语言学练习题

语言学练习题

Chapter1   IntroductionstoLinguisticsI.        Choosethebestanswer.(20%)1.  B  Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhuman            __________A.contact     B.communication       C.relation          D.community2.   A  Whichofthefollowingwordsisentirelyarbitrary?        A.tree      B.typewriter         C.crash            D.bang3. C Thefunctionofthesentence“Waterboilsat100degreesCentigrade.”is  __________.       A.interrogative     B.directive     C.informative       D.performative4.  C   InChinesewhensomeonebreaksabowloraplatethehostorthepeoplepresentarelikelytosay“碎碎（岁岁）平安”asameansofcontrollingtheforceswhichtheybelievesfeelmightaffecttheirlives.Whichfunctionsdoesitperform?     A.Interpersonal    B.Emotive     C.Performative       D.Recreational5.C  Whichofthefollowingpropertyoflanguageenableslanguageuserstoovercomethebarrierscausedbytimeandplace,duetothisfeatureoflanguage,speakersofalanguagearefreetotalkaboutanythinginanysituation?   A.Transferability    B.Duality      C.Displacement        D.Arbitrariness6.B  Studythefollowingdialogue.Whatfunctiondoesitplayaccordingtothefunctionsoflanguage?        —Aniceday,isn’tit?        —Right!Ireallyenjoythesunlight.      A.Emotive        B.Phatic       C.Performative       D.Interpersonal7. A __________referstotheactualrealizationoftheideallanguageuser’s  knowledgeoftherulesofhislanguageinutterances.        A.Performance    B.Competence     C.Langue         D.Parole8.   C     Whenadogisbarking,youassumeitisbarkingforsomethingoratsomeonethatexistshearandnow.Itcouldn’tbesorrowfulforsomelostloveorlostbone.Thisindicatesthedesignfeatureof__________.   A.culturaltransmission   B.productivity   C.displacement       D.duality9.  A  __________answerssuchquestionsashowweasinfantsacquireourfirstlanguage.    A.Psycholinguistics  B.AnthropologicallinguisticsC.Sociolinguistics      D.Appliedlinguistics10. C __________dealswithlanguageapplicationtootherfields,particularlyeducation.   A.Linguistictheory                   B.Practicallinguistics  C.Appliedlinguistics                 D.ComparativelinguisticsII.        Decidewhetherthefollowingstatementsaretrueorfalse.(10%)11.   F     Languageisameansofverbalcommunication.Therefore,thecommunicationwayusedbythedeaf-muteisnotlanguage.12.  F      Languagechangeisuniversal,ongoingandarbitrary.13.  T      Speakingisthequickestandmostefficientwayofthehumancommunicationsystems.14.    F   Languageiswrittenbecausewritingistheprimarymediumforalllanguages.15.    F   Wewereallbornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,whichmeansthedetailsofanylanguagesystemcanbegeneticallytransmitted.16.    F   Onlyhumanbeingsareabletocommunicate.17.     F   F.deSaussure,whomadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleintheearly20thcentury,wasaFrenchlinguist.18.    F   AstudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakespeare’stimeisanexampleofthediachronicstudyoflanguage.19.    F   Speechandwritingcameintobeingatmuchthesametimeinhumanhistory.20.    F   Allthelanguagesintheworldtodayhavebothspokenandwrittenforms.III.        Fillintheblanks.(10%)21.  verbal   Language,broadlyspeaking,isameansof__________communication.22.    productivity    Inanylanguagewordscanbeusedinnewwaystomeannewthingsandcanbecombinedintoinnumerablesentencesbasedonlimitedrules.Thisfeatureisusuallytermed__________.23.   metalingualfunction     Languagehasmanyfunctions.Wecanuselanguagetotalkabout\nitself.Thisfunctionis__________.24.    yo-he-ho    Theorythatprimitivemanmadeinvoluntaryvocalnoiseswhileperformingheavyworkhasbeencalledthe__________theory.25.    scientific    Linguisticsisthe__________studyoflanguage.26.   descriptive     Modernlinguisticsis__________inthesensethatthelinguisttriestodiscoverwhatlanguageisratherthanlaydownsomerulesforpeopletoobserve.27.  speech      Onegeneralprincipleoflinguisticanalysisistheprimacyof__________overwriting.28.  diachroniclinguistic      Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisa__________study.29.    langue    Saussureputforwardtwoimportantconcepts.__________referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.30.   competence     LinguisticpotentialissimilartoSaussure’slangueandChomsky’s__________.              Chapter2   SpeechSoundsI.        Choosethebestanswer.(20%)1.     A   Pitchvariationisknownas__________whenitspatternsareimposedonsentences.        A.intonation   B.tone      C.pronunciation                D.voice2.    C   Conventionallya__________isputinslashes(//).        A.allophone        B.phone        C.phoneme        D.morpheme3.  D      Anaspiratedp,anunaspiratedpandanunreleasedpare__________ofthepphoneme.        A.analogues       B.tagmemes      C.morphemes     D.allophones4.     A   Theopeningbetweenthevocalcordsissometimesreferredtoas      __________.        A.glottis         B.vocalcavity        C.pharynx              D.uvula5.   A   Thediphthongsthataremadewithamovementofthetonguetowardsthecenterareknownas__________diphthongs.        A.wide       B.closing    C.narrow            D.centering6.  D   Aphonemeisagroupofsimilarsoundscalled__________.        A.minimalpairs        B.allomorphs   C.phones       D.allophones7.   B     Whichbranchofphoneticsconcernstheproductionofspeechsounds?        A.Acousticphonetics           B.Articulatoryphonetics        C.Auditoryphonetics            D.Noneoftheabove8.    A   Whichoneisdifferentfromtheothersaccordingtoplacesofarticulation?        A.[n]         B.[m]             C.[b]              D.[p]9.  B   Whichvowelisdifferentfromtheothersaccordingtothecharacteristicsofvowels?        A.[i:]           B.[u]                C.[e]             D.[i]10.     B   Whatkindofsoundscanwemakewhenthevocalcordsarevibrating?        A.Voiceless        B.Voiced      C.Glottalstop        D.ConsonantII.        Decidewhetherthefollowingstatementsaretrueorfalse.(10%)11.   T     Suprasegmentalphonologyreferstothestudyofphonologicalpropertiesofunitslargerthanthesegment-phoneme,suchassyllable,wordandsentence.12.   T   Theairstreamprovidedbythelungshastoundergoanumberofmodificationtoacquirethequalityofaspeechsound.13.    T   Twosoundsareinfreevariationwhentheyoccurinthesameenvironmentanddonotcontrast,namely,thesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotproduceadifferentword,butmerelyadifferentpronunciation.14.    F   [p]isavoicedbilabialstop.15.    F   Acousticphoneticsisconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.16.   T     Allsyllablesmusthaveanucleusbutnotallsyllablescontainanonsetandacoda.17.   T   Whenpurevowelsormonophthongsarepronounced,novowelglidestakeplace.18.    T   Accordingtothelengthortensenessofthepronunciation,vowelscanbedividedintotensevs.laxorlongvs.short.19.     F  ReceivedPronunciationisthepronunciationacceptedbymostpeople.20.   F   Themaximalonsetprinciplestatesthatwhenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintothecodaratherthantheonset.III.        Fillintheblanks.(20%)\n21. voiced,voiceless,voiced        Consonantsoundscanbeeither__________or__________,whileallvowelsoundsare__________.22.    friction Consonantsoundscanalsobemadewhentwoorgansofspeechinthemoutharebroughtclosetogethersothattheairispushedoutbetweenthem,causing__________.23.   tongue    Thequalitiesofvowelsdependuponthepositionofthe__________andthelips.24.    height    Oneelementinthedescriptionofvowelsisthepartofthetonguewhichisatthehighestpointinthemouth.Asecondelementisthe__________towhichthatpartofthetongueisraised.25.   obstruction     Consonantsdifferfromvowelsinthatthelatterareproducedwithout__________.26.   minimalpairs     Inphonologicalanalysisthewordsfail/veilaredistinguishablesimplybecauseofthetwophonemes/f/-/v/.Thisisanexampleforillustrating__________.27.    diphthongs    InEnglishthereareanumberof__________,whichareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherthroughinterveningpositions.28.    Co-articulation    __________referstothephenomenonofsoundscontinuallyshowtheinfluenceoftheirneighbors.29.    Phonemes    __________isthesmallestlinguisticunit.30.    airstream   Speechtakesplacewhentheorgansofspeechmovetoproducepatternsofsound.Thesemovementshaveaneffectonthe__________comingfromthelungs.Chapter3LexiconI.        Choosethebestanswer.(20%)1.    A   Nouns,verbsandadjectivescanbeclassifiedas__________.        A.lexicalwords        B.grammaticalwords       C.functionwords           D.formwords2.    A   Morphemesthatrepresenttense,number,genderandcasearecalled__________morpheme.        A.inflectional      B.free        C.bound           D.derivational3.  C      Thereare__________morphemesintheworddenationalization.        A.three         B.four            C.five           D.six4.    B   InEnglish–iseand–tionarecalled__________.        A.prefixes       B.suffixes       C.infixes              D.stems5.    B   Thethreesubtypesofaffixesare:prefix,suffixand__________.      A.derivationalaffix    B.inflectionalaffix     C.infix     D.back-formation6.    B   __________isawayinwhichnewwordsmaybeformedfromalreadyexistingwordsbysubtractinganaffixwhichisthoughttobepartoftheoldword.        A.affixation    B.back-formation        C.insertion        D.addition7.   C     ThewordTBisformedinthewayof__________.        A.acronymy        B.clipping       C.initialism         D.blending8.    A   Thewordslikecomsatandsitcomareformedby__________.        A.blending      B.clipping      C.back-formation         D.acronymy9.     D   Thestemofdisagreementsis__________.        A.agreement     B.agree        C.disagree     D.disagreement10.  B      Allofthemaremeaningfulexceptfor__________.        A.lexeme     B.phoneme      C.morpheme          D.allomorphII.        Decidewhetherthefollowingstatementsaretrueorfalse.(10%)11.    F   Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.12.   T     Foreasinforetellisbothaprefixandaboundmorpheme.13.     F   Basereferstothepartofthewordthatremainswhenallinflectionalaffixesareremoved.14.   T     Inmostcases,prefixeschangethemeaningofthebasewhereassuffixeschangetheword-classofthebase.15.   T     Conversionfromnountoverbisthemostproductiveprocessofaword.16.   F     Reduplicativecompoundisformedbyrepeatingthesamemorphemeofaword.17.     T   Thewordswhimper,whisperandwhistleareformedinthewayofonomatopoeia.18.       F Inmostcases,thenumberofsyllablesofawordcorrespondstothenumberofmorphemes.19.   F     Back-formationisaproductivewayofword-formations.\n20.    F   Inflectionisaparticularwayofword-formations.III.        Fillintheblanks.(20%)21.   initialism,acronym     An__________ispronouncedletterbyletter,whilean__________ispronouncedasaword.22.   vocabulary     Lexicon,inmostcases,issynonymouswith__________.23.    solid,hyphenated,open    Orthographically,compoundsarewritteninthreeways:__________,__________and__________.24.    morpheme   Allwordsmaybesaidtocontainaroot__________.25.  close,open      Asmallsetofconjunctions,prepositionsandpronounsbelongto__________class,whilethelargestpartofnouns,verbs,adjectivesandadverbsbelongsto__________class.26.  back-formation      __________isareverseprocessofderivation,andthereforeisaprocessofshortening.27.   conversion     __________isextremelyproductive,becauseEnglishhadlostmostofitsinflectionalendingsbytheendofMiddleEnglishperiod,whichfacilitatedtheuseofwordsinterchangeablyasverbsornouns,verbsoradjectives,andviceversa.28.   morpheme     Wordsaredividedintosimple,compoundandderivedwordsonthe__________level.29.   derivative,compound     Awordformedbyderivationiscalleda__________,andawordformedbycompoundingiscalleda__________.30.  affix,boundroot      Boundmorphemesareclassifiedintotwotypes:__________and__________.Chapter4   SyntaxI.     Choosethebestanswer.(20%)1. D  Thesentencestructureis________.     A.onlylinear                            B.onlyhierarchical     C.complex                              D.bothlinearandhierarchical2. C  Thesyntacticrulesofanylanguageare____innumber.     A.large       B.small          C.finite              D.infinite3.  D  The________rulesaretherulesthatgroupwordsandphrasestoformgrammaticalsentences.      A.lexical      B.morphological     C.linguistic    D.combinational4.  D  Asentenceisconsidered____whenitdoesnotconformtothegrammati¬calknowledgeinthemindofnativespeakers.      