《语言与语言学》(2)

《语言与语言学》(2)

《语言与语言学》双向视频课第三讲主讲人：张兴\nUnit5LanguageFunction2:DoingThingswithLanguageunderstandthatsayingsomethingunderappropriatecircumstanceisdoingspeechactsbefamiliarwithsomespeechactterminologyanalyzesomecommonspeechacts\nUnit5LanguageFunction2:DoingThingswithLanguageActivity1SayingIsDoingActivity2ThingsWeDoRituallyandFormallyActivity3ThingsWeDoEveryday\nActivity1SayingIsDoingSpeechacttheoryThereisaspecialtheorycalledspeechacttheorythataccountsforthethingswedowithlanguage.ItwasfirstputforwardbytheBritishanalyticphilosopherJ.L.Austin,whoseposthumousbook,entitledHowtoDoThingswithWords(1962),haslaidafoundationfortheresearchtofollow.\nActivity1SayingIsDoingTask1AnanatomyofsayingsomethingTask2CometotermswithterminologyTask3UnderstandtheillocutionaryactTask4Understandtheperlocutionaryact\nTask1AnanatomyofsayingsomethingAustin’sideawaslikethis:Thelocutionaryact（说话行为）Thephonicact（发声行为）Thephoneticact（发音行为）Therheticact（立意行为）Theillocutionaryact（施事行为）Theperlocutionaryact（取效行为）\nTask2Cometotermswithterminology\nTask2Cometotermswithterminology言语行为的分析和判断是本单元的中心内容。当我们判断一个实例中的言语行为时，关键在于分析出它的语言功能和说话人的目的。语言功能例如：介绍、打招呼、邀请、抱歉、宣布、命令及要求等属于言语行为中的施事行为；而说话人的主观目的则属于他的取效行为。因此可推在有可能相同的施事行为（作为言语功能）的言语中，取效行为（作为说话人的个人目的）则很难相似。\nTask3Understandtheillocutionaryact完成163-164页的练习。注意在每个案例后对于“Whatdidthespeakerintendtodoinsayingit?”问题的回答都是相关言语的施事行为。在这里要将“intendtodo”理解成言语本身的功能（languagefunction）。\nTask3UnderstandtheillocutionaryactProbablyyouhaverealizedthatillocutionaryactscanbeperformedintwoways,directlyandindirectly.Bydirectlyismeantthataverbisusedintheutterancetoshowwhattheillocutionaryactwasintendedtobeperformedbythespeaker.Byindirectly,ontheotherhand,ismeantthatnosuchverbsareactuallyusedintheutterancetoindicatewhattheillocutionaryactwasintended.\nTask3UnderstandtheillocutionaryactWeshallusethisformulatodescribeanillocutionaryact:Insaying“_________”thespeakerperformedanillocutionaryactofIV-ing.(IVillocutionaryverb)Forexample,Insaying“Goodmorning”thespeakerperformedanillocutionaryactofgreeting.\nTask4UnderstandtheperlocutionaryactWhenyougreetyourfriendinsaying“早上好”youhaveapurpose:Youwanttobepolite,oryouwanttomaintaintheexistingrelation,andsoon.Austincalledtheactofachievingyourpurposeastheperlocutionaryact.Theperlocutionaryactcanbecapturedbyusingthisformula:\nTask4UnderstandtheperlocutionaryactInsaying“________”thespeakerperformedanillocutionaryactofVI-inginorderto_________.Forexample,Insaying“早上好”,youperformedanillocutionaryactofgreetinginordertobepolitetoyourfriend.\nTask4Understandtheperlocutionaryact完成166页的练习3，并参考反馈内容。要求学员能掌握示例中的分析语言，然后能独立进行分析。\nActivity2ThingsWeDoRituallyandFormallyTask2Discoverfeaturesofritualillocutionaryacts\nTask2Discoverfeaturesofritualillocutionaryacts从前面的举例和对话中我们可以看出在典礼或会议等正式场合中含有很丰富的施事行为。而成功的施事行为在上述场合中是有一些共性的。那么这些共性是什么呢？Sotherightpersons,therightwords,therightfeelingsorthoughtsandofcoursetherightprocedurearefouressentialsforritualillocutionaryacts.\nTask2Discoverfeaturesofritualillocutionaryacts这部分主要掌握的应是典礼施事行为的四个基本要素。并能以此为根据分析具体的典礼施事行为的例子。下面用具体的案例举例说明：请分析婚礼中施事行为的重要特征。