（剑桥经典·哲学）【赫尔德】哲学著作集

（剑桥经典·哲学）【赫尔德】哲学著作集

\nThispageintentionallyleftblank\nCAMBRIDGETEXTSINTHEHISTORYOFPHILOSOPHYHERDERPhilosophicalWritings\nCAMBRIDGETEXTSINTHEHISTORYOFPHILOSOPHYSerieseditorsKARLAMERIKSProfessorofPhilosophyattheUniversityofNotreDameDESMONDM.CLARKEProfessorofPhilosophyatUniversityCollegeCorkThemainobjectiveofCambridgeTextsintheHistoryofPhilosophyistoexpandtherange,varietyandqualityoftextsinthehistoryofphilosophywhichareavailableinEnglish.Theseriesincludestextsbyfamiliarnames(suchasDescartesandKant)andalsobylesswell-knownauthors.Whereverpossible,textsarepublishedincompleteandunabridgedform,andtranslationsarespeciallycommissionedfortheseries.Eachvolumecontainsacriticalintroductiontogetherwithaguidetofurtherreadingandanynecessaryglossariesandtextualapparatus.Thevolumesaredesignedforstudentuseatunder-graduateandpostgraduatelevelandwillbeofinterestnotonlytostudentsofphilosophy,butalsotoawideraudienceofreadersinthehistoryofscience,thehistoryoftheologyandthehistoryofideas.Foralistoftitlespublishedintheseries,pleaseseeendofbook.\nJOHANNGOTTFRIEDVONHERDERPhilosophicalWritingsTRANSLATEDANDEDITEDBYMICHAELN.FORSTERUniversityofChicago\nThePittBuilding,TrumpingtonStreet,Cambridge,UnitedKingdomTheEdinburghBuilding,CambridgeCB22RU,UK40West20thStreet,NewYork,NY10011-4211,USA477WilliamstownRoad,PortMelbourne,VIC3207,AustraliaRuizdeAlarcón13,28014Madrid,SpainDockHouse,TheWaterfront,CapeTown8001,SouthAfricahttp://www.cambridge.org©CambridgeUniversityPress2004Firstpublishedinprintedformat2002ISBN0-511-03139-4eBook(AdobeReader)ISBN0-521-79088-3hardbackISBN0-521-79409-9paperback\nContentsIntroductionpageviiChronologyxxxviFurtherreadingxxxixNoteonthetextsandtranslationxliiPartIGeneralPhilosophicalProgramHowPhilosophyCanBecomeMoreUniversalandUsefulfortheBenefitofthePeople()PartIIPhilosophyofLanguageFragmentsonRecentGermanLiterature(–)[excerptsonlanguage]TreatiseontheOriginofLanguage()PartIIIPhilosophyofMindOnThomasAbbt’sWritings()[selectionsconcerningpsychology]OnCognitionandSensation,theTwoMainForcesoftheHumanSoul()[preface]OntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoul()v\nContentsPartIVPhilosophyofHistoryOntheChangeofTaste()OlderCriticalForestlet(/)[excerptonhistory]ThisTooaPhilosophyofHistoryfortheFormationofHumanity[anearlyintroduction]ThisTooaPhilosophyofHistoryfortheFormationofHumanity()PartVPoliticalPhilosophyLettersconcerningtheProgressofHumanity()[excerptsonEuropeanpolitics]LettersfortheAdvancementofHumanity(–)[excerptsconcerningfreedomofthoughtandexpression]LettersfortheAdvancementofHumanity(–)[excerptonpatriotism]LettersfortheAdvancementofHumanity(–)–TenthCollectionIndexvi\nIntroductionHerderisaphilosopheroftheveryfirstrank.Suchaclaimdependsmainlyontheintrinsicqualityofhisideas,andIshallattempttogiveasenseofthatinwhatfollows.Butanotheraspectofitishisintellectualinfluence.Thishasbeenimmensebothwithinphilosophyandbeyond(fargreaterthanisgenerallyrealized).Forexample,Hegel’sphilosophyturnsouttobeanelaboratesystematicextensionofHerderianideas(especiallyconcerningGod,themind,andhistory);sotoodoesSchleiermacher’s(concerningGod,themind,interpretation,translation,andart);NietzscheisstronglyinfluencedbyHerder(concerningthemind,history,andmorals);sotooisDilthey(inhistheoryofthehumansciences);J.S.MillhasimportantdebtstoHerder(inpoliticalphilosophy);GoethenotonlyreceivedhisphilosophicaloutlookfromHerderbutwasalsotransformedfrombeingmerelyacleverbutconventionalpoetintoagreatartistmainlythroughtheearlyimpactonhimofHerder’sideas;andthislistcouldgoon.Indeed,Herdercanclaimtohavevirtuallyestablishedwholedisciplineswhichwenowadaystakeforgranted.Forexample,itwasmainlyHerder(not,asisoftenclaimed,Hamann)whoestablishedcertainfundamen-talprinciplesconcerninganintimatedependenceofthoughtonlanguagewhichunderpinmodernphilosophyoflanguage.Throughthoseideas,hisbroadempiricalapproachtolanguages,hisrecognitionofdeepvariationsinlanguageandthoughtacrosshistoricalperiodsandcultures,andinotherways,HerderinspiredWilhelmvonHumboldttofoundmodernlinguis-tics.Herderdevelopedmodernhermeneutics,orinterpretationtheory,intoaformthatwouldsubsequentlybetakenoverbySchleiermacherandthenmoresystematicallyarticulatedbySchleiermacher’spupilBockh.¨Indoingthat,healsoestablishedthemethodologicalfoundationsofvii\nIntroductionnineteenth-centuryGermanclassicalscholarship(whichrestedontheSchleiermacher-Bockhmethodology),andhenceofmodernclassical¨scholarshipgenerally.Herderarguablydidmorethananyoneelsetoestab-lishthegeneralconceptionandtheinterpretativemethodologyofourmoderndisciplineofanthropology.Finally,Herderalsomadevitalcon-tributionstotheprogressofmodernbiblicalscholarship(notonlydeve-lopinggeneralhermeneutics,butalso,forexample,definingthegenresofOldTestamentpoetrymoreadequatelythanhadbeendonebefore,eliminatingthebaneofallegoricalinterpretationsofOldTestamenttextssuchastheSongofSolomon,andestablishingthecorrectchronologyofthefourgospelsoftheNewTestament).TheaimofthepresentvolumeistomaketextsbyHerderincoreareasofphilosophyavailabletoAnglophonereaderssothathisqualityandinfluenceasaphilosophercanbestudied.Tothisend,thevolumefocusesmainlyonearlierworks.Herderwritesinanessayherethat“thefirst,uninhibitedworkofanauthoris...usuallyhisbest;hisbloomisunfolding,hissoulstilldawn.”Whetherornotthatisgenerallytrue,itcertainlyappliestoHerderhimself,whoseearlierwritingsdoindeedtendtobehisbest.Thisfact,togetherwiththeirothernotablevirtueofbrevity,motivatedthisvolume’sconcentrationonthem.ReadingHerder:somepreliminariesIncertainwaysHerder’sphilosophicaltextsareeasiertoreadthanothersfromtheperiod.Forexample,heavoidstechnicaljargon,hiswritingislivelyandrichinexamplesratherthandryandabstract,andhehasnolarge,complexsystemforthereadertokeeptrackof.Buthistextsalsohavecertaincompensatingpeculiaritieswhichcancausemisunderstandingandmisgiving,andwhichrequireexplanation.TwoeditionsofHerder’sworkshavebeenusedforthisvolume:U.Gaieretal.(eds.),JohannGottfriedHerderWerke(FrankfurtamMain,–);B.Suphanetal.