哲学经典文章总结

哲学经典文章总结

PARTIKeywordsandSummaries1•TheApologyKeywords:Plato,theunexaminedlifeisnotworthliving,pursuitoftruth,questioning,Socratesesdeath,wisdomSummary:Socrateswasaccusedofcorrodingthethoughtofyouth(byMaiLITUJ).Peoplethoughthewasspreadingrumorseverywhereandmakingpeopleconfusedwithcurrentlife.Socratesquestionedpeoplearoundhimcontinuouslyandtriedhisbesttofindthosewhowereknowledgeable,buthefoundthattheyfinallycouldnotanswerhisquestions.Becauseofthis,heembarrassedmanypeoplewhoseemedtobesillyafterbeingquestionedandthussomepeoplebegantohatehim.ButforSocrates,hethoughthewasjustseekingthetruth.Peoplearealwayssatisfiedwiththecurrentlifeandheclaimedthattheunexaminedlifeisnotworthliving.Heisnotmeanttoharmtheyouthandhearguedthatifhemeantit,hewouldimaginesuchacasewherehewouldbeaccused.Inhisopinion,therealwisdomisthatoneknowsthathedoesnotknow.2.CritoKeywords:Plato,Crito,toescape,law,duty,truth,reason,torepayevilwithevilSummary:CritotriedtopersuadeSocratestosavehimselfbecausehedidn'twanttolosesuchafriendandpeoplewouldthoughthimasruthlessbecausehecouldspendmoneytohelphimoutandescape.ButforSocrates,livingwellisnotjustlivingintheworldbutalsoleadingajustlife.Accordingly,hechosetobehereifthelawdidiftregardhimasinnocent.EventhoughSocratesthoughtheisrftguilty,hedidrTtwantrepayevilwithevil,wherepeoplealwaysdidoppositesidenaturally.IfSocrateschosetoescape,hewouldbreakthelawandthenthedivinityofthelawwouldbeshadowed.Asanindividualinthepopulation,ifonecandoanythingcasuallybeyondthelaw,thecitywillbefinallyoverthrown.Becauseofthis,Socrateswasafraidofdoingharmtohismotherland.IfSocrateschosetoescape,hewouldbedetestedbyhisownstateandthe\nnewlawintheplacehewouldarrivedatwouldnotbefriendlytohim.Allofthesewerebasedonhisreasoning.AndCritohadnothingmoretovoice.2.AppearanceandrealityKeywords:BertrandRussell,appearanceandreality,immediateexperience,truth,property,knowledgeSummary:Indailylife,weassumeascertain,manythingswhich,onacloserscrutiny,arefoundtobesofullofapparentcontradictionsthatonlyagreatamountofthoughtenablesustoknowwhatitisthatwereallymaybelieve.Tosomedegree,knowledgecanderivefromexperiencebutanystatementthatourimmediateexperiencesmakeusknowislikelytobewrong.Russelltookthetableasanexample.Itseemsthatallofthetablesarethesameincolor,soundproducedwhenbetapped,hardnessandsoon.Butdefinitelyspeaking,thetableshowsdifferentshapesfromeveryperspective.Tofurtheroursight,weusemicroscopetoobservethetableandwecanfindhillsandvalleys,whichisdifferentfromnakedeyes.Wecarftbelievethosewegetfromoursensingorgansandthosesensesarejusttheappearance.Therealtable,ifthereisone,isnotimmediatelyknowntousatall,butmustbeaninferencefromwhatisimmediatelyknown.3.TheDelusionofFreeWillKeywords:Robert,heredityandenvironment,thedelusionoffreewill,reason,choice,determination,trainingSummary:Thefreewilldelusionhasbeenastumblingblockinthewayofhumanthoughtforthousandsofyears.Thefreewillpartyclaimsthatmanisresponsibleforhisacts,becausehiswillisfreetochoosebetweenrightandwrong.Butfortheauthor,thewillisnotfreeandthatifitwerefreemancouldnorknowrightfromwronguntilhewastaught.Whenwehesitateinourchoicebetweentwoacts,itisourtemperamentthatcauseuslieinsuchasituation.Whenmakingachoice,whydowechooseonesideratherthananother?Thisisbecausewehavereasonedourselvesandweighedadvantagesanddisadvantages.Sometimeswe\naretoldandtrainedtodosomethingdeepinourmindsandbesidesourmindsaredeterminedbytheheredity.Blatchfordthereforeclaimsthatman'schoicebetweengoodandevilcanbeandonlybetakenbyreason.2.NoExitKeywords:JeaPaulSartre,Noexit,existentialist,Cradeau,Estelle,Inez,Hellisotherpeople,existenceprecedesessenceSummary:ThisisaplaywrittenbySartre.ThesubjectsinthisplayareCradeau,EstelleandInez.Theyareenclosedinaroomofthehellandallofthemareactuallydeadandsentencedtothehellbecauseallofthemhadlotsofevilthingsinthepast.Butallofthemtriedtobehaveasagoodpersonandcheatothers.Therearenotmin^orsinwhichtheycanseethemselves.Thissymbolizesthatanindividualhumanbeingdoesnotknowwhethertheyshouldbedefinedbyothersorthemselves.Inthetext,Inez,whoisawoman,fellinlovewithEstellebutEstellelovedCradeauwhoranafterInez.Threepainfulpeopleseemtobetorturedbythemselves.SartresaidthatHellisotherpeople.Infact,thisdoesnotmeanthatallthepeoplearoundusishell,butwhenwedoiftgetalongwellwiththepeoplearoundus,andit5sdifficulttoreconcilewiththem,youcanonlybeinthehell.3.SubstanceKeywords:PrinciplesofPhilosophy,ReneDescartes,substance,mind,body,mind-bodydistinction,extensionSummary:I.Thatalltheobjectsofourperceptionsaretobeconsideredeitherasthingsortheaffectionsofthethings,orelseaseternaltruths;andtheenumerationofthethings.II.Whatsubstanceis,andthatitisanamewecannotattributeinthesamesensetoGodandtohiscreatures.\nIII.Eachsubstancehasaprincipalattribute,andattributeofthemindisthought,whilethatofbodyisextension.IV.Theperceptionsofthesensesdonotteachuswhatisreallyinthings,butmerelythatwherebytheyareusefulorhurtfultoman'scompositenature.V.Thenatureofbodyconsistsnotinweight,norinhardness,norcolorandsoon,butinextensionalone.Extensionoftheworldislikewiseindefinite.VI.A11thevarietyinmatter,orallthediversityofitsforms,dependsonmotion.Andmotionisincommonparlance.2.SkepticalDoubtsConcerningtheOperationsKeywords:DavidHume,conceptualtruths,reasons,matteroffact,causeandeffect,relationsofideas,memoryandsenses.Summary:Alltheobjectsofhumanreasonorenquirymaynaturallybedividedintotwokinds,whicharerelationsofideasandmattersoffact.Forrelationsofideas,everyaffirmationiseitherintuitivelyordemonstrativelycertain.Andmattersoffactrequireanempiricalinvestigationtobeknownforcertain.Ifweareengagedbyargumentstotrustinthepastexperienceandmakeitthestandardofourfuturejudgment,theseargumentsmustbeprobablyonlyregardedmatteroffactandrealofexistence.Inreality,allargumentsfromexperiencearefoundedonthesimilaritywhichwediscoveramongnaturalobjects,andbywhichweareinducedtoexpecteffectssimilartothosewhichweareinducedtoexpecteffectssimilartothosewhichwehavefoundtofollowfromsuchobjects.Allreasoningsconcerningmatteroffactseemtobefoundedontherelationofcauseandeffect.3.TheAllegoryofthecaveKeywords:Philosophers,reason,shadowsoflight,prisoners,Plato,sensesandexperiences,knowledge.Summary:\nI.Philosophersarethosewhoareloversofthevisionofthetruth.II.WewillconsiderpeopleawakeiftheyrecognizetheexistenceofabsolutebeautyandareabletocontemplateboththeIdeaandtheobjectswhichparticipateinit,notmixingobjectsandIdea.III.Theinhabitantsarechainedhandsandfeet,andtheirheadsareinafixedpositionsothattheycanonlyseethewallinfrontofthem.Onthewallshadowsappearandtheprisonersassumetheseshadowsarereality.Theshadowsareproducedbyafireburningatthecaversentranceandtheyactuallyreflectobjectscarriedaboveawallbypeoplewalkingbyit.Astheallegoiyprogresses,Platoasksustoimaginethatsomeoneisliberatedandcompelledsuddenlytostandupandturnhisneckroundandwalkandlooktowardsthelight,hewillsuffersharppains.Itwouldrequiretimeandpatiencebeforetheprisoner'seyesadjustedtothelightandsawthingsastheyreallyare.Oncethathappened,however,theformerprisonerwouldclearlyseethatwhathadpassedforknowledgewasinrealityonlyshadows.Goingbackintothecavetoexplainrealitytotheotherprisoners,thispersonwouldsurelymeetresistance.Allofthemwouldcontinuetobelievetheshadowswererealandthinktheirfellowisridiculous,withhiseyesruined.2.oftheOriginofIdeasKeywords:DavidHume,empiricism,impressionsandideas,human'sperceptions,knowledge,boundedideas,ideasderivingfromimpressions,forceandvivacity.Summary:Forempiricism,wegetknowledgefromexperience.Butourexperienceissochangeablethatitmaynotalwaysbetrue.Inthiscase,asanempiricist,DavidHumeprovideshissolutions,wherehedivideshuman'sperceptionsintotwokindsaccordingtotheforceandvivacity.Oneisimpressions,whichismorelivelyandanotheristhoughtsorideas,respectively.Butthoughourthoughtseemstopossessthisunboundedliberty,weshallfind,uponanearerexaminationthatisreallyconfinedwithinverynarrowlimits,andthatallthiscreativepowerofthemindamountstono\nmorethanthefacultyofcompounding,transposing,augmenting,ordiminishingthematerialsaffordedusbythesensesandexperience.Ablindmancanformnonotionofcolors;adeafmanofsounds.Andtheauthorpointedoutthatactuallyideasderivefromimpressions.Buttherealsoexistsfewcontradictions.Wecaneasilyfindthemissingcolorinacolorseriesdescendinggraduallyfromthedeepesttothelightest.Thoughthisinstanceissospecialthatitisscarcelyworthourobservingweshouldalterourgeneralmaxim.2.WhatUtilitarianismIs?Keywords:JohnStuartMill,utilitarianism,happiness,pleasure,pain,hedonism,producingthegreatestamountofhappinessforeveryoneSummary:Therightcourseofactionistheonethatcreatesthegreatestamountofhappiness.Forhappiness,FromMilFspointofview,happinessispleasureandtheabsenceofpain.Thus,accordingly,thebestactionsaretheonesthatpromotethegreatestbalanceofpleasureoverpain.Andpleasureandpaincanbeexperienced.Wecanknowtherefore,frompastexperience,whichactionspredictablypromotepleasure,andthereforehappiness,andwhichactionspromotepain,andthereforeunhappiness.NoticeaswellthatMillarguesthatwhendeterminingtherightthingtodo,allofthepleasureandpainproducedmustbetakenintoaccount.Mill'sutilitarianismholdsthatthecorrectactiontoperformistheonethatpromotesthebestconsequencesforall,theactionproducesthegreatestamountofhappinessforeveryone.Thoseselfishandofnofeelingandconsciencewouldconsenttobeafool.3.EudaimoniaKeywords:Aristotle,eudaimonia,happiness,activity,contemplation,reason,philosopherSummary:Afunctionofathingistheuniquepurposeofthatthing一theunique'worifthatitdoes.Oncethefunctionofathingisknown,thenthatthingcanbeaccessedasbeingeithergoodorbad.Ifthefunctionofaknifeistocut,agoodknifeisonethatcutswell.Forhumanbeing,Aristotlesaysthattheuniquefunctionofhumanityistoreason.Ifthatis\nouruniquefunction,thenagoodhumanwillbeonethatfunctionswell,thatis,onethatreasonswell.Personshaveeudaimoniatheninsofarastheyreasonwell,thatis.insofarastheyexhibitrationalitythroughouttheirlife.Tofurther,thebestlifeisnotjustalifeinwhichreasonandrationalityareexhibitedthroughout;rather,thebestlifeisthelifedevotedtoreasonexclusively,thatis,thelifeofstudy一thelifeofthephilosophe匸Happinessisanactivityinaccordancewiththehighestvirtue,whichisthecontemplativeactivity.2.ThesecondsexKeywords:SimonedeBeauvoir,TheSecondSex.theother,liberty,equality.Summary:SimonedeBeauvoirinTheSecondSexholdsthatawomanistakenastheother,inotherwords,thesecondsex.Itisthecultureandmenthatmakeswomenthesecondsex.Inthebosomofthefamily,womanseemsintheeyesofchildhoodandyouthtobeclothedinthesamesocialdignityastheadultmales.Thehusbandandhersoncanthereforefeelthatsocialsubordinationasbetweenthesexesnolongerexistsandthatonthewhole,inspiteofdifferences,womanisanequal.Butwhenheisinconflictwithhim,histhemewillbetheexistinginequality.Awomanshouldrecognizethatifshewantstoliberateherself,sheshouldbeanindividualbeingdefinedbylibertyinsteadofbyhappiness.Womanshallnotpermitthemselvestobeintimidatedbythenumberandviolenceoftheattackslaunchedagainstthem.PARTIICommentonTheAllegoryoftheCaveOrdinarylife,Platoistellingus,isthelifeofthecave.Notallofusarephilosopherswhopursuittherootofwisdom.Inmyopinion,thosephilosophersorsomescientistswhomayseemtobe\nstrangeareactuallytheprisonerswhostepoutofthecave.We9retheprisoners,livinginaworldwhichisfullofuntestedassumptionsandbelievinginoursenses.Liketheprisoners,Platosuggests,wemaybemistakingtheordinaryworldofsenseexperienceandjudgmentsforrealityandtruth.Inotherwords,whatweseemaynotbewhatyouget.Butwhyweareprisoners,withhandsandfeetchained?Astheallegorysuggests,wearesatisfiedwithourcurrentlifeandmoredefinitely,weareinprisonbecauseofourrequirementsandsatisfactorywithmateriallife,whichiswhywelosethefreedom.Itmaynotbeeasyforustotellthedifferencebetweentherealityandappearanceandit'salsodifficultforustobelievethosewhoareoutofthecave.Wecanimplyfromthetextthatweshouldbecarefulwhensuchapersonappearinfrontofusincasethatwelosethechancetothereality.Inthiscase,wecansayweareawakebecausewedon'tmixideaandobjects.Eventhoughwefindsomeoneleadingusoutofthecave,wemaygiveuphalfwaybecausetheSunwillhurtoureyes.Inthiscase,weshould,asPlatosuggestsaswell,showasenseofperseveranceandpatience.Havinggotthetruth,theprisonercouldhavechosennottobebackintothecave,buthewouldratherstepbackintothecavetoenlightenotherseventhoughhispartnersmayputhimtodeathbecausetheyareaccustomedtotheexistingrulesandhostiletothosewhowanttobreaktherules,whichSocratessufferedalot.Inthiscase,theprisoner,regardedasthephilosopher,shouldenlightentheirmindinsteadofteachingthemwhichisrightandwhichiswrongbecauseasPlatotoldus,thecaveandtheouterspaceexistatthesametime,whichmeansunopenedtruthhasbeenalreadyintheirminds,readytoberecovered.Platoisveryclearthatphilosophycannotbeasubjecttostudyfromtheshadowswithoutmotion.LikeSocrates,aphilosophermustquestioneverything一even,ormaybeespecially,thosethingsthatseemsoobvious,thosethingseveryoneagreesabout.Alifewithoutphilosophyisalifeofshadowsandinsideacave.Ourknowledgeofshadowsmaybeexcellent,butyouwillbeignorantoftheobjectsthatcreatetheshadows.Thereisonlyonewaytoknowreality,Platobelieves.Wemustrelyonourreasonratherthanoursenses,untestedopinions,orfeelings.Backtotext,we5retoldthatthe\nprisonerfinallyunderstandthatthecauseofallthingswhichheandhisfellowshavebeenaccustomedarejustillusoryreflectionsofthevisibleworldbycomparisonandreasoninghimself,\nPARTIIICommentonthemovieTheOxfordMurdersInthismovie,thedirectortriedtopersuadeusthatphilosophyisdead,whichreflectsindailylife.Butastudentraisedancontradictionthatmathematicscanberegardedasatruth.Sointhismovie,thefollowingstoryismeanttoprovideusaproofthatmathematicallogicisnotworthofrelyingonanditisnotalwaysreal.AseriesofPythagoras'figuresymbolsthemathematicallogic,whereinthismoviepeopletriedtheirbesttofindthelawandregardthisasthetruthwhichisusedbythemurdertocommitcrimes.Innocentpeoplethinkthatiftheycandiscoverthetruth,theycanpredictthenextcrimeandputthemurdererintoprison.Buttheresultinthismovietoldusthatweareallwrong.Thereisn'tanylawtoobey.Peoplemadeamistakeofempiricismandtendtobelievethatwewouldknowwhothemurdererisandwherethenextcrimeis.Ialsotendtobelieve.ButwhenIaskmyselfthathowtheycanpredictthenextone,firstlyIthinkthatitistheflawofthemovieandthenIrealizethatthereisnoanswe匚Sowhenwestepbacktothefirstscreeninthismovie,weareaskedthequestionwhetherwecanknowthetruth.Themovietolduswecannotgetthetruthandalloftheseso-calledlawsarejustforustocomfortourmindthatwearebommeaningfully.Inthiscase,wecanseewhatagreatimportancetheideaofagnosticismtendstobeinthismovie.Peoplemayargueaboutwecangraduallygraspthetruthinthefuturebypracticeandweneedn'ttobedisappointedwithourlimitedability.Buthowcanwesaythatwecangettheunknowntruth?Byreasoning,westillcannotbelievethebasethatweusetooperate,whichissimilartotheseriesofpictureinthemovie.Byexperience,wemaystillbeconfusedbecausesight,hearingandallofourthinkingarejustaseriesofchemicalreactionandallofthesemaybedummyifweregardthebiology(science)asthetruth.Forexample,one'sbrainisloadedintoabottle,andconnectedtotheelectrodeataparticularplace.Wesimulatethesensevision,hearing,smellbyelectricalstimulation,andhewouldalsothinkhewasaliveandlivedwell.\nThisistheideathatIthinkthedirectorwantstospread.Scienceisjustatooltoapproachthetruthbutscienceitselfisnotthetruth.Actually,Chinesetraditionalmedicinemayseemridiculoustothesciencebutitcanalsoapplyinourlifeandcureofalotpatients.Inthiscase,itisalsoadifferentwaytoapproachthetruth.Akeythingisjustlikeabuttontobeginthesituationbutwecannotpredictwhichdirectionthecasewillgoon.Asthemovietoldus,thedeterminativethingisthesentencethat"Youshouldtryit\Theoriginalmeaningmaybenice.Butthecaseisjustlikeabutterflyflappingitswingsandfinallyatornadowillhappensomewhere.Wcan'tknowhowitwilldevelop.IwasenlightenedbythismoviethoughIthinktheargument(figureandcrime)usedinthismoviemaybeanotsovivid.Becausewecanseethattheallegedfigurearejustsetbythephilosopher.Ifwecanfindsuchacasethatwehavealwaysusedtherulesuccessfullybutweprovethattherulehasnothingtodowiththetruthandnature,itwillbemoreconvincing.