语言学教程ppt课件

语言学教程ppt课件

ChapterTwoSpeechSounds1\nAshumanbeingswearecapableofmakingallkindsofsounds,butonlysomeofthesesoundshavebecomeunitsinthelanguagesystem.Wecananalyzespeechsoundsfromvariousperspectivesandthetwomajorareasofstudyarephoneticsandphonology.2\nPhoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.Speechproduction(SpeakerA)Speechperception(SpeakerB)3\nArticulatoryPhoneticsisthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.AcousticPhoneticsisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds.PerceptualorAuditoryPhoneticsisconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.4\nPhonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages.Itaimsto‘discovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur’.Inphonologywenormallybeginbyanalyzinganindividuallanguage,sayEnglish,inordertodetermineitsphonologicalstructure,i.e.whichsoundunitsareusedandhowtheyareputtogether.Thenwecomparethepropertiesofsoundsystemsindifferentlanguagesinordertomakehypothesesabouttherulesthatunderlietheuseofsoundsinthem,andultimatelyweaimtodiscovertherulesthatunderliethesoundpatternsofalllanguages.5\n1.Howspeechsoundsaremade1.1SpeechorgansMacMahon(1990:7)6\nMacMahon(1990:7)7\nMacMahon(1990:7)8\nPositionofthevocalfolds:voicelessRoca&Johnson(1999:15)9\nPositionofthevocalfolds:voicing(initial&thewidestaperture)Roca&Johnson(1999:16)10\nPositionofthevocalfolds:glottalstopRoca&Johnson(1999:22)11\n1.2TheIPAIn1886,thePhoneticTeachers’AssociationwasinauguratedbyasmallgroupoflanguageteachersinFrancewhohadfoundthepracticeofphoneticsusefulintheirteachingandwishedtopopularizetheirmethods.ItwaschangedtoitspresenttitleoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation(IPA)in1897.12\nOneofthefirstactivitiesoftheAssociationwastoproduceajournalinwhichthecontentswereprintedentirelyinphonetictranscription.TheideaofestablishingaphoneticalphabetwasfirstproposedbytheDanishgrammarianandphoneticianOttoJespersen(1860-1943)in1886,andthefirstversionoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(theIPAchart)waspublishedinAugust1888.13\nItsmainprincipleswerethatthereshouldbeaseparateletterforeachdistinctivesound,andthatthesamesymbolshouldbeusedforthatsoundinanylanguageinwhichitappears.ThealphabetwastoconsistofasmanyRomanalphabetlettersaspossible,usingnewlettersanddiacriticsonlywhenabsolutelynecessary.Theseprinciplescontinuetobefollowedtoday.14\nTheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(Revisedto2005)15\n16\n17\n18\n19\n20\n21\n22\n2.ConsonantsandvowelsConsonantsareproduced‘byaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowingwhichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction’.Bycontrast,avowelisproducedwithoutsuch‘stricture’sothat‘airescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthornose’.23\nThedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.Asthereisnoobstructionofairintheproductionofvowels,thedescriptionoftheconsonantsandvowelscannotbedonealongthesamelines.24\n2.1ConsonantsIntheproductionofconsonantsatleasttwoarticulatorsareinvolved.Forexample,theinitialsoundinbadinvolvesbothlipsanditsfinalsegmentinvolvestheblade(orthetip)ofthetongueandthealveolarridge.Thecategoriesofconsonant,therefore,areestablishedonthebasisofseveralfactors.25\nThemannerofarticulationreferstowaysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplished:thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;ortheymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.26\nStop(orPlosive)Oral&NasalFricative(Median)ApproximantLateral(Approximant)TrillTaporFlapAffricate27\nTheplaceofarticulationreferstothepointwhereaconsonantismade.Practicallyconsonantsmaybeproducedatanyplacebetweenthelipsandthevocalfolds.ElevenplacesofarticulationaredistinguishedontheIPAchart:BilabialLabiodentalDentalAlveolarPostalveolarRetroflexPalatalVelarUvularPharyngealGlottal28\n2.2VowelsCardinalVowels,asexhibitedbythevoweldiagramintheIPAchart,areasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguages.29\nJones:AnOutlineofEnglishPhonetics(1918)Dark:IPARed:English30\n31\nTheproblematicareaisthattheinitialsoundinhotgiveslittleturbulence,dependingonhowforcefullyitissaid,andinyetandwettheinitialsegmentsareobviouslyvowels.Togetoutofthisproblem,theusualsolutionistosaythatthesesegmentsareneithervowelsnorconsonantsbutmidwaybetweenthetwocategories.Forthispurpose,theterm‘semi-vowel’isoftenused.32\nLanguagesalsofrequentlymakeuseofadistinctionbetweenvowelswherethequalityremainsconstantthroughoutthearticulationandthosewherethereisanaudiblechangeofquality.Theformerareknownaspureormonophthongvowelsandthelatter,vowelglides.Ifasinglemovementofthetongueisinvolved,theglidesarecalleddiphthongs.33\nAdoublemovementproducesatriphthong,whichis‘aglidefromonevoweltoanotherandthentoathird,allproducedrapidlyandwithoutinterruption’.Theyarereallydiphthongsfollowedbytheschwa[ə],foundinEnglishwordslikewire[waɪə]andtower[taʊə].34\n2.3ThesoundsofEnglishReceivedPronunciation(RP)GeneralAmerican(GA)Englishconsonants35\n36\nTheconsonantsofEnglishcanbedescribedinthefollowingmanner:[p] voicelessbilabialstop[b] voicedbilabialstop[s] voicelessalveolarfricative[z] voicedalveolarfricative37\nEnglishvowels38\n39\nThedescriptionofEnglishvowelsneedstofulfillfourbasicrequirements:theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low);thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back);thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tensevs.laxorlongvs.short),andlip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded).40\nWecannowdescribetheEnglishvowelsinthisway:[]highfronttenseunroundedvowel[]highbacklaxroundedvowel[]midcentrallaxunroundedvowel[]lowbacklaxroundedvowel41\n3.FromphoneticstophonologySpeechisacontinuousprocess,sothevocalorgansdonotmovefromonesoundsegmenttothenextinaseriesofseparatesteps.Rather,soundscontinuallyshowtheinfluenceoftheirneighbors.Forexample,map,lamb.42\n3.1CoarticulationWhensuchsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved,wecalltheprocesscoarticulation.Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,asinthecaseoflamb,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation.Ifthesoundshowstheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,itisperseverativecoarticulation,asisthecaseofmap.43\nThefactthatthevowel[]inlambhassomequalityofthefollowingnasalisaphenomenonwecallnasalization.Toindicatethatavowelhasbeennasalized,weaddadiacritictothetopofthesymbol[],as[].44\n[p]isaspiratedinpeakandunaspiratedinspeak.Thisaspiratedvoicelessbilabialstopisthusindicatedbythediacritich,as[ph],whereastheunaspiratedcounterpartistranscribedas[p].45\nWhenweuseasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscription,itiscalledabroadtranscription.Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.Botharephonetictranscriptionssoweputbothformsinsquarebrackets[].46\n47\n3.2PhonemesPhonologyisnotspecificallyconcernedwiththephysicalpropertiesofthespeechproductionsystem.Phoneticiansareconcernedwithhowsoundsdifferinthewaytheyarepronouncedwhilephonologistsareinterestedinthepatterningofsuchsoundsandtherulesthatunderliesuchvariations.48\nCrystal:‘Phonologicalanalysisreliesontheprinciplethatcertainsoundscausechangesinthemeaningofawordorphrase,whereasothersoundsdonot’.MinimalpairstestPhonemes49\n50\nTheword‘phoneme’simplyreferstoa‘unitofexplicitsoundcontrast’:theexistenceofaminimalpairautomaticallygrantsphonemicstatustothesoundsresponsibleforthecontrasts.Byselectingonetypeofsoundinsteadofanotherwecandistinguishonewordfromanother.51\nLanguagesdifferintheselectionofcontrastivesounds.InEnglish,thedistinctionbetweenaspirated[ph]andunaspirated[p]isnotphonemic.InChinese,however,thedistinctionbetween/p/and/ph/isphonemic.52\nByconvention,phonemictranscriptionsareplacedbetweenslantlines(//)whilephonetictranscriptionsareplacedbetweensquarebrackets([]).Inphoneticterms,phonemictranscriptionsrepresentthe‘broad’transcriptions.53\n3.3AllophonesInEnglish,[p,ph]aretwodifferentphonesandarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophonesofthesamephoneme.Inthiscasetheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheyneveroccurinthesamecontext:[p]occursafter[s]while[ph]occursinotherplaces.54\n/p/[p]/ [s]_____[ph]elsewhereThisphenomenonofvariationinthepronunciationofphonemesindifferentpositionsiscalledallophonyorallophonicvariation.55\nVelarization:clearlanddarkl//[]/_____V[]/V_____Thinkabouttellandtelling!56\nPhoneticsimilarity:theallophonesofaphonememustbearsomephoneticresemblance.Freevariantsandfreevariation57\n4.Phonologicalprocesses,phonologicalrulesanddistinctivefeatures4.1Assimilation58\nNasalization,dentalization,andvelarizationareallinstancesofassimilation,aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecallitregressiveassimilation.Theconverseprocess,inwhichaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,isknownasprogressiveassimilation.59\nEnglishFricativeDevoicing60\n/v/[f]/z/[s]etc.voicedfricativevoiceless/____voicelessNasalizationrule:[-nasal][+nasal]/____[+nasal]Dentalizationrule:[-dental][dental]/____[dental]Velarizationrule:[-velar][+velar]/____[+velar]61\n4.2Epenthesis,ruleorderingandtheElsewhereConditionahotel,aboy,ause,awagon,abigman,ayellowrug,awhitehouseanapple,anhonor,anorangecurtain,anoldladyEpenthesis(Insertion)Rule:62\nPluralsinEnglish63\n64\n65\na.The[]appearsaftervoicelesssounds.b.The[]appearsaftervoicedsounds.c.The[]appearsaftersibilants.//[]/[–voice,C]_____(Devoicing)[]/[+sibilant]_____[](Epenthesis)66\nRuleordering67\nTheElsewhereConditionThemorespecificruleappliesfirst.68\n4.3DistinctivefeaturesTheideaofDistinctiveFeatureswasfirstdevelopedbyRomanJacobson(1896-1982)inthe1940sasameansofworkingoutasetofphonologicalcontrastsoroppositionstocaptureparticularaspectsoflanguagesounds.Sincethenseveralversionshavebeensuggested.69\nSomeofthemajordistinctionsinclude[consonantal],[sonorant],[nasal]and[voiced].Thefeature[consonantal]candistinguishbetweenconsonantsandvowels,soallconsonantsare[+consonantal]andallvowels[–consonantal].[sonorant]distinguishesbetweenwhatwecallobstruents(stops,fricativesandaffricates)andsonorants(allotherconsonantsandvowels),withobstruentsbeing[–sonorant]andothers[+sonorant].