(eds.),JohannGottfriedHerderS¨amtlicheWerke(Berlin,–).Referencestotheseeditionstaketheformoftheprimaryeditor’ssurnameinitialfollowedbyvolumenumberandpagenumber(e.g.G:orS:).Twoareashavebeenomitted(exceptinsofarastheyaretouchedoninpassing)inordertokeepthescaleofthevolumereasonable:Herder’sphilosophyofreligion(veryimportantforquestionsofinfluence,butlessintrinsicallyrelevantgivenmodernphilosophy’ssecularsensibilities)andhisaesthetics(philosophicallyfascinating,butperhapslessfundamental,andalsounmanageablyextensive).OntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoul().Afterafirstoccurrencemosttitleswillbeabbreviatedinthisintroduction.viii\nIntroductionFirstofall,Herder’swritingoftenseemsemotionalandgrammaticallyundisciplinedinawaythatmightperhapsbeexpectedincasualspeechbutnotinphilosophicaltexts.Thisisintentional.Indeed,Herdersome-timesdeliberately“roughedup”materialinthisdirectionbetweendrafts(e.g.betweentheanddraftsofOntheCognition).Also,whenwritinginthiswayheisoftenusinggrammatical-rhetoricalfigureswhich,thoughtheycanstrikeanuntutoredeyeasmerecarelessness,receivehighliterarysanctionfromclassicalsourcesandareemployedartfully(e.g.anacoluthon,aposiopesis,brachylogy,chiasmus,hendiadys,oxymoron,andhysteronproteron).Moreover,hehasseveralseriousphilosophicalreasonsforwritinginthiswayratherthaninthemannerofconventionalacademicprose.First,thispromisestomakehiswritingmorebroadlyaccessibleandinterestingtopeople–adecidedlynontrivialgoalforhim,sincehebelievesittobeanessentialpartofphilosophy’svocationtohaveabroadsocialimpact.Second,oneofhiscentralthesesinthephilosophyofmindholdsthatthoughtisnotandshouldnotbesepa-ratefromvolition,oraffect;thattypesofthinkingwhichaspiretoexcludeaffectareinherentlydistortingandinferior.Standardacademicwritinghasthisvice,butspontaneousspeech,andwritingwhichapproximatesit,donot.Third,Herderisopposedtoanygrammaticalorlexicalstrait-jacketingoflanguage,anyslavishobediencetogrammarbooksanddic-tionaries(hewouldbecriticalofsuchinstitutionsasDudeninGermanyandtheChicagoManualofStyleintheUSA).Inhisview,suchstrait-jacketingisinimical,notonlytolinguisticcreativityandinventiveness,butalso(muchworse),becausethoughtisessentiallydependentonandconfinedinitsscopebylanguage,therebytocreativityandinventivenessinthoughtitself.AnotherpeculiarityofHerder’sphilosophicalwritingisitsunsystem-aticnature.Thisisagaindeliberate,forHerderislargelyhostiletowardssystematicityinphilosophy(afactreflectedbothinexplicitremarksandinmanyofhistitles:Fragments...,Ideas...,etc.).Heisinparticularhos-tiletotheveryambitioustypeofsystematicityaspiredtointhetraditionofSpinoza,Wolff,Kant,Fichte,Schelling,andHegel:atheorywhosepartsformandexhaustsomesortofstrictoverallpatternofderivation.Moreover,hehascompellingreasonsforthishostility.First,heisveryskepticalthatsuchsystematicdesignscanbemadetowork(asopposedIhaveindicatedsomeexamplesofsuchfiguresastheyoccurinthetranslation.ix\nIntroductiontocreating,throughillicitmeans,anillusionthattheydo).Second,hebelievesthatsuchsystem-buildingleadstoaprematureclosureofinquiry,andinparticulartoadisregardingordistortingofnewempiricalevidence.Scrutinyofsuchsystemsamplybearsoutthesemisgivings.Herder’swell-groundedhostilitytothistypeofsystematicityestablishedanimportantcountertraditioninGermanphilosophy(whichsubsequentlyincluded,forexample,FriedrichSchlegel,Nietzsche,andWittgenstein).Ontheotherhand,Herderisinfavorof“systematicity”inamoremodestsense:atheorywhichisself-consistentandmaximallysupportedbyargument.Hedoesnotalwaysachievethisideal(sothatinterpretinghimcallsformoreselectivityandreconstructionthanisthecasewithsomephilosophers).Buthisfailuresareoftenonlyapparent:First,inmanycaseswhereheseemstobeguiltyofinconsistencyhereallyisnot,forheisoftendevelopingphilosophicaldialoguesbetweentwoormoreopposingviewpoints,inwhichcasesitwouldclearlybeamistaketoaccusehimofinconsistencyinanyusualorpejorativesense;and(lessobviously)inothercasesheisineffectstillworkinginthisdialoguemode,onlywithoutbotheringtodistributethepositionsamongdifferentinterlocu-torsexplicitly,andsoisagainreallyinnocentofinconsistency(examplesofthisoccurinHowPhilosophyCanBecomeMoreUniversalandUsefulfortheBenefitofthePeople[]andThisTooaPhilosophyofHistoryfortheFormationofHumanity[]).Moreover,hehasseriousmotivesforthismethodof(implicit)dialogue.Sometimeshismotiveissimplythatwhendealingwithreligiouslyorpoliticallydelicatemattersitpermitshimtostatehisviewsbutwithoutquitestatingthemashisownandthereforewithoutinvitingtrouble.Buttherearealsophilosophicallydeepermo-tives:HetakesoverfromtheprecriticalKantanidea(inspiredbyancientskepticism)thatthebestwayforaphilosophertopursuethetruthisbysettingcontraryviewsonasubjectintooppositionwithoneanotherandadvancingtowardsthetruththroughtheirmutualtestingandmodifica-tion.Also,hedevelopsanoriginalvariantofthatideaonthesociohistoricalplane:analogously,thewayforhumankindasawholetoattaintheelusivegoaloftruthisthroughanongoingcontestbetweenopposingpositions,ThismarksanimportantpointofmethodologicalcontrastwithHamann,whomHerderalreadycriticizesforfailingtoprovideargumentsinanessayfromearly(G:–).Inthisconnection,CharlesTaylorwiselycommentsthat“deeplyinnovativethinkersdon’thavetoberigoroustobetheoriginatorsofimportantideas”(“TheImportanceofHerder,”inE.andA.Margalit[eds.],IsaiahBerlin:ACelebration[Chicago,]).Theconverseholdsaswell:thinkerscanbeveryrigorouswithoutoriginatinganyimportantideas.x\nIntroductioninthecourseofwhichthebestoneswilleventuallywinout(thisideaanticipates,andinspired,acentralthesisofJ.S.Mill’sOnLiberty).Thisyieldsafurthermotiveforthedialoguemethod(evenwhereitdoesnotleadHerderhimselftoanydefiniteconclusion),ineffectwarrantingtherhetoricalquestion:Andwhatdoesitmattertothecauseofhumankindanditsdiscoveryofthetruthwhetherthoseopposingpositionsaread-vancedbydifferentpeopleorbythesameperson?Second,Herder’sappearanceofneglectingtogiveargumentsisoften,rather,aprincipledrejectionofargumentsofcertainsorts.Forexample(asweareabouttosee),hehasageneralcommitmenttoempiricismandagainstapriorisminphilosophywhichleadshimtoavoidfamiliarsortsofaprioristargumentsinphilosophy;andacommitmenttononcognitivisminethicswhichleadshimtorefrainfromfamiliarsortsofcognitivistargumentsinethics.Herder’sgeneralprograminphilosophyHamann’sinfluenceonHerder’sbestthoughthasoftenbeengreatlyexag-gerated,butKant’swasearly,fundamental,andenduring.However,theKantwhoinfluencedHerderinthiswaywastheprecriticalKantoftheearlyandmiddles,notthecriticalKant(againstwhomHerderlaterengagedindistractingandratