreatvarietyinsizeandform.Reference:thedog.aparticulardog,weallknowwhichoneitis. 1.Pragmaticsvs.Semantics PragmaticsSemantics1StudyofthelanguageinuseThestudyofmeaning2ConcerningthecontextIntrinsic,inherent3Moreindeterminate,sthextraMoreconstant4RelatedtothecontextInherentsideofmeaning5Pragmatics=meaning–semantics2.ContextContext----occursbeforeand/orafteraword,aphraseorevenalongerutteranceoratext.Thecontextoftenhelpsinunderstandingtheparticularmeaningoftheword,phrase,etcTypes:1.contextofsituation:Doyouprepareenough?2.contextofculture:JaneEyre  3.Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning Sentencemeaningutterancemeaning1Abstractandcontext-independentmeaningconcreteandcontext-dependentmeaning2literalmeaningofasentenceintendedmeaningofaspeaker3WhatdoesXmean?WhatdidyoumeanbyX?Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itisrealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.\n  Speechcommunityandspeechvariety§differentlanguageswillbespokenbydifferentcommunities;§differentlanguageswillbespokenindifferentcontext;§differentlanguageswillbespokenondifferentoccasions.SpeechCommunitySpeechcommunity----agroupofpeoplewhoformacommunityandsharethesamelanguageoraparticularvarietyofalanguage. agroupofpeoplewhoformacommunity,e.g.village,aregion,anation,andwhohaveatleastonSpeechVarietyincommonSpeechVarietyAmericanEnglish,AustralianEnglish,IndianEnglish.Speechvariety/languagevariety----anydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.Insociolinguisticstudythreetypesofspeechvarietyareofspecialinterest,i.e.regionaldialects,sociolectsandregisters.  Pidgin vs CreoleApidginisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastradingApidginusuallyhasalimitedvocabularyandareducedgrammaticalstructurewhichmayexpandwhenapidginisusedoveralongperiodandformanypurposes. \nWhenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage,itissaidtohavebecomeaCreole.  BilingualismandDiglossiaBilingualism:apersonwhoknowsandusestwolanguages.Diglossia:Whentwolanguagesorlanguagevarietiesexistsidebysideinacommunityandeachoneisusedfordifferentpurposes,thisiscalleddiglossiaInsomespeechcommunities,twolanguagesareusedsidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay;andlanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.ThisconstitutesthesituationofBilingualism.AccordingtoFerguson(1959),diglossiareferstoasociolinguisticsituationsimilartobilingualism.Butinsteadoftwodifferentlanguages,inadiglossiasituationtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.