[nasal]and[voiced]ofcoursedistinguishnasal(includingnasalized)soundsandvoicedsoundsrespectively.70\nTheseareknownasbinaryfeaturesbecausewecangroupthemintotwocategories:onewiththisfeatureandtheotherwithout.Binaryfeatureshavetwovaluesorspecificationsdenotedby‘ + ’and‘ – ’sovoicedobstruentsaremarked[+voiced]andvoicelessobstruentsaremarked[–voiced].71\nTheplacefeaturesarenotbinaryfeatures–theyaredividedupintofourvalues:[PLACE:Labial][PLACE:Coronal][PLACE:Dorsal][PLACE:Radical]Theyareoftenwritteninshorthandformsas[Labial]p[Coronal]p[Dorsal]p[Radical]p72\nDistinctivefeaturematrixforEnglishconsonantphonemespbtdkgfvθðszʃʒhmnŋwlrjʧʤconsonantal＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋－＋＋－＋＋approximant－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－＋＋＋＋－－sonorant－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－＋＋＋＋＋＋＋－－continuant－－－－－－＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋－－－＋＋＋＋–/+–/+strident＋＋－－＋＋＋＋－＋＋nasal－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－＋＋＋－－－－－－lateral－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－＋－－－－voiced－＋－＋－＋－＋－＋－＋－＋－＋＋＋＋＋＋＋－＋[PLACE]LLCCDDLLCCCCCCRLCDLCCCCCanterior＋＋＋＋＋＋－－＋＋＋－－－73\nAusefulfeatureforconsonantsnotfoundhereis[±spread](for‘spreadglottis’),whichdistinguishesbetween‘aspirated’and‘unaspirated’voicelessobstruents.Aspiratedsoundsare[+spread]andunaspiratedsoundsare[–spread].Nowwecanrepresenttherulethatgovernstheunaspirationof/p/after[s]intermsoffeatures:74\nThisisamoregeneralrule,whichalsoappliesto/t/and/k/.Itmeansthat/p,t,k/([–voiced,–cont])areallunaspirated([–spread])after[s]andaspirated([+spread])inallotherpositions.75\nPasttenseformsinEnglishstopped,walked,coughed,kissed,leashed,reachedstabbed,wagged,achieved,buzzed,soothed,bridgedsteamed,stunned,pulledplayed,flowed,studiedwanted,located,decided,guided76\nTheregularpasttenseforminEnglishispronouncedas[t]whenthewordendswithavoicelessconsonant,[d]whenitendswithavoicedsound,and[ɪd]whenitendswith[t]or[d].77\n5.SuprasegmentalsSuprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalsare:SyllableStressToneIntonation78\n5.1ThesyllablestructureσOnsetRimeNucleusCodakrækt79\nOpensyllable:bar,tieClosedsyllable:bard,tiedEnglishSyllable:(((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C)Chinesesyllable:(C)V(C)MaximalOnsetPrinciple(MOP)Whenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda.80\n5.2StressStressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Intranscription,araisedverticalline[│]isoftenusedjustbeforethesyllableitrelatesto.Abasicdistinctionismadebetweenstressedandunstressedsyllables,theformerbeingmoreprominentthanthelatter,whichmeansthatstressisarelativenotion.81\nAtthewordlevel,itonlyappliestowordswithatleasttwosyllables.Atthesentencelevel,amonosyllabicwordmaybesaidtobestressedrelativetootherwordsinthesentence.82\nChangingEnglishStressPatternBecomingnorminTEGralcoMMUNalforMIDableconTROVersyConsideredconservativeINtegralCOMMunalFORmidableCONtroversy83\nRPlaBORatoryDEBrisGARageGALABoratorydeBRISgaRAGERPvs.GA84\nVerbconVICTinSULTproDUCEreBELNounCONvictINsultPROduceREbelVvs.N85\nBLACKboardBLACKbirdblackBOARDblackBIRDCompoundPhraseCompoundvs.Phrase86\nPrimaryvs.SecondaryStressepiphenomenalunsatisfactorydiscriminationstandardizationcommunicationindustrialization87\nSentenceStressJohnboughtaredcar.JOHNboughtaredcar.JohnBOUGHTaredcar.JohnboughtaREDcar.JohnboughtaredCAR.88\n5.3IntonationIntonationinvolvestheoccurrenceofrecurringfall-risepatterns,eachofwhichisusedwithasetofrelativelyconsistentmeanings,eitheronsinglewordsorongroupsofwordsofvaryinglength.Forexample,thefall-risetoneinEnglishtypicallyinvolvesthemeaningofacontrastwithinalimitedsetofitemsstatedexplicitlyorimplicitly.89\n(Isn’thernameMary?)No/JennyTheoldmandidn’tcome/whereastheyoungman/didcomeandactuallyenjoyedhimselfIdidn’tdoit90\n5.4TonePutonghua[pa]ChinesecharacterPinyinTonesymbolTonenumberTonedescriptionGloss八bā55Highlevel‘eight’拔bá35Highrising‘pullout’靶bă214Lowfallingrising‘target’坝bà51Highfalling‘dam’91