\nTask2DiscoverfeaturesofritualillocutionaryactsTheillocutionaryactsperformedinaweddinghavetoobtainfouressentials,i.e.therightpersons,therightwords,therightfeelingsorthoughtsandofcoursetherightprocedure.Aweddingmusthaveaceremonymaster,withoutwhomitsprocesscannotbemonitoredandproceededeasily,andheistherightperson.Aweddinghastobeconductedwithproperwording,whichmeanswhatissaidinaweddingmustbeappropriatetothesituation,e.g.给新娘、新郎道喜了，新娘、新郎拜天地，等,andthesearetherightwords.\nTask2DiscoverfeaturesofritualillocutionaryactsThird,whileaweddingisgoingon,theparticipantsarecommunicatingwitheachotherallthetime.Duringthatperiodoftime,theyshouldhavetheaccompanyinghappyfeelingsandthoughts,whicharecalledrightfeelingsandthoughts.Forth,thenaturalproceedingofaweddingmustfollowingaproper,traditional,conventionalandcustomaryprocedure,whichthoughitsparticipantsmaynotseemtopaytoomuchattentiontoit,theviolationofitsprocedurewouldcertainlycausepeople’sgossip.Allthefourabove,therefore,aretheessentialsforritualillocutionaryacts.\nActivity3ThingsWeDoEveryday在这一活动中，我们讨论了两种日常生活中常见的言语行为—道歉和提要求。请学员首先掌握181页和185页的示意图中的内容和相关分析。关键是对B和C两步的分析。当一方说出道歉的话以及另一方表达接受时，他们说出的话语本身具有的是语言本身所带有的功能，也就是它的施事行为。这两方的施事行为即是“道歉”和“接受”。而同时，他们的话语还具有它的取效行为，即双方说话时内心的感受（mental）。这一行为则非常微妙。它有可能是真的也有可能是假的。\nActivity3ThingsWeDoEverydayTask2WaysofapologizingTask3AnalyzerequestsTask4Learntousehedges\nTask2WaysofapologizingNevertoapologizewouldmakeyouappeartobeunfeelinganduncaring.But,ofcourse,theoppositekindofbehavior,apparentlyendlessapologizing,isalsoburdensome.Onlyoccasionallyareapologiesperhapsbestnotgivenatall.Aformalceremonythatsomehowgetsoffitssetcourseissometimesbestputbackoncoursewithoutresorttoapology.Indeed,aprofuseapologymaymakeafarceofthewholeperformance.(fromWardhaugh,HowConversationWorks,1985:189)\nTask2WaysofapologizingInChinesewecanapologizefromthreeperspectivesThecause-perspective：togiveanexplanationoraccountofcause示例：情景：说话人迟到了一“半天不来车”一“每天早上跟打仗似的”情景：说话人摔了东西—我手给冻僵了”\nTask2WaysofapologizingThespeaker-perspectiveActuallyusethewords“道歉”，“赔礼Expressingregretfortheoffense一“我真后悔，不该做”Acknowledgingresponsibilityfortheoffendingact一“全是我的错”，“都怪我”Explicitself-blame一“我怎么搞的”，“我真是糊涂虫”，“我真该死”Makingapromise一“就这一次”，“我保证不会有第二次”Offeringredress一“我赔”，“算是归我”\nTask2WaysofapologizingThevictim-perspectiveRequestingthevictimtopretendthattheoffendingactdidnottakeplace—“你就只当我没说”Requestingthevictimtobesobroad-mindedasnottotaketheoffensetoheart一“你肚量大，就别往心里去”Requestingthevictimtoforgive一“请饶我这一次”，“请宽宏大量”\nTask3AnalyzerequestsBynowyoumustbefullyawarethat,sofaraslinguisticexpressionsareconcerned,wecanmakerequestsinavarietyofways：Wecanusedirectimperatives,fullorabbreviated:Givemeapencil.Coffee,please!\nTask3AnalyzerequestsWecandressuparequestinquestionform:Wouldyouhandmethatbook?Couldyougetmeadoughnut?Doyouhavethetime?Aren’tyougoingtotellme?Wecanevenmakeourselvesthesubjectofthequestion:CanIhavethelighton?MayIborrowthisbook?\nTask3AnalyzerequestsWecanstateasimpleneed:Ineedapen.Iwantananswer.I’llhaveacoke.Wecanaskcertainquestionsinspecialcircumstances:IsJohnthere?(onthetelephone)DoIheartalking?(ateacherinclass)\nTask3AnalyzerequestsOrwecansimplymakeacomment:Myglassisempty.Youarestandinginmyway.I’mtiredMybagisinthecar.Iwishyou‘dstop.Idon‘tthinkyoushouldtellhim.\nTask3AnalyzerequestsStudyWardhaugh’sadviceonhowtomakearequest.Oneofthefirstprinciplesisthat,ifyouwantsomebodytodosomething,youhavetobecarefulabouthowyougoaboutspecifyingtothatpersonthatitcanbedone.\nTask3AnalyzerequestsThepreparatoryworkmightinvolveyourcommentingonsomeaspectofthelistener’sappearance,health,ordress,oroftherelationshipthatexistsbetweenyou.Youmayevenphrasetheactualrequestsoastomakeitappeartobeaveryminorconcernthiskindoflead-inbehaviourcanbecomequitelong-windedasmitigatingandqualifyingstatementspileupononeanother.Thelead-inismeanttomakerefusalthatmucheasier,butexcessivelead-inpressuremaymakeitmoredifficulttorefuse\nTask3AnalyzerequestsYoudorefuseandactuallysayNo;youwillalmostcertainlyfeelobligedtoprovideareasonforyourrefusal.(fromWardhaugh,HowConversationWorks,1985:170-171)\nTask4LearntousehedgesStudytheexamplesonP.190-191Whenyouarenotsosure,ornotsopositiveaboutwhatyousay,youshouldusehedgestoweakenyourstatement.Inthiswayyoumakeyourselflessvulnerabletochallenge.Notethathedgescanalsobeusedtostrengthenwhatyousay.Forexample,youcansay,“I’mabsolutelysurethatJohnisagoodman”.\nTask4LearntousehedgesHedges的概念类似于我们说的“说话要留余地”或是“说绝对的话”。这也是Hedges的两种功能。在日常生活中，和非正式交谈中，人们使用它多是为了表达个人的观点，而且不愿让自己的观点受攻击，因此人们会偏爱一些加强语气的庇护语。但在学术著作中、正式场合下、或是政治性的言谈中，庇护语会偏于减弱肯定的语气，以便为了使其言辞尽可能地概括来免于受到挑战。因此在191-193的练习中所下划线的庇护语均是为了来减弱语气的。而去掉后，语气会有所加强。\nUnit6LanguageFunction3:ManagingInterpersonalRelationsActivity1RolesandRelationsinLanguageActivity2ChineseandEnglishFacesActivity3ChineseandEnglishPoliteness\nUnit6LanguageFunction3:ManagingInterpersonalRelationsReflectonthecloserelationbetweenlanguageontheonehand,androles,interpersonalrelations,andstatusontheotherBemoresensitivetounwrittensocialnormsSharpenyourawarenessofotherSharpenyoursenseofface,andpaymoreattentiontoface-workSharpenyoursenseofpoliteness,andpaymoreattentiontopoliteness\nActivity1RolesandRelationsinLanguageTask1Understandroles,relations,andstatusTask2DiscoversocialnormsTask3Developotherawareness\nTask1Understandroles,relations,andstatusThesocietyweliveisstructured.Itiswithinthesocialstructure,wetakeupdifferentroleswithcorrespondingresponsibilities.Forexample,\nTask1Understandroles,relations,andstatusCustomer-shopassistantteacher-studentdoctor-patientmaster-apprenticeInconnectionwithrolesaretherelationswehavewithothers.WetalkaboutourrelationswithothersintermsofFamiliarity,e.g.acquaintances,oroldfriendsandsoon;Emotionaldistance,e.g.closeorseparate,detachedorintimate;Formality,e.g.formalorinformal,andsoon.\nTask1Understandroles,relations,andstatusInChineseculture,wemakeanotherimportantdistinctionofrelationship,namelybetweenin-groupandout-group.Inordinarylanguage,wedistinguish自己人from局外人.Notethatthenotionsofin-groupandout-grouparenotstatic,butdynamic.Whoareinsiders,i.e.,自己人andwhoareoutsiders,i.e.,局外人dependoncontext.\nTask1Understandroles,relations,andstatusStatusiswhatwecall身份or地位inChinese.Itreferstotheprestigeoneenjoysinsociety.Differencesinrole,relation,andstatusaremadeandmaintained,toagreatextent,throughlanguage.Itisparticularlysoinancienttimes.请仔细阅读201页的汉语节选，其中“名不正则言不顺”是传统中国文化思想中不可获缺的重要部分。它是解释许多汉语语言学理论，如相关汉语礼貌准则，的出发点。\nTask2DiscoversocialnormsSocialnormsTherearesocialnormsthatgoverntheconductofsocialbehavior.“Don’spit!”,“Nosmokingplease!”,“Pleasequeuehere!”,andsoonaresocialnorms.Themajorityofsocialnormsare,however,unwritten.Wearenotawareofthemuntiltheyareviolated.\nTask2DiscoversocialnormsSpatial（空间）andtemporal（时间）arrangementsarealsosubjecttosocialnorms.Forinstance,ameetingroomisequippedwithchairsandtables.Thearrangementoftheseinnocentobjectsandtheiruseinspaceandtimearesociallysignificant.InChinesewehavethefollowingcontrasts:\nTask2Discoversocialnorms上手（up）下手（down）前头（front）后头（back）正（central）偏（sideways）先（first）后（back）\nTask3DevelopotherawarenessIndividualismandcollectivismThesenseofselfisoftenassociatedwithindividualism,andthesenseofotherwithcollectivism.Byindividualismwemeanthattheinterestsofindividualsareconsideredprimary,hencemoreimportantthantheinterestsofagrouporacommunity.Collectivismistheoppositeofindividualism:thecollectiveinterestsareconsideredmoreimportantthanindividuals’.Whenclashesoccur,individualsareurgedtosacrificeindividualinterestsforthesakeofthegrouporcommunity.\nTask3DevelopotherawarenessSocialandindividualgatheringWhentwoormorepeoplecomecloseenoughtoformasocialgathering,peoplearenotonlyawareofthepresenceofotherandadapttheirbehavioraccordingly,butarealsoconsciousofthedefinitionofthisgathering.\nTask3DevelopotherawarenessAgatheringmayreceivetwodefinitions.Oneissocial,andtheotherisindividual.Thesocialdefinitionofagatheringreferstoanofficialdefinition,orofficialinterpretationofthesituation,suchasagatheringofmeeting,aclassofteaching,etc.Theindividualdefinitionreferstotheinterpretationsofthesituationgivenbytheparticipantsthemselves.\nTask3DevelopotherawarenessTheanalysisofthecaseonP.205Withregardtotheexamplesituation,theofficialdefinitionofitcanbeeitheragatheringofdatingorapairofintimaterelation.Thisdefinitionisdifferentfromthedefinitionsgivenbytheparticipatingparties.ThegirlmighthavetakenitthatIwasintrudingintoherterritorywithillintentions.Oralternatively,shewasawareofthesocialdefinition,andshecouldnotacceptit.Onmypart,thegatheringhadnoagreedpurpose,anditjusthappenedtobeformedbytwopeopleofoppositesex.\nTask3Developotherawareness从上述例子可以发现，当聚会的官方含义和个人含义相冲突时，人们就会出现相互的误解。Otherawarenessandcareforotherholdakeytosuccessfulsocialinteraction.\nActivity2ChineseandEnglishFacesTask2Let’sdoabitoftheorizingTask4TowardsanunderstandingofEnglishface\nTask2Let’sdoabitoftheorizing脸（lian）Lianispartofdecency,becauseitisassumedthatadecentperson’sbehaviourisuptoastandard.Whenwedosomethingfacetoface,ourperformanceisassessedbyotherswhoobserveusagainstcertaincriteriasuchasjobdescription,duties,responsibilities,undertaking,assumedexpertise,moralcharacter,priorclaims,orotherpublicstandards.Ourlianislost,inonewayoranother,lightlyorseriously,iftheassessmentisnegative.\nTask2Let’sdoabitoftheorizingExerciseCase3Expectations:PeopleexpectabarbertobeskillfulenoughtomakeasatisfactoryhaircutatanytimeActualperformance:Gongdidabadjobthistime.ZhangaskedTaitoredoit,butaskedTainottoletGongknowit.Assessment:Theactualperformancerantheoppositetotheexpectations.ZhangdidsoinordertoavoidmakeGongfeelhehaslosthisLian.\nTask2Let’sdoabitoftheorizingCase6Expectations:PeopleinXianyu’shometownexpectedhecouldbecapableenoughtowinthewarandbringbacktheirsons.Actualperformance:Xiangyulostoutintheend.When,afterseveraldefeats,hisforceswerefinallysurroundedbytheenemy,XiangYuknewthathisfighthadbeeninvain.Assessment:Theactualperformancerantheoppositetotheexpectations.Hedidfulfillhedutyasamilitarycommanderproperly.Hedidlosehislianinthatcase.Andherefusedtofleebackalonebecausehefelthehadnoliantofacethepeopleinhishometown.\nTask2Let’sdoabitoftheorizingCase8Expectations:Peopleexpectonetobedecentenoughtoearnone’sliving,tosupportoneselfandtohaveenoughmoneytobuyone’sfood,nottomentionaformeraristocraticmember.Actualperformance:TheManchuhelookedlonginglyattheseedsdroppedonthetable.Hedesiredverymuchtopickthemup.Andhepretendstowritesomethingonthetablewithhisfingerasthebrushandsalivaasinktopickuptheseeds.\nTask2Let’sdoabitoftheorizingCase8Assessment:Ifhepickeduptheseedsdirectlyfromthetable,hisbehaviormayruntheoppositetotheexpectationsandthereforetheManchuwouldlosehisliancompletely.Buthepretendstowritesomethingonthetablewithhisfingerasthebrushandsalivaasinktopickuptheseeds.Inthiscaseheavoidedlosehislianandpacifieshisgrumblingstomachatthesametime.\nTask2Let’sdoabitoftheorizing面子（Mianzi）Mianziisakindofsocialinfluencederivedfromoursocialstatus,power,wealth,orachievedbyouroutstandingcontributiontosociety.Itisgenerallythecasethatthehigherone’sstatus,orthegreaterone’spower,thebiggerhismianzi.\nTask2Let’sdoabitoftheorizingMianziisatstakewhenoneintendstoachieveapersonalgoalthroughpersonalinfluenceonothers.Iftheactualachievementisgreaterthantheintended,thisshowsthathismianziisactuallybiggerthanthatformerlyassumed.Iftheactualachievementissmallerthantheintended,thisshowsthathepossessessomemianzi.Ifthereisnoachievementatall,heissaidtohavelostmianzi.Onecaresformianzibecauseitshowshisorherworthiness.\nTask2Let’sdoabitoftheorizingOne’smianziisparticularlythreatened•whenaninferiorchallengesthesuperiorinpublic•whenaninferiordisagreeswiththesuperiorinpublic•whenthesuperiorcriticizestheinferiorinpublic•whentheauthorityadmitsmistakestohisinferiors•whentheauthorityisnotgivenhis/herdueprominenceinasocialgathering\nTask2Let’sdoabitoftheorizingMianzicanbesalvagedby•praisingfirst,criticizinglater•criticizingthroughamediator•creatinganopportunityforthemianzi-losertomakeabigshowinpublic\nTask2Let’sdoabitoftheorizingExerciseCase2Thosewithpower,status,reputation,etc.:Teacherxxxwhoisteachinginthetrainingcoursehasthepowertoenrollastudent.Theintendedgoal(s):Inenrollingthestudent,theteacherwantedtogivehisstudentenoughtrainingtoimprovehisstudy.Theactualachievement:Thestudentstudiedhardandbecamethetopstudentinhisclass.Yourassessment:Theteacher’smianziisenhanced.\nTask2Let’sdoabitoftheorizingCase5Thosewithpower,status,reputation,etc.:Thevisitingfootballteamhasitsreputation.Theintendedgoal(s):TheyvisitedChinaandplayedwithChineseteam.Theirgoalisofcoursetowinthegame.Theactualachievement:Theyweredefeated.Yourassessment:Theydidnotachievewhattheyintendedto.Therefore,theylosttheirmianzi.\nTask2Let’sdoabitoftheorizingCase7Thosewithpower,status,reputation,etc.:Asaprofessor,hehasagreatreputationandastatuswhichishighenough.Theintendedgoal(s):HewantedtoinviteWinglingtodinner.Theactualachievement:Hewasturneddown.Yourassessment:Hedidnotachievewhatheintendedto.Therefore,helosthismianzi.\nTask2Let’sdoabitoftheorizingCase9Thosewithpower,status,reputation,etc.:Asamanager,hehashispower,statusandreputationamonghiscolleagues.Theintendedgoal(s):Hewantedtopersuadethecoupletostopquarrelling.Theactualachievement:Thecouplemaytakehisadviceorrefusetoaccept.Yourassessment:Iftheyaccepttheirleader’sadvice,theymusthaveconsideredtheleader’smianziseriously.