语言学基本概念

语言学基本概念

语言学基本概念汇编Chapter1InvitationstoLinguistics1.1Whystudylanguage?1.Languageisveryessentialtohumanbeings.2.Inlanguagetherearemanythingsweshouldknow.3.Forfurtherunderstanding,weneedtostudylanguagescientifically.1.2Whatislanguage?Languageisameansofverbalcommunication.Itisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.1.3DesignfeaturesoflanguageThefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalleddesignfeatureswhichcandistinguishhumanlanguagefromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.1.3.1ArbitrarinessArbitrarinessreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeanings.1.3.2DualityDualityreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.1.3.3CreativityCreativitymeansthatlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Recursivenessreferstotherulewhichcanbeappliedrepeatedlywithoutanydefinitelimit.Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforthepossibilityofcreatingendlesssentences.1.3.4DisplacementDisplacementmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofconversation.1.5FunctionsoflanguageAsisproposedbyJacobson,languagehassixfunctions:1.Referential:toconveymessageandinformation;2.Poetic:toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake;3.Emotive:toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions;4.Conative:topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties;5.Phatic:toestablishcommunionwithothers;6.Metalingual:toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings.Halliday(1994)proposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage.Itmeansthatlanguagehasthreemetafunctions:1.Ideationalfunction:toconveynewinformation,tocommunicateacontentthatisunknowntothehearer;2.Interpersonalfunction:embodyingalluseoflanguagetoexpresssocialandpersonalrelationships;3.Textualfunction:referringtothefactthatlanguagehasmechanismstomakeanystretchofspokenandwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtextandmakealivingpassagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.AccordingtoHuZhuanglin,languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:1.5.1InformativeTheinformativefunctionmeanslanguageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenuseittocommunicatenewinformation.1.5.2InterpersonalfunctionTheinterpersonalfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.1.5.3PerformativeTheperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.1.5.4EmotivefunctionTheemotivefunctionisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitissocrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.21\n1.5.5PhaticcommunionThephaticcommunionmeanspeoplealwaysusesomesmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionssuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Niceday,etc.,tomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.1.5.6RecreationalfunctionTherecreationalfunctionmeanspeopleuselanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy’sbabblingorachanter’schanting.1.5.7MetalingualfunctionThemetalingualfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetotalkaboutitself.E.g.Icanusetheword“book”totalkaboutabook,andIcanalsousetheexpression“thewordbook”totalkaboutthesign“b-o-o-k”itself.1.6Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonecommunity,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.1.7Mainbranchesoflinguistics1.7.1PhoneticsPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds,itincludesthreemainareas:articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.1.7.2PhonologyPhonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.1.7.3MorphologyMorphologystudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning–morphemesandword-formationprocesses.1.7.4SyntaxSyntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.1.7.5SemanticsSemanticsexamineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.1.7.6PragmaticsPragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontext.1.8MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinallaspects,distinctfrommicrolinguistics,whichdealtsolelywiththeformalaspectoflanguagesystem.1.8.1PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguisticsinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandinlanguageacquisitionforexample.1.8.2SociolinguisticsSociolinguisticsisatermwhichcoversavarietyofdifferentinterestsinlanguageandsociety,includingthelanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.1.8.3AnthropologicallinguisticsAnthropologicallinguisticsstudiestherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureinacommunity.1.8.4ComputationallinguisticsComputationallinguisticsisaninterdisciplinaryfieldwhichcentersaroundtheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage.1.9Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics1.9.1Descriptivevs.prescriptiveTosaythatlinguisticsisadescriptivescienceistosaythatthelinguisttriestodiscoverandrecordtherulestowhichthemembersofalanguage-communityactuallyconformanddoesnotseektoimposeuponthemotherrules,ornorms,ofcorrectness.Prescriptivelinguisticsaimstolaydownrulesforthecorrectuseoflanguageandsettlethedisputesoverusageonceandforall.Forexample,“Don’tsayX.”isaprescriptivecommand;“Peopledon’tsayX.”isadescriptivestatement.Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.Inthe18thcentury,allthemainEuropeanlanguages21\nwerestudiedprescriptively.However,modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptivebecausethenatureoflinguisticsasasciencedeterminesitspreoccupationwithdescriptioninsteadofprescription.1.9.2Synchronicvs.diachronicAsynchronicstudytakesafixedinstant(usuallyatpresent)asitspointofobservation.Saussure’sdiachronicdescriptionisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.E.g.astudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakespeare’stimewouldbesynchronic,andastudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesincethenwouldbeadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy.Thereasonisthatunlessthevariousstateofalanguagearesuccessfullystudieditwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.1.9.3Langue&paroleSaussuredistinguishedthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguisticsaslangueandparole.Langueisrelativestableandsystematic,paroleissubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints;langueisnotspokenbyanindividual,paroleisalwaysanaturallyoccurringevent.Whatalinguistshoulddo,accordingtoSaussure,istodrawrulesfromamassofconfusedfacts,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethemthesubjectoflinguistics.1.9.4CompetenceandperformanceAccordingtoChomsky,alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledthelinguisticcompetence,andtheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituationsiscalledperformance.Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandandindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchhissupposedcompetence.Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Chomsky’scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,Saussure’slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproductandasetofconventionsofacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofmindofeachindividual.SaussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanChomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.Chapter2SpeechSounds2.1SpeechproductionandperceptionPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itincludesthreemainareas:1.Articulatoryphonetics–thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds2.Acousticphonetics–thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech3.Auditoryphonetics–thestudyofperceptionofspeechsoundsMostphoneticiansareinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.2.2SpeechorgansSpeechorgansarethosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.Thespeechorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts:theinitiatoroftheairstream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.2.4Consonants2.4.1ConsonantsandvowelsAconsonantisproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacestodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.Avowelisproducedwithoutobstructionsonoturbulenceoratotalstoppingoftheaircanbeperceived.2.4.2ConsonantsThecategoriesofconsonantareestablishedonthebasisofseveralfactors.Themostimportantofthesefactorsare:1.theactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltract(mannerofarticulation);2.whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionoftheair(placeofarticulation).2.4.3Mannersofarticulation1.Stop/plosive:Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbystoppingtheairstreamfromthelungsandthensuddenlyreleasingit.InEnglish,[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g]arestops2.nasals:[m],[n],[ŋ]21\nThesoftpalateislowered,allowingtheairstreamtopassthroughthenasalpassage.3.Fricative:Theobstructionispartialandtheairstreamissqueezedoutofanarrowpassage,resultinginfriction.InEnglish,[f],[v],[s],[z],[ʃ],[ʒ],[θ],[ð],[h]arefricatives.4.(Median)approximant:Anarticulationinwhichonearticulatorisclosetoanother,butwithoutthevocaltractbeingnarrowedtosuchanextentthataturbulentairstreamisproduced.InEnglishthisclassofsoundsincludes[w,r,j].5.Lateral(approximant):Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbypartiallyblockingtheairstreamfromthelungs,usuallybythetongue,butlettingitescapeatoneorbothsidesoftheblockage.[l]istheonlylateralinEnglish.Otherconsonantalarticulationsincludetrill,taporflap,andaffricate.2.4.5TheconsonantsofEnglish1.ReceivedPronunciation(RP):ThetypeofBritishStandardEnglishpronunciationwhichhasbeenregardedastheprestigevarietyandwhichshowsnoregionalvariation.Ithasoftenbeenpopularlyreferredtoas“BBCEnglish”or“OxfordEnglish”becauseitiswidelyusedintheprivatesectoroftheeducationsystemandspokenbymostnewsreadersoftheBBCnetwork.2.theconsonantsofEnglishcanbedescribedinthefollowingway:[p]voicelessbilabialstop[b]voicedbilabialstop[s]voicelessalveolarfricative[z]voicedalveolarfricative[m]bilabialnasal[n]alveolarnasal[l]alveolarlateral[j]palatalapproximant[h]glottalfricative[r]alveolarapproximant2.5VowelsThecriteriaofvoweldescription1.Thepartofthetonguethatisraised–front,center,orback.2.Theextenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalate.Normally,threeorfourdegreesarerecognized:high,mid(oftendividedintomid-highandmid-low)andlow.3.Thekindofopeningmadeatthelips–variousdegreesofliproundingorspreading.4.Thepositionofthesoftpalate–raisedfororalvowels,andloweredforvowelswhichhavebeennasalized.2.6Coarticulationandphonetictranscription2.6.1Coarticulation协同发音Coarticulation:Thesimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationoftwosuccessivephonologicalunits.2.6.2BroadandnarrowtranscriptionsTheuseofasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscriptioniscalledabroadtranscription.Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.Theformerwasmeanttoindicateonlythesesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguagewhilethelatterwasmeanttosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingeventheminutestshadesofpronunciation.2.8Phonemesandallophones2.8.1MinimalpairsMinimalpairsaretwowordsinalanguagewhichdifferfromeachotherbyonlyonedistinctivesoundandwhichalsodifferinmeaning.E.g.theEnglishwordstieanddieareminimalpairsastheydifferinmeaningandintheirinitialphonemes/t/and/d/.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairsofalanguage,aphonologistcanfindoutwhichsoundsubstitutionscausedifferencesofmeaning.2.8.2ThephonemetheoryPhone（音素):thesmallestperceptiblediscretesegmentofsoundinastreamofspeech.(inthemouth)i)phoneticunitii)notnecessarilydistinctiveofmeaning21\niii)physicalasheardorproducediv)markedwith[]Phoneme（音位）：Asoundwhichiscapableofdistinguishingonewordoroneshapeofawordfromanotherinagivenlanguageisaphoneme.(inthemind)Aphonemeisthesmallestlinguisticunitofsoundthatcansignaladifferenceinmeaning.i)phonologicalunitii)distinctiveofmeaningiii)abstract,notphysicaliv)markedwith//.Allophones(音位变体)Anyofthedifferentformsofaphonemeiscalleditsallophones.Phonicvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophoneofthesamephoneme.e.g.:pot,spot,cup:[ph]vs.[p]vs.[p¬](unreleased)i)complementarydistribution互补分布ii)freevariationiii)phonemiccontrast.2.9Phonologicalprocesses2.9.1AssimilationAssimilation:Aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Regressiveassimilation:Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecallitregressiveassimilation.Progressiveassimilation:Ifaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,wecallitprogressiveassimilation.Devoicing:Aprocessbywhichvoicedsoundsbecomevoiceless.DevoicingofvoicedconsonantsoftenoccursinEnglishwhentheyareattheendofaword.2.9.2PhonologicalprocessesandphonologicalrulesThechangesinassimilation,nasalization,dentalization,andvelarizationareallphonologicalprocessesinwhichatargetoraffectedsegmentundergoesastructuralchangeincertainenvironmentsorcontexts.2.10DistinctivefeaturesDistinctivefeature:Aparticularcharacteristicwhichdistinguishesonedistinctivesoundunitofalanguagefromanotheroronegroupofsoundsfromanothergroup.Binaryfeature:Apropertyofaphonemeorawordwhichcanbeusedtodescribethephonemeorword.Abinaryfeatureiseitherpresentorabsent.Binaryfeaturesarealsousedtodescribethesemanticpropertiesofwords.2.11SyllablesSuprasegmentalfeatures:Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalfeaturesaresyllables,stress,tone,andintonation.Syllable:Aunitinspeechwhichisoftenlongerthanonesoundandsmallerthanawholeword.Opensyllable:Asyllablewhichendsinavowel.Closedsyllable:Asyllablewhichendsinaconsonant.2.12StressStressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Intranscription,araisedverticalline[5]isusedjustbeforethesyllableitrelatesto.IntonationandToneIntonationinvolvestheoccurrenceofrecurringfall-risepatterns,eachofwhichisusedwithasetofrelativelyconsistentmeanings,eitheronsinglewordsorongroupsofwordsofvaryinglength.Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferentratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Chapter3FromMorphemetoPhrase3.1Whatismorpheme?morpheme21\nAmorphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.E.g.theword“boxes”hastwomorphemes:“box”and“es,”neitherofwhichpermitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisshapesifwedon’twanttosacrificeitsmeaning.Morphology（形态学）Thestudyofinternalstructuresandrulesofmorphemesbywhichwordsareformed.3.Whatisanallomorph?Anallomorphisthealternateshapesofthesamemorpheme.E.g.thevariantsoftheplurality“-s”makestheallomorphsthereofinthefollowingexamples:map–maps,mouse–mice,ox–oxen,tooth–teeth,etc.TypesofMorphemesFreemorphemeandboundmorphemeFreemorphemereferstothosewhichmayoccuraloneorwhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselves.BoundmorphemereferstothosewhichcannotoccuraloneandmustappearwithatleastoneothermorphemeRoot,affixandstemRootistheformofawordonwhichitsotherformsaresaidtobebased`Walk'istherootof`walks',`walked',`walking'and`walker'affix词缀----letterorgroupoflettersaddedtothebeginningortheendofawordtochangeitsmeaningorthewayitisused;prefixorsuffixorinfix-lessin"hopeless"stem词干----thepartofawordthatstaysthesamewhendifferentendingsareaddedtoit,forexample'driv-'in'driving'InflectionalaffixandderivationalaffixInflectionalaffix----Amorphemethatservestoadjustwordsbygrammaticalmodificationtoindicatesuchgrammaticalrelationsasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.e.g.tables,talks,opened,strongest,John’sDerivationalaffix---Amorphemethatservestoderiveawordofoneclassormeaningfromawordofanotherclassormeaning.e.g.establishmentandrepaint3.2Whatisaword?Awordisthesmallestofthelinguisticunitsthatcanconstitute,byitself,acompleteutteranceinspeechorwriting.3.2.3Wordformation:Inflectionandwordformation1.InflectionInflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.2.WordformationWordformationreferstotheprocessofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.Itcanbefurthersubclassifiedintothecompositionaltype(compound)andderivationaltype(derivation).(1)CompoundCompoundsrefertothosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform,suchasice-cream,sunrise,paperbag,railway,rest-room,simple-minded,wedding-ring,etc.Theheadofanominaloranadjectivalendocentriccompoundisdeverbal,thatis,itisderivedfromaverb.Consequently,itisalsocalledaverbalcompoundorasyntheticcompound.Usually,thefirstmemberisaparticipantoftheprocessverb.E.g.Nouns:self-control,pain-killer,etc.Adjectives:virus-sensitive,machinewashable,etc.TheexocentriccompoundsareformedbyV+N,V+A,andV+P,whereastheexocentriccomefromV+NandV+A.E.g.Nouns:playboy,cutthroat,etc.Adjectives:breakneck,walk-in,etc.(2)DerivationDerivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandsuffixes.Incontrastwithinflections,derivationscanmakethewordclassoftheoriginalwordeitherchangedorunchanged.3.3Lexicalchange3.3.1Lexicalchangeproper1.InventionSinceeconomicactivitiesarethemostimportantanddynamicinhumanlife,manynewlexicalitemscomedirectlyfromthe21\nconsumeritems,theirproducersortheirbrandnames.2.BlendingBlendingisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.3.Abbreviation/clippingAnewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpart,cuttingtheinitialpartorcuttingboththeinitialpartsoftheoriginalwords.4.AcronymAcronymismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadword.5.Back-formationBack-formationreferstoanabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimagedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguage.6.AnalogicalcreationTheprincipleofanalogicalcreationcanaccountfortheco-existenceoftwoforms,regularandirregular,intheconjugationofsomeEnglishverbs.7.BorrowingEnglishinitsdevelopmenthasmanagedtowidenhervocabularybyborrowingwordsfromotherlanguages.Greek,Latin,French,Spanish,Arabicandotherlanguageshaveallplayedanactiveroleinthisprocess.Chapter4FromWordtoText1.Syntacticrelations（句法关系）Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.1.1RelationsofPositionPositionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguage,onetendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall.PositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSyntagmaticRelations（横组合关系）observedbyF.deSaussure.TheyarealsocalledHorizontalRelationsorsimplyChainRelations.1.2.RelationofSubstitutability（替换关系）TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.Italsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.ThisisalsocalledAssociativeRelationsbySaussure,andParadigmaticRelations（纵聚合关系）byHjemslev（叶尔姆斯列夫）Tomakeitmoreunderstandable,theyarecalledVerticalRelationsorChoiceRelations.1.3RelationofCo-occurrence（同现关系/纵横关系）Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Relationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.2.Grammaticalconstructionanditsconstituents2.1GrammaticalConstructionGRAMMATICALCONSTRUCTION（语法结构体）orCONSTRUCTcanbeusedtorefertoanysyntacticconstructwhichisassignedoneormoreconventionalfunctionsinalanguage,togetherwithwhateverislinguisticallyconventionalizedaboutitscontributiontothemeaningorusetheconstructcontains.Onthelevelofsyntax,wedistinguishforanyconstructioninalanguageitsexternalanditsinternalproperties.Theexternalsyntaxofaconstructionreferstothepropertiesoftheconstructionasawhole,thatistosay,anythingspeakersknowabouttheconstructionthatisrelevanttothelargersyntacticcontextsinwhichitiswelcome.Theinternalsyntaxofaconstructionisreallyadescriptionoftheconstruction’s“make-up”,withthetermssuchas“subject,predicate,object,determiner,noun”.21\n2.2ImmediateConstituents(直接成分)Constituent（成分）isapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction:TodismantleagrammaticalconstructioninthiswayiscalledIMMEDIATECONSTITUENTANALYSISorICanalysis(直接成分分析法)，theanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents---wordgroups(phrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimateconstituentsarereachedL.Bloomfield2.3EndocentricandExocentricConstructions(向心结构和离心结构)Thesyntacticconstructionsanalysedareoftwomaintypes:endocentricandexocentricconstructions,dependingontheirdistributionandtherelationbetweentheirconstituents.ENDOCENTRICconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinableCENTREorHEAD.其整体功能与其某个或某些组成成分（单个词或词组）相同或相似，这个词组是整体的核心或中心。因此向心结构也叫做中心结构。Typicalendocentricconstructionsarenounphrases(thethreesmallchildren),verbphrases(willhavebeenleaving),adjectivephrases(reallyverylate).EXOCENTRICconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup2.4CoordinationandSubordinationEndocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes,dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents:CoordinationANDsubordinationCoordination并列结构CoordinationisacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.Thesetwoormorewordsorphrasesorclauseshaveequivalentsyntacticstatus,eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally.Subordination从属结构Subordinationreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.Thesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifythehead.Consequently,theycanbecalledmodifiers.3.SyntacticFunction句法功能Thesyntacticfunctionshowstherelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Namesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicators,modifiers,complements,etc.4.3.4TheRelationbetweenClassesandFunctionsClassesandfunctionsdetermineeachother,butnotinanyone-to-onerelation.Aclassitemcanperformseveralfunctions.Forinstance,anounoranominalphrasecanfunctionasthesubject,object,modifier,adverbialandcomplementofasentence.Afunctioncanalsobefulfilledbyseveralclasses.Forinstance,thesubjectofasentencecanberealizedbyanoun,pronoun,numeral,infinitive,etc.4.Category范畴Thetermcategoryreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:Categoriesofthenoun:number,gender,caseandcountabilityCategoriesoftheverb:tense,aspect,voice4.1Number数Numberisagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,(单数，双数，复数)etc.Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs,suchasHelaughs:Theylaugh,thisman:thesemen.4.2Gender性Suchcontrastsas“masculine:feminine:neuter”,“animate:inanimate”,etc.fortheanalysisofwordclasses.Englishgendercontrastcanonlybeobservedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnouns,and,theyaremainlyofthenaturalgendertype.21\nhe:she:itprince:princessauthor:authoress4.3Case格Thecasecategoryisusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.4.4Agreement一致关系Agreement(orconcord)maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallalso,becharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategory(orcategories).Thissyntacticrelationshipmaybeanaphoric（照应的）,aswhenapronounagreeswithitsantecedent（先行语）,5.Phrase,ClauseandSentence5.1PhrasePHRASEisasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclauses.Traditionally,itisseenaspartofastructuralhierarchy,positionedbetweenclauseandword.DistinctionbetweenWORDGROUPandPHRASE.Awordgroupisanextensionofwordofaparticularclassbywayofmodificationwithitsmainfeaturesoftheclassunchanged.Thuswehavenominalgroup,verbalgroup,adverbialgroup,conjunctiongroupandprepositiongroup(e.g.rightbehind,allalong).“Tothedoor”isstillacceptedasaprepositionalphrasewhichconsistsofaprepositionplusanominalgroup,andis,consequently,nolongerapreposition.5.2ClauseAconstituentwithitsownsubjectandpredicate,ifitisincludedinalargersentence,isaCLAUSE.ClausecanalsobeclassifiedintoFINITEandNON-FINITEclauses,thelatterincludingthetraditionalinfinitivephrase,participialphrase,andgerundialphrase.Afiniteclause（限定性分句）hasafiniteverb.Afiniteverbhastense.Anon-finiteclause（非限定性分句）hasaverbwithouttense.5.3SentenceBloomfield(1935)definedthesentenceasone“notincludedbyvirtueofanygrammaticalconstructioninanylargerlinguisticform”.Sentencesmaybeclassifiedalongtheintersectingdimensionsofstructureandfunction.6.Recursiveness递归性Recursivenessmainlymeansthataphrasalconstituentcanbeembeddedwithinanotherconstituenthavingthesamecategory,butithasbecomeanumbrellatermsuchimportantlinguisticphenomenaascoordinationandsubordination,conjoining（连接）andembedding（嵌入）,hypotactic（从属关系）andparatactic（并列关系）7.2Cohesionandcohesiveness衔接和连贯Cohesionisaconcepttodowithdiscourseortextratherthanwithsyntax.Itreferstorelationsofmeaningthatexistwithinthetext,anddefinesitasatext.Cohesivenesscanberealizedbyemployingvariouscohesivedevices衔接手段:Conjunction连词Ellipsis省略Lexicalcollocation词汇搭配Lexicalrepetition词汇复现Reference指称Substitution,etc.替代Chapter5MeaningSemanticsSemanticsisthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.SomeviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaningNamingtheory(Plato)(命名论）Theconceptualistview（意念论）21\nContextualism(Bloomfield)（语境论）Behaviorism（行为主义论）NamingtheoryWordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.TheconceptualistviewTheconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.Doyoulikeadog?OgdenandRichards:semantictriangleThesymbolorformreferstothelinguisticelements(wordsandphrases);Thereferentreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience;Thoughtorreferencereferstoconcept.SenseandreferenceSenseandreferencearebothconcernedwiththestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.Sense----isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Reference----whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Dog:ananimalwithfourlegsandatail,oftenkeptasapetortrainedforwork,forexamplehuntingorguardingbuildings.Thisisthesenseoftheword“dog”.Thisdoesnotrefertoanyparticulardogthatexistsintherealworld,butappliestoanyanimalthatmeetsthefeaturesdescribedinthedefinition.Iwasoncebittenbyadog.Thisisthereferenceoftheworddoghere.Linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations;ontheotherhand,therearealsooccasions,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense,e.g.themorningstarandtheeveningstar,risingsuninthemorningandthesunsetatdusk.Everywordhasasense,butnoteverywordhasareference.Weshouldstudymeaningintermsofsenseratherthanreference.ContextualismMeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context—elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.J.R.Firth:BritishLinguistWeshallknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps.Twotypesofcontextsarerecognized:Situationalcontext:spatio-temporalsituationLinguisticcontext:theprobabilityofaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocation.Forexample,“black”inblackhair,blackcoffee,blacksheep,blackhumordiffersinmeaning;“ThepresidentoftheUnitedStates”canmeaneitherthepresidentorpresidencyindifferentsituation.BehaviorismBehavioristsattemptedtodefinemeaningas“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.(Bloomfield,1933)Senserelations21\nSynonymySynonymyisthetechnicalnameforthesamenessrelation.AntonymyAntonymyisthenameforoppositenessrelation.Therearethreesubtypes:gradable,complementaryandconverseantonymy.1.GradableantonymyGradableantonymyisthecommonesttypeofantonymy.Theyaremainlyadjectives,e.g.good/bad,long/short,big/small,etc.2.ComplementaryantonymyThemembersofapairincomplementaryantonymyarecomplementarytoeachother.Thatis,theydivideupthewholeofasemanticfiledcompletely.Notonlytheassertionofonemeansthedenialoftheother,thedenialofonealsomeanstheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive/dead,hit/miss,male/female,boy/girl,etc.3.ConverseantonymyConverseantonymsarealsocalledrelationalopposites.Thisisaspecialtypeofantonymyinthatthemembersofapairdonotconstituteapositive-negativeopposition.Theyshowthereversalofarelationshipbetweentwoentities,e.g.buy/sell,parent/child,above/below,etc.HyponymyHyponymyinvolvesusinthenotionofmeaninginclusion.thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Hyponymy----Superordinate:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.Hyponyms:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.Co-hyponyms:hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.PolysemyPolysemy----thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaningHomonymy----thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Homophone----whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain-reign,night/knight,…Homogragh----whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),…Completehomonym----whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.ball,bank,watch,scale,fast,…ComponentialanalysisComponentialanalysis----awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Forexample,Man:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]Boy:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]Woman:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]Girl:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]Meaning&SyntacticStructureThemeaningofasentenceisobviouslyrelatedtothemeaningsofthewordsusedinit,butitisalsoobviousthatsentencemeaningisnotsimplythesumtotalofthewords.1) Themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords,e.g“Thedogbitestheman”issemanticallydifferentfrom“Themanbitesthedog”thoughtheircomponentsareexactlythesame.2)Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning,Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.Senserelationsbetweensentences(1)  XissynonymouswithY(同义）(2)  XisinconsistentwithY（对立）(3)  XentailsY（蕴涵）(4)  XpresupposesY（预设）(5)  Xisacontradiction（自相矛盾）(6)  Xissemanticallyanomalous（语义变异）21\nXissynonymouswithYX:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevergotmarriedallhislife.IfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.XisinconsistentwithYX:Heissingle.Y:Hehasawife.IfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.XentailsYX:Johnmarriedablondheiress.Y:Johnmarriedablond.Entailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.XpresupposesYX:Hisbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Hehasabike.IfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue.¢Predicationanalysis----awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning(BritishG.Leech).¢Predication----theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.¢Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence.¢Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.¢Accordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,wemayclassifythepredicationsintothefollowingtypes:¢No-placepredicate:itisfine.¢One-placepredicate:heruns.¢Two-placepredicate:JohnlovesMary.¢Three-placepredicate:Igiveyouabook.Chapter61.WhatisCognition?Mentalprocesses,informationprocessing.Mentalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgment.(p116)2.Theformalapproach:structuralpatterns,includingthestudyofmorphological,syntactic,andlexicalstructure.Thepsychologicalapproach:languagefromtheviewofgeneralsystemsrangingfromperception,memory,attention,andreasoning.Theconceptualapproach:howlanguagestructures(processes&patterns)conceptualcontent.(p116)3.PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguisticsisthestudyofPsychologicalaspectsoflanguage.Itusuallystudiesthepsychologicalstatesandmentalactivityassociatedwiththeuseoflanguage.(p117)4SixsubjectsofresearchLanguageacquisition(L1/L2)LanguagecomprehensionLanguageproductionLanguagedisordersLanguageandThoughtNeurocognition(p117)5.2.1LanguageAcquisitionHolophrasticstage(One-wordstage):Wordsareusuallyproducedinisolation.Thisonewordstagecanlastfromtwomonthstoayear.21\nChildren’sfirstwordsaresimilarallovertheworld.Abouthalfthewordsareforobjects(food,bodyparts,clothing,toys,animalsandpeople);actions(up,off,eat,go);routines(yes,no,want,bye,hi).Two-wordstage:around18mThree-word-utterancestageFluentgrammaticalconversationstageUsemorefunctionwords:missingfunctionwordsandinflectioninthebeginningbutgooduse(90%)bytheageof3,withafullrangeofsentencetypes.Allpartsofalllanguagesareacquiredbeforethechildturnsfour.2.2LanguagecomprehensionMentallexicon:westoreagreatdealofinformationaboutthepropertiesofwordsinourmentallexicon,andretrievethisinformationwhenweunderstandlanguage.Forexample,wemayusemorphologicalrulestodecomposeacomplexwordlikerewritablethefirstfewtimesweencounteritandafterseveralexposureswemaystoreandaccessitasaunitorword.Itmeansthatfrequencyofexposuredeterminesourabilitytorecallstoredinstances.WordrecognitionCohorttheory(p122):Marslen-Wilson&Welsh(1978)Thefirstfewphonemesofaspokenwordactivateasetofwordcandidatesthatareconsistentwiththeinput.Thesecandidatescompetewithoneanotherforactivation.Pickupthecandle.(candy?Handle?Candle?)(p123)InteractivemodelFactorsinvolvedinwordrecognition:Frequencyeffect:theeasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsmorefrequentusageintheLanguage.Recencyeffects:theeasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsrepeatedoccurrenceinthediscourseorcontext.Cotext:Werecognizeawordmorereadilywhentheprecedingwordsprovideanappropriatecontextforit.LexicalambiguityAllthemeaningsrelatedtothewordareaccessed.Onlyonemeaningisaccessedinitially.Minimalattachment(p125):the“structurallysimpler”--structuralsimplicityguidesallinitialanalysesinsentencecomprehension.Thesecondwifewillclaimtheinheritancebelongstoher.GardenpathsentencesThehorseracedpastthebarnfell.Themanwhohuntsducksoutonweekends.ThecottonclothingisusuallymadeofgrowsinMississippi.Fatpeopleeataccumulates.SyntacticambiguityDifferentpossiblewaysinwhichwordscanbefitintophrases.Ambiguouscategoryofsomeofthewordsinthesentence.ComprehensionoftextResonancemodel:(p126)informationinlong-termmemoryisautomaticallyactivatedbythepresenceofmaterialthatapparentlybearsaroughsemanticrelationtoit.DiscourseinterpretationSchemataanddrawinginferencesSchema:apre-existingknowledgestructureinmemorytypicallyinvolvingthenormalexpectedpatternsofthings.3.CognitiveLinguistics（p129）Cognitivelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoftherelationbetweenthewaywecommunicateandthewaywethink.Itisanapproachtolanguagethatisbasedonhumanexperiencesoftheworldandthewaytheyperceiveandconceptualizetheworld.(p130)21\nThreemainapproachesTheExperientialViewTheProminenceViewTheAttentionalView3.1ConstrualConstrual(p130):theabilitytoconceiveandportraythesamesituationindifferentways.1.Attention/salienceWeactivatethemostrelevantconceptsmorethanconceptsthatareirrelevanttowhatwearethinkingabout.Wedrovetheroad.(aline)Sheranacrosstheroad.(asurface)Theworkersdugthroughtheroad.(avolume)392.Judgment/Comparison,Figure/GroundWecannotattendtoallfacetsofasceneatthesametime.Wecannotpayattentiontoeverything.Instead,wefocusoneventsofparticularsalience.Figure-groundorganizationThegroundseemstobeplacedbehindthefigureextendinginthebackground.Thefigureisthusmoreprominent,orevenmoreinteresting,thantheground.Figure-groundreversalFigure-groundalsoseemstoapplytoourperceptionofmovingobjects.Inordertodistinguishbetweenstationaryanddynamicfigure-groundrelations,somecognitivelinguists(egRonaldLangacker)usethetermtrajectorforamovingfigureandlandmarkforthegroundofamovingfigure.3.3ImageSchema(p134)Johnson,Mark.1987.Thebodyinthemind:Thebodilybasisofmeaning,imagination,andreason.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.Animage-schemaisa“skeletal”mentalrepresentationofarecurrentpatternofembodied(especiallyspatialorkinesthetic)experience.Theyarehighlyschematicrepresentationsofperceptuallygroundedexperience.Theyemergefromourembodiedinteractionswiththeworld.(p134)3.4Metaphor（隐喻p135)）GeorgeLakoffandMarkJohnson(1980).MetaphorsWeLiveBy.UniversityofChicagoPress.ConceptualMetaphorTheoryMetaphorsareactuallycognitivetoolsthathelpusstructureourthoughtsandexperiencesintheChapter7Language,Culture,andSociety1.LanguageandCultureWhatisculture?Broadlyspeaking,itmeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,worksofart,rituals,ceremoniesandlanguage.Anindividual’sattitudes,values,idealsandbeliefsaregreatlyinfluencedbytheculturehelives.Inanarrowsense,itreferstolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodculture,etc.Therearegenerallytwotypesofculture:materialandspiritual.Materialcultureisconcrete,substantialandobservable.Spiritualcultureisabstract,implicitandhidden.1.1TheRelationshipbetweenLanguageandCultureGenerally,therelationofLanguagetoCultureisthatofparttowhole,forLanguageispartofCulture.Theknowledgeandbeliefsthatconstituteapeople’sculturearehabituallyencodedandtransmittedinLanguage.Languageisanindispensablecarrierofculture.Sapir-WhorfHypothesisEdwardSapir(1884-1939)andBenjaminLeeWhorf(1897-1941)Ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressspeakers’21\nuniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.Linguisticdeterminism:Lmaydetermineourthinkingpatterns.Linguisticrelativity:differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround.Strongversion&weakversionStrongversionbelievesthatthelanguagepatternsdeterminepeople’sthinkingandbehavior;Weakversionisamodifiedtypeofitsoriginaltheory.Itadmitsthereisacorrelationbetweenlanguage,cultureandthought,buttheculturaldifferencesarerelative,notcategorical.ThesignificanceofculturalteachingandlearningLearningaforeignlanguageisinseparablefromlearningitsculture.Weneedtolearnenoughaboutthelanguage’sculturesothatwecancommunicateinthetargetlanguageproperlytoachievenotonlythelinguisticcompetencebutalsothepragmaticorcommunicativecompetenceaswell.2.LanguageandSocietyLanguageisnotalwaysusedtoexchangeinformationasisgenerallyassumed,butratheritissometimesusedtofulfillanimportantsocialfunction–tomaintainsocialrelationshipbetweenpeople.Usersofthesamelanguageinasenseallspeakdifferently.Whateachofthemchoosestouseisinpartdeterminedbyone’ssocialbackground.Whenwespeakwecannotavoidgivingourlistenerscluesaboutouroriginandourbackground.Thesocialenvironmentcanalsobereflectedinlanguage,andcanoftenhaveaneffectonthestructureandthevocabulary.Forexample,asociety'skinshipsystemisgenerallyreflectedinitskinshipvocabulary.2.1SociolinguisticsThesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenLanguageandsociety,betweentheusesofLanguageandthethesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersofLanguagelive.Micro-studies:Tolookatsocietyfromthepointofviewofanindividualmemberwithinit,oraworm’s-eyeviewofLinuse.Macro-studies:TolookatsocietyasawholeandconsiderhowLfunctionsinitandhowitreflectsthesocialdifferences,abird’seyeviewofthelanguageusedinsociety.lSpeechvariety(languagevariety)referstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.lLinguisticfeaturesofaspeechvarietycanbefoundatthelexical,thephonological,themorphological,orthesyntacticallevelofthelanguage.lInsociolinguisticthreetypesofspeechvarietyareofspecialinterest:regionaldialects,sociolectsandregisters.Variationistperspective:Peoplewhoclaimtobeusersofthesamelanguagedonotspeakthelanguageinthesamemanner.Varietiesrelatedtotheuserarenormallyknownasdialectsandvarietiesrelatedtouseasregisters.Regionaldialectsarelinguisticvarietiesusedbypeoplelivingindifferentregions.Regionaldialectboundariesoftencoincidewithgeographicalbarrierssuchasmountains,rivers,orswamps.LanguageandGenderComparedwithmen,womentendtousesuchadverbs:horridly,abominably,immensely,excessively,amazingly,so,most,etc.Theoveruseofthesewordsimplythattheusersaresentimental,shallowandnotobjectiveenough.Idiolectisapersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,gender,andagevariations.Halliday:Register(语域）Languagevariesasitsfunctionvaries;itdiffersindifferentsituations.ThetypeofLanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.lHallidaydistinguishesthreesocialvariablesthatdeterminetheregister.lFieldofdiscourse:referstowhatisgoingon.Itisconcernedwiththepurposeandsubjectmatterofcommunication.Itdeterminesthevocabularytobeusedandthephonologicalandgrammaticalfeaturesofthelanguage.Technicalvsnon-technicallTenorofdiscourse:referstotheroleofrelationshipinthesituation.Itanswersthequestionof“towhom”the21\nspeakeriscommunicating.Thisdeterminesthelevelofformalityandtheleveloftechnicalityofthelanguageweuse.lModeofdiscourse:referstothemeansofcommunication.Itisconcernedwithhowcommunicationiscarriedout.Fundamentaltothemodeofdiscourseisthedistinctionbetweenspeakingandwriting.2.2SociolinguisticstudyofsocietyToknowmoreaboutagivensocietybyexaminingthelinguisticbehaviorofitsmembers.Monolingual:Speakersofasinglelanguagecontroldifferentvarietiesofthatlanguage.Bilingual:Peopledevelopsomeabilityinasecondlanguage.Monolingualspeechcommunitiesarerare;monolingualcountriesareevenrarer.Bilingualism——thetwolanguagesareincontact.Thiscontactmayleadtointerference.Pidgin,Creole,diglossiaPidgin:notanativelanguageofanyone.learnedinformallyincontact.usedesp.astradelanguage.involvesthemixtureoftwoormoreLanguages.FrompidgintocreolesAsaresultofintermarriage,thepidginisspokenathomeandlearnedbychildrenasamothertongue.creoleisnotjustacontactlanguagewithlimitedsocialfunctions,butcandealwithmore.Diglossia:Twodistinctvarietiesofthesamelanguageareused,sidebyside,fortwodifferentsetsoffunctions.Chapter8languageinuse1.DefinitionofPragmaticsThestudyoflanguageinuse.Thestudyofmeaningincontext.Thestudyofspeakers’meaning/utterancemeaning&contextualmeaning.ContextualMeaning:meaningincontextThemeaningofthesentencedependsonwhothespeakeris,whotheheareris,whenandwhereitisused.ContextContext----abasicconceptinthestudyofpragmatics.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.suchasknowledgeabouttheculturalbackground,knowledgeaboutthespecificsituation(time,place,manner,etc.),knowledgeabouttherelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer,knowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,knowledgeofwhathasbeensaidbefore,knowledgeabouttheworldingeneral,etc..Pragmaticsvs.semanticsSemantics----isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).Pragmatics----thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintoconsideration),SpeechActTheoryJohnAustin(1911-1960)HowtoDoThingswithWords(1962)speechacts:actionsperformedviautterancesAccordingtothistheory,weareperformingvariouskindsofactswhenwearespeaking.Austin’snewmodelofspeechactsAccordingtoAustin’snewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact(发话行为）illocutionaryact（行事行为）perlocutionaryact（取效行为）Alocutionaryact-anactofsayingsomething,i.e.anactofmakingameaningfulutterance(literalmeaningofanutterance)Anillocutionaryact:anactperformedinsayingsomething.Tosaysthistodosth.InsayingX,IwasdoingY.Insaying“Iwillcometomorrow”,Iwasmakingapromise.Aperlocutionaryact:theactpreformedbyorasaresultofsaying,theeffectsonthehearer.BysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.21\nBysaying“Iwillcometomorrow”andmakingapromise,Ireassuremyfriends.Forexample,“Itiscoldinhere.”Itslocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliteralmeaningtheweatheriscoldinhere;Itsillocutionaryactcanbearequestforthehearertoshutthewindow;Itsperlocutionaryactcanbethehearer’sshuttingthewindoworhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest.SpeechactsNote:Ofthethreeacts,whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithistheillocutionaryact.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.Theperlocutionaryactinvolvesmanypsychologicalandsocialfactors,ofwhichwearestillinthedark.Inthissense,speechacttheoryisinfactatheoryoftheillocutionaryact.(p190)4.ConversationalImplicaturePeopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem.HerbertPaulGrice(1913-1988):OxfordphilosopherWilliamJameslecturesatHarvardin1967LogicandConversationin1975Grice’stheoryLogicandConversationisanattemptatexplaininghowahearergetsfromwhatissaidtowhatismeant,fromthelevelofexpressedmeaningtothelevelofimpliedmeaning.TheCooperativePrinciple(CP)TheCooperativePrinciple(CP)AccordingtoGrice,inmakingconversation,thereisageneralprinciplewhichallparticipantsareexpectedtoobserve.Itgoesasfollows:Makeyourcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.TospecifytheCPfurther,Griceintroducedfourcategoriesofmaximsasfollowings:Quality,Quantity,Relation,MannerMaximofQuality:Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaysomethingifyoulackadequateevidence;MaximofQuantity:Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.MaximofRelation:Berelevant.MaximofManner:Beperspicuous(要清晰）.Avoidobscurityofexpression.Avoidambiguity.Bebrief.Beorderly.CPismeanttodescribewhatactuallyhappensinconversation.CPisoftenviolated.ViolationofCPanditsmaximsleadstoconversationalimplicature.ConversationalimplicatureInrealcommunication,however,speakersdonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Thesemaximscanbeviolatedforvariousreasons.Whenanyofthemaximsisviolated,i.e.boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation,ourlanguagebecomesindirect,thenconversationalimplicaturearises.Violationofthemaxims(Quality)1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Youarethecreaminmycoffee.Herunsasfastasadeer.Heismadeofiron.ViolationofMaximofquality----A:Wouldyouliketogotoseethemoviewithmetonight?21\n----B:Thefinalexamisapproaching.I’mafraidIhavetoprepareforit.2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.A:BeirutisinPeru,isn’tit?B:AndRomeisinRomania,Isuppose.>It’sridiculous.Violationofthemaxims(Quantity)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired.A:昨天上街买了些什么?B:就买了些东西。Boysareboys.Wariswar.2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Aunt:HowdidJimmydohishistoryexam?Mother:Oh,notatallwell.Teachersaskedhimthingsthathappenedbeforethepoorboywasborn.>Hersonshouldnotbeblamed.Violationofthemaxims(Relation)Berelevant.A:Prof.Wangisanoldbag.B:Niceweatherforthetimeofyear.Idon’twanttotalkaboutProf.Wang.Oryouhavecommittedasocialgaffe.Violationofthemaxims(Manner)1.AvoidobscurityofexpressionA:Let’sgetthekidssomething.B:Ok,butIvetoC-H-O-C-O-L-A-T-E.>Don’tgivethemchocolate.买一赠一Chapter9LanguageandLiterature9.1Theoreticalbackground1.Style:Stylereferstovariationinaperson’sspeechorwritingoraparticularperson’suseofspeechorwritingatalltimesortoawayofspeakingorwritingataparticularperiodoftime.2.Stylistics:AccordingtoH.G.Widdowson,stylisticsisthestudyofliterarydiscoursefromalinguisticorientation.Hetreatedliteratureasdiscourse,thusadoptingalinguisticapproach.Thisbringsliteratureandlinguisticscloser.9.2SomegeneralfeaturesoftheliterarylanguageForegroundingandgrammaticalformForegrounding:Foregroundreferstothepartofascenenearesttotheviewer,orfigurativelythemostnoticeableposition.Foregroundingmeanstoputsomethingorsomeoneinthemostessentialpartofthedescriptionornarration,otherthaninabackgroundposition.Inliterarytexts,thegrammaticalsystemofthelanguageisoftenexploited,experimentedwith,orinMukarovsky’swords,madeto“deviatefromother,moreeveryday,formsoflanguage,andasaresultcreatesinterestingnewpatternsinformandinmeaning.9.2.2Literallanguageandfigurativelanguage1.Literallanguage:Thefirstmeaningforawordthatadictionarydefinitiongivesisusuallycalledliteralmeaning.2.Figurativelanguage:A.k.a.trope,whichreferstolanguageusedinafigurativewayforarhetoricalpurpose.Wecanusesomefiguresofspeechsuchassimile,metaphor,metonymy,synecdoche,etc.9.3.2Differentformsofsoundpatterning1.Rhyme(endrhyme):Thelastwordofalinehasthesamefinalsoundsasthelastwordofanotherline,sometimesimmediatelyaboveorbelow,sometimesoneormorelinesaway(cVC).2.Alliteration:Theinitialconsonantsareidenticalinalliteration(Cvc).21\n9.3.3Stressandmetricalpatterning1.Iamb:Aniambicfootcontainstwosyllables,anunstressedsyllablefollowedbyastressedone.2.Trochee:Atrochaicfootcontainstwosyllablesaswell,butinthiscase,thestressedsyllablecomesfirst,followedbyanunstressedsyllable.3.Anapest:Ananapesticfootconsistsofthreesyllables;twounstressedsyllablesarefollowedbyastressedone.9.3.4Conventionalformsofmeterandsound1.Couplets:Coupletsaretwolinesofverse,usuallyconnectedbyarhyme.2.Quatrains:Stanzasoffourlines,knownasquatrains,areverycommoninEnglishpoetry.3.Blankverse:Blankverseconsistsoflinesiniambicpentameterwhichdonotrhyme.Chapter11LinguisticsandForeignLanguageTeachingSecondLanguageAcquisitionSecondLanguageAcquisition----formallyestablisheditselfasadisciplinearoundthe1970s,referstothesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.secondlanguage&foreignlanguageAforeignlanguageisalanguagewhichistaughtasaschoolsubjectbutwhichisnotusedasamediumofinstructioninschoolsnorasalanguageofcommunicationwithinacommunity(e.gingovernment,businessorindustry)e.g.EnglishinChina,Japan(monolingualism)Asecondlanguageisalanguagewhichisnotanativelanguageinacountrybutwhichiswidelyusedasamediumofcommunication(e.gineducationandingovernment)andwhichisusuallyusedalongsideanotherlanguageorlanguages.E.gEnglishinSingapore,Nigeria.(bilingualism)1.1GrammarAsacompromisebetweenthe“purelyform-focusedapproaches”andthe“purelymeaning-focused”approaches,arecentmovementcalledfocusonformseemstotakeamorebalancedviewontheroleofgrammarinlanguagelearning.(p251)FocusonFormAlthoughlanguagelearningshouldgenerallybemeaning-focusedandcommunication-oriented,itisstillnecessaryandbeneficialtofocusonformoccasionally.Focusonformoftenconsistsofanoccasionalshiftofattentiontolinguisticcodefeatures—bytheteacherand/oroneormorestudents—triggeredbyperceivedproblemswithcomprehensionorproduction.(p252)1.2InputLanguagelearningcantakeplacewhenthelearnerhasenoughaccesstoinputinthetargetlanguage.Thisinputmaycomeinwrittenorspokenform.Inthecaseofspokeninput,itmayoccurinthecontextofinteractionorinthecontextofnon-reciprocaldiscourse.AuthenticinputComprehensibleinput(Krashen):i+1Inputhypothesis:learnersacquirelanguageasaresultofcomprehendinginputaddressedtothem,butitshouldfollowthe“i+1”principle,thatis,thelanguagethatlearnersareexposedtoshouldbejustfarenoughbeyondtheircurrentcompetencesothattheycanunderstandmostofitbutstillbechallengedtomakeprogress.Inputshouldneitherbesofarbeyondtheirreachthattheyareoverwhelmed,norsoclosetotheircurrentstagethattheyarenotchallengedatall.PremodifiedinputInteractivelymodifiedinput:tendstodoabetterjob.1.3Interlanguage—outputThetypeoflanguageconstructedbysecondorforeignlanguagelearnerswhoarestillintheprocessoflearningalanguageisoftenreferredtoasinterlanguage.Itisoftenunderstoodasalanguagesystembetweenthetargetlanguageandthelearner’snativelanguage.Interlanguageisadynamiclanguagesystem,whichisconstantlymovingfromthedepartureleveltothenative-likelevel.Canbedoneintwoways:investigatingthepsychological,biologicalorneurologicalmechanismsinvolvedintheproductionofinterlanguage;investigatingthelinguisticfeaturesofinterlanguage.21\nThestudyoftherolesthatthenativelanguageplaysisknownastheresearchoflanguagetransfer.L1knowledgeandskillscanbetransferredtoL2.ConstructivismLanguage(oranyknowledge)issociallyconstructed.Learnerslearnlanguagebycooperating,negotiatingandperformingallkindsoftasks.Inotherwords,theyconstructlanguageincertainsocialandculturalcontexts.2.LinguisticsandLanguageTeachingLinguisticstheoriesinfluenceourgeneralorientationinapproachestolanguageteaching.Linguisticknowledgehelpsteacherstobetterexplainthespecificlanguageitemstheyteach.2.1Discourse-basedviewFocusesoncompletespokenandwrittentextsandonthesocialandculturalcontextsinwhichsuchlanguageoperates.Itaimsatdevelopingdiscoursecompetence,similartothewell-knownconceptofcommunicativecompetence.CommunicativecompetenceDellHymesWhatalearnersknowsabouthowalanguageisusedinparticularsituationsforeffectiveandappropriatecommunication.Includesknowledgeofthegrammarandvocabulary,knowledgeofrulesofspeaking,knowledgeofhowtouseandrespondtodifferenttypesofspeechactsandsocialconventions,andknowledgeofhowtouselanguageappropriately.Itisbelievedthatlanguagelearningwillsuccessfullytakeplacewhenlanguagelearnersknowhowandwhentousethelanguageinvarioussettingsandwhentheyhavesuccessfullyrecognizedvariousformsofcompetencesuchasgrammaticalcompetence(lexis,morphology,syntaxandphonology)andpragmaticcompetence(e.g.,speechacts).CommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)andTask-basedLanguageTeaching(TBLT)arethebestknownexamplesofsuchatheory.IntheCLTorTBLTclassroom,studentsareexpectedtolearnbyperformingtasks.Task-based(p256)Twobroadtypesoftasks:real-worldtasksandpedagogicaltasks.Areal-worldtaskisveryclosetosomethingwedoindailylifeorwork.Pedagogicaltasksarethoseactivitiesthatstudentsdointheclassroombutthatmaynottakeplaceinreallife.(informationgap)2.2UniversalGrammar(UG)NoamChomskyAnativespeakerpossessesakindoflinguisticcompetence.Thechildisbornwithknowledgeofsomelinguisticuniversals.Whileacquiringhismothertongue,hecompareshisinnatelanguagesystemwiththatofhisnativelanguageandmodifieshisgrammar.(p257)3.SyllabusDesignAbridgebetweenlanguageteachingtheoryandlanguageteachingpractice.Translatestheoreticalunderstandingoflanguageteachingandsetsupanoperableframeworkforlanguageteaching.Themostimportantpartofsyllabusdesignisselectingandsequencinglanguageitems.SyllabusandcurriculumAsyllabusisaspecificationofwhattakesplaceintheclassroom,whichusuallycontainstheaimsandcontentsofteachingandsometimescontainssuggestionsofmethodology.Acurriculumisafarbroaderconcept.Itprovides(1)generalstatementsabouttherationaleaboutlanguage,languagelearningandlanguageteaching,(2)detailedspecificationofaims,objectivesandtargetslearningpurposeand(3)implementationofaprogram.Insomesense,asyllabusispartofacurriculum.Syllabusisoftenusedtorefertosthsimilartoalanguageteachingapproach,whereascurriculumreferstoaspecificdocumentofalanguageprogramdevelopedforaparticularcountryorregion.4.ContrastiveAnalysisAwayofcomparingL1andL2todeterminepotentialerrorsforthepurposeofisolatingwhatneedstobelearnedandwhatnot.Itsgoalistopredictwhatareaswillbeeasytolearnandwhatwillbedifficult.Associatedinitsearlydayswithbehaviorismandstructuralism.(p270)21\n4.1MainassumptionsLanguageisahabitandLLinvolvesestablishmentofanewsetofhabits.L1interfereswithL2.ErrorsinL2canbeaccountedforbydifferencesbetweenL1andL2.TransferoccursfromL2toL2,sosimilaritiescanbeignored.Therefore,NeedforcarefulanalysisofsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenL1andL2.Teachersshouldfocusonareasofnegativetransfer.5.ErrorAnalysisS.PitCorderManyerrorsmadebyL2learnerswerecausedbyfactorsotherthanL1interference.Errorsarenotjusttobeseenassomethingtobeeradicated.5.1ErrorandmistakeError:learner’slackofknowledge/competenceMistake:learner’sfailuretoperformtheircompetence(p272)5.2Interlingualvs.intralingualInterlingualerrors(transfererrors):misuseofanitembecauseofL1influence.Intralingualerrors(developmentalerrors):withinL2(e.g.overgeneralization)AcquisitionandlearningAcquisitionisaprocesssimilartothenewwaychildrenacquiretheirfirstlanguage.Itisaprocesssimilartothewaychildrenacquiretheirfirstlanguage.Itissubconsciousprocesswithoutminutelearningofgrammaticalrules.Learnersarehardlyawareoftheirlearningbuttheyareusingthelanguagetocommunicate.Peoplerefertoitasimplicitlearning,informallearningornaturallearning.Learningreferstoconsciouseffortstolearnthesecondlanguageknowledgebylearningtherulesandtalkingabouttherules.ThecriticalperiodhypothesisEricLenneberg,abiologist,arguedthattheLAD(languageacquisitiondevice),likeotherbiologicalfunctions,workssuccessfullyonlywhenitisstimulatedattherighttime-aspecificandlimitedtimeperiodforlanguageacquisition-whichisreferredtoastheCriticalPeriodHypothesis(CPH)Itreferstoaperiodinone’slifeextendingfromaboutagetwotopuberty,duringwhichthehumanbrainismostreadytoacquireaparticularlanguageandlanguagelearningcanproceedeasilyandswiftly.TherearetwoversionsoftheCPH.Thestrongonesuggeststhatchildrenmustacquiretheirfirstlanguagebypubertyortheywillneverbeabletolearnfromsubsequentexposure.Theweakoneholdsthatlanguagelearningwillbemoredifficultandincompleteafterpuberty.Chapter12TheoriesandSchoolsofModernLinguistics12.0Introduction–FerdinanddeSaussure◇“fatherofmodernlinguistics”◇“amasterofadisciplinewhichhemademodern.”◇CourseinGeneralLinguistics(1916),◇Thelinguisticunitisasign.Thelinguisticsignunites,notasignandaname,butaconceptandasoundimage.◇Hecalledtheconceptsignifiedandthesoundimagesignifier.Thelinguisticssignhastwocharacteristics.First,therelationshipbetweenthesignifierandthesignifiedisarbitrary.Secondly,thelinguisticsignischaracterizedbythelinearnatureofthesignifier.◇Adistinctionbetweenlangueandparole.Thetaskofalinguististostudylangue,sinceitisacoherentandanalyzableobject.Itisthisdistinctionthatleadstothedistinctionofphoneticsandphonology.◇Distinctionbetweendiachronicandsynchronicstudies12.1ThePragueSchool12.1.1IntroductionThePragueSchoolhasthreepointsofspecialimportance:(1)Itstressesthatthesynchronicstudyoflanguageisfullyjustifiedasitcandrawoncompleteandcontrollablematerialfor21\ninvestigation.(2)Itemphasizesthesystemiccharacteroflanguage,arguingthatnoelementofanylanguagecanbesatisfactoryanalyzedorevaluatedifviewedinisolation.Inotherwords,elementsareheldtobeinfunctionalcontrastoropposition.(3)Itlooksonlanguageasatoolperforminganumberofessentialfunctionsortasksforthecommunityusingit.12.1.3FunctionalSentencePerspective(FSP)1.FunctionalSentencePerspective(FSP):Itisatheoryoflinguisticanalysiswhichreferstoananalysisofutterances(ortexts)intermsoftheinformationtheycontain.Theprincipleisthattheroleofeachutterancepartisevaluatedforitssemanticcontributiontothewhole.2.Theme:Thepointofdepartureofasentenceisequallypresenttothespeakerandtothehearer–itistheirrallyingpoint,thegroundonwhichtheymeet.Thisiscalledthetheme.3.Rheme:Thegoalofdiscourseofasentencepresentstheveryinformationthatistobeimpartedtothehearer.Thisiscalledtherheme.12.2TheLondonSchoolTheLondonSchoolhasatraditionoflayingstressonthefunctionsoflanguageandattachinggreatimportancetocontextsofsituationandthesystemaspectoflanguage.Itisthesefeaturesthathavemadethisschoolofthoughtknownassystemiclinguisticsandfunctionallinguistics.ItisanimportantandadmirablepartoftheLondonSchooltraditiontobelievethatdifferenttypesoflinguisticdescriptionmaybeappropriatefordifferentpurposes.12.4Transformational-Generative(TG)grammar1.LanguageAcquisitionDevice(LAD)Chomskybelievesthatlanguageissomewhatinnate,andthatchildrenarebornwithwhathecallsaLanguageAcquisitionDevice,whichisauniquekindofknowledgethatfitsthemforlanguagelearning.Hearguesthechildcomesintotheworldwithspecificinnateendowment,notonlywithgeneraltendenciesorpotentialities,butalsowithknowledgeofthenatureoflanguage.Accordingtothisview,childrenarebornwithknowledgeofthebasicgrammaticalrelationsandcategories,andthisknowledgeisuniversal.Therelationsandcategoriesexistinallhumanlanguagesandallhumaninfantsarebornwithknowledgeofthem.AccordingtoChomsky,thereareaspectsoflinguisticorganizationthatarebasictothehumanbrainandthatmakeitpossibleforchildrentoacquirelinguisticcompetenceinallitscomplexitywithlittleinstructionfromfamilyorfriends.HearguesthatLADprobablyconsistsofthreeelements:ahypothesis-maker,linguisticuniversal,andanevaluationprocedure.DeepandsurfacestructuresIntransformationalgenerativegrammar(T-Ggrammar),thedeepstructuremaybedefinedastheabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction,i.e.theunderlyinglevelofstructuralrelationsbetweenitsdifferentconstituents,suchastherelationbetweentheunderlyingsubjectanditsverb,oraverbanditsobject.Thesurfacesstructureisthefinalstageinthesyntacticderivationofaconstruction,whichcloselycorrespondstothestructuralorganizationofaconstructionpeopleactuallyproduceandreceive.jJaneiseasytoplease.(S)jItiseasyforsbtopleaseJane.(D)jJaneiseagertoplease.(S)jJaneiseagertopleasesb.(D)jStructurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.21