A.right     B.wrong        C.grammatical              D.ungrammatical5.  D  A__________intheembeddedclausereferstotheintroductorywordthatintroducestheembeddedclause.      A.coordinator    B.particle        C.preposition        D.subordinator6.  A  Phrasestructureruleshave____properties.      A.recursive     B.grammatical        C.social         D.functional7.  D  Phrasestructurerulesallowustobetterunderstand_____________.      A.howwordsandphrasesformsentences.      B.whatconstitutesthegrammaticalityofstringsofwords      C.howpeopleproduceandrecognizepossiblesentences      D.alloftheabove.8.  D  Theheadofthephrase“thecityRome”is__________.      A.thecity         B.Rome     C.city               D.thecityRome9.  B  Thephrase“ontheshelf”belongsto__________construction.       A.endocentric    B.exocentric    C.subordinate        D.coordinate10. A Thesentence“Theywerewantedtoremainquietandnottoexposethemselves.”isa__________sentence.       A.simple      B.coordinate     C.compound          D.complexII.   Decidewhetherthefollowingstatementsaretrueorfalse.(10%)11.  T Universallyfoundinthegrammarsofallhumanlanguages,syntacticrulesthatcomprisethesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeakerareknownaslinguisticcompetence.12. T Thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,butthereisnolimittothenumberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandcomprehend.\n13. T Inacomplexsentence,thetwoclausesholdunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.14.  T Constituentsthatcanbesubstitutedforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticalitybelongtothesamesyntacticcategory.15. F Minorlexicalcategoriesareopenbecausethesecategoriesarenotfixedandnewmembersareallowedfor.16.  F InEnglishsyntacticanalysis,fourphrasalcategoriesarecommonlyrecognizedanddiscussed,namely,nounphrase,verbphrase,infinitivephrase,andauxiliaryphrase.17.  T InEnglishthesubjectusuallyprecedestheverbandthedirectobjectusuallyfollowstheverb.18. F Whatisactuallyinternalizedinthemindofanativespeakerisacompletelistofwordsandphrasesratherthangrammaticalknowledge.19.  T Anounphrasemustcontainanoun,butotherelementsareoptional.20. T Itisbelievedthatphrasestructurerules,withtheinsertionofthelexicon,generatesentencesatthelevelofD-structure.III.  Fillintheblanks.(20%)21. simple  A__________sentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.22. sentence  A__________isastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.23.  subject A__________maybeanounoranounphraseinasentencethatusuallyprecedesthepredicate.24. predicate  Thepartofasentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalled__________.25. complex  A__________sentencecontainstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.26.  embedded  Inthecomplexsentence,theincorporatedorsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledan__________clause.27.  open Majorlexicalcategoriesare__________categoriesinthesensethatnewwordsareconstantlyadded.28.  Adjacency __________conditiononcaseassignmentstatesthatacaseassignorandacaserecipientshouldstayadjacenttoeachother.29.  Parameters __________aresyntacticoptionsofUGthatallowgeneralprinciplestooperateinoneway   oranotherandcontributetosignificantlinguisticvariationsbetweenandamongnatural        languages.30.  CASE Thetheoryof__________conditionexplainsthefactthatnounphrasesappearonlyinsubjectandobjectpositions.Chapter5Meaning[Mainlytakenfromlxm1000w’sexercises.–icywarmtea]I.     Choosethebestanswer.(20%)1.  A  Thenamingtheoryisadvancedby________.   A.Plato       B.Bloomfield        C.GeoffreyLeech         D.Firth2.  B  “Weshallknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps.”Thisstatementrepresents_______.   A.theconceptualistview                                  B.contexutalism   C.thenamingtheory                                        D.behaviorism3. D  WhichofthefollowingisNOTtrue?   A.Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.   B.Senseisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform.   C.Senseisabstractanddecontextualized.   D.Senseistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersarenotinterestedin.   4.  D  “CanIborrowyourbike?”_______“Youhaveabike.”   A.issynonymouswith                      B.isinconsistentwith     C.entails                                      D.presupposes5.  B  ___________isawayinwhichthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.   A.Predicationanalysis             B.Componentialanalysis      C.Phonemicanalysis           D.Grammaticalanalysis6.  C  “Alive”and“dead”are______________.\n  A.gradableantonyms                               B.relationalantonyms  C.complementaryantonyms                        D.Noneoftheabove7.  A  _________dealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.   A.Reference         B.Concept          C.Semantics      D.Sense8.  C  ___________referstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform.   A.Polysemy      B.Synonymy    C.Homonymy        D.Hyponymy9. D  Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalled______________.   A.homonyms     B.polysemies      C.hyponyms      D.synonyms10. A Thegrammaticalityofasentenceisgovernedby_______.   A.grammaticalrules         B.selectionalrestrictions   C.semanticrules             D.semanticfeaturesII.   Decidewhetherthefollowingstatementsaretrueorfalse.(10%)11. F DialectalsynonymscanoftenbefoundindifferentregionaldialectssuchasBritishEnglishandAmericanEnglishbutcannotbefoundwithinthevarietyitself,forexample,withinBritishEnglishorAmericanEnglish.   12. F Senseisconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience,whilethereferencedealswiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.13. T Linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations.14. F Insemantics,meaningoflanguageisconsideredastheintrinsicandinherentrelationtothephysicalworldofexperience.15. T Contextualismisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.   16. T Behavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.  17. F Themeaningofasentenceisthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponents.   18. T Mostlanguageshavesetsoflexicalitemssimilarinmeaningbutrankeddifferentlyaccordingtotheirdegreeofformality.19. T “Itishot.”isano-placepredicationbecauseitcontainsnoargument.   20. T Ingrammaticalanalysis,thesentenceistakentobethebasicunit,butinsemanticanalysisofasentence,thebasicunitispredication,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.III.  Fillintheblanks.(20%)21. Semantics  __________canbedefinedasthestudyofmeaning.22. direct  Theconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisno__________linkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto.23. Reference  __________meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.24. synonyms  Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalled__________.25.  homophones  Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,butdifferentinspellingandmeaning,theyarecalled__________.26. Relational   __________oppositesarepairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitems.27. Componential   __________analysisisbaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedividedintomeaningcomponents.28. selectional  Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalled__________restrictions,whichareconstraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers.29. argument  A(n)__________isalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelement(s)inasentence.30. naming  Accordingtothe__________theoryofmeaning,thewordsinalan¬guagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Chapter8LanguageinUseI.     Choosethebestanswer.(20%)1.  D  Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaning\n_________isconsidered.   A.reference        B.speechact      C.practicalusage          D.context2.  B  Asentenceisa_________concept,andthemeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedinisolation.   A.pragmatic       B.grammatical          C.mental      D.conceptual3. C  Ifwethinkofasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesa(n)_________.   A.constative       B.directive       C.utterance          D.expressive4.  B  Whichofthefollowingistrue?   A.Utterancesusuallydonottaketheformofsentences.   B.Someutterancescannotberestoredtocompletesentences.   C.Noutterancescantaketheformofsentences.   D.Allutterancescanberestoredtocompletesentences.5. A  Speechacttheorydidnotcomeintobeinguntil__________.    A.inthelate50’softhe20thecentury         B.intheearly1950’s      C.inthelate1960’s                              D.intheearly21stcentury6. C  __________istheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.   A.Alocutionaryact                                   B.Anillocutionaryact   C.Aperlocutionaryact                              D.Aperformativeact7. B  AccordingtoSearle,theillocutionarypointoftherepresentativeis______.   A.togetthehearertodosomething   B.tocommitthespeakertosomething’sbeingthecase   C.tocommitthespeakertosomefuturecourseofaction   D.toexpressthefeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstateofaffairs8.  C  Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurpose,buttheydiffer__________.   A.intheirillocutionaryacts          B.intheirintentionsexpressed   C.intheirstrengthorforce          D.intheireffectbroughtabout9.  A  __________isadvancedbyPaulGrice   A.CooperativePrinciple                             B.PolitenessPrinciple   C.TheGeneralPrincipleofUniversalGrammar     D.AdjacencyPrinciple10.D   Whenanyofthemaximsunderthecooperativeprincipleisflouted,_______mightarise.      A.impoliteness                      B.contradictions      C.mutualunderstanding          D.conversationalimplicaturesII.   Decidewhetherthefollowingstatementsaretrueorfalse.(10%)11.F   Pragmaticstreatsthemeaningoflanguageassomethingintrinsicandinherent.12. T Itwouldbeimpossibletogiveanadequatedescriptionofmeaningifthecontextoflanguageusewasleftunconsidered.13. T Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.14.  F Themajordifferencebetweenasentenceandanutteranceisthatasentenceisnotutteredwhileanutteranceis.15.  F Themeaningofasentenceisabstract,butcontext-dependent.16.  F Themeaningofanutteranceisdecontexualized,thereforestable.17.  F Utterancesalwaystaketheformofcompletesentences18.  F SpeechacttheorywasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherJohnSearle.19.  T Speechacttheorystartedinthelate50’softhe20thcentury.20.  T Austinmadethedistinctionbetweenaconstativeandaperformative.III.  Fillintheblanks.(20%)21.  context Thenotionof__________isessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.22. utterance  Ifwethinkofasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesan__________.23.  abstract Themeaningofasentenceis__________,anddecontexualized.24.   Constatives werestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andwerethusverifiable.25.  Performatives weresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andwerenotverifiable.\n26.  locutionary A(n)__________actistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.27. illocutionary  A(n)__________actistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.28. commissive  A(n)_________iscommitthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.29. expressive  A(n)________istoexpressfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.30. quantity  Therearefourmaximsunderthecooperativeprinciple:themaximof__________,themaximofquality,themaximofrelationandthemaximofmanner.  WhyisSaussurehailedasthefatherofmodernlinguistics?Saussurewasthefirsttonoticethecomplexitiesoflanguage.Hebelievedthatlanguageisasystemofsigns.Tocommunicateideas,signsmustbepartofasystemofsigns,calledconventions.Heheldthatthesignistheunionofaform(signifier)andanidea(signified),anditisthecentralfactoflanguage.Byprovidinganswerstoquestionsconcerningmanyaspectsoflanguage,Saussuremadecleartheobjectofstudyforlinguisticsasascience.Hisideasonthearbitrarynatureofsign,ontherelationalnatureoflinguisticunits,onthedistinctionoflangueandparoleandofsynchronicanddiachroniclinguistics,etc.pushedlinguisticsintoabrandnewstage.