\nTask4TowardsanunderstandingofEnglishfaceSelf-imagefaceTheAmericansociologistGoffman(1955,“OnFace-work”)putforwardaperformancetheoryofface.Accordingtohistheory,whenpeoplecomeanddothingstogether,eachpresentshimselforherselftotheotherbyactingoutanimagesuitabletothesituation.Goffmancalledthisself-imageface.Ifpeopledothingsthatdamageself-image,theirfaceisdamaged.\nTask4TowardsanunderstandingofEnglishface因此脸是一种感情的投资。它可能被丢掉，可能被保护和使它增光。在交际活动中应时刻注意维护自己的脸面。而人们日常的合作就是基于脸面的脆弱性的基础上的。也就是说我们的脸面是靠双方维护的。\nTask4TowardsanunderstandingofEnglishfaceNegativefaceandpositivefaceBrownandLevinson(1987,Politeness:SomeUniversalsinLanguageUsage.CambridgeUniversityPress),drawinginsightsfromGoffman,makeafurtherdistinctionbetweennegativefaceandpositiveface.Negativeface:people’sdesirethattheybefreetodothings,andthatothers’willbenotimposedonthem.Positiveface:people’sdesirethattheirwantsbeconsidereddesirableandappreciated.\nTask4TowardsanunderstandingofEnglishfaceBrownandLevinson’snegativefaceisnotcompatiblewithourunderstandingofChinesehanormian.Theirpositiveface,ontheotherhand,isclosetomianzi.Facewillbesavedbybothparties.\nActivity3ChineseandEnglishPolitenessTask1ReflectonthedifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglishvaluesTask2ChinesepolitenessmaximsTask3EnglishpolitenessmaximsTask4Makeacontrastivestudy\nTask1ReflectonthedifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglishvaluesChinesevaluesIninterpersonalcontact,ourcultureholdsdearsuchvaluesaswarmth,respect,modesty,consideratenessandrefinement.Thefirsttwoareother-oriented,thatis,showwarmth,andrespecttoother;andtheotherthreeareself-oriented,thatis,selfshouldbemodest,considerateandrefined.Thefivevaluesaregovernedbyonegeneralprincipleofconduct:thePrincipleofReciprocity(orthePrincipleofBalance).\nTask1ReflectonthedifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglishvaluesEnglishvaluesEnglishculture,ontheotherhand,holdsdearsuchvaluesasfreedomofchoice,non-imposition,andtactfulness(i.e.acutesensitivitytowhatisproperandappropriateindealingwithothers,includingtheabilitytospeakoractwithoutcausinganyoffense).\nTask2Chinesepolitenessmaxims贬己尊人准则称呼准则文雅准则求同准则德、言、行准则Themaximofself-denigrationandotherelevationThemaximofusingaddresstermsThemaximofrefinementThemaximofagreementThemaximofvirtue,wordsanddeeds\nTask3EnglishpolitenessmaximsLeechinhisbookPrinciplesofPragmatics(Longman,1983)introducestheEnglishpolitenessprincipleasfollows:Minimize(allthingsbeingequal)theexpressionofimpolitebeliefs;Maximize(allthingsbeingequal)theexpressionofpolitebeliefs.\nTask3EnglishpolitenessmaximsThisisageneralprinciple.Inordertoupholdit,peopleareexpectedtoabidebysixmaxims:TheTactMaxim:Minimizethecosttoother;maximizethebenefittoother.TheGenerosityMaxim:Minimizethebenefittoself;maximizethecosttoself.TheApprobationMaxim:Minimizethedispraiseofother;maximizetheapprovalofother.\nTask3EnglishpolitenessmaximsTheModestyMaxim:Minimizetheexpressionofpraiseofself;maximizetheexpressionofdispraiseofself.TheAgreementMaxim:Minimizethedisagreementbetweenselfandother;maximizetheagreementbetweenselfandother.TheSympathyMaxim:Minimizeantipathybetweenselfandother;maximizesympathybetweenselfandother.\nTask4Makeacontrastivestudy这一部分请学员仔细阅读232页到233页反馈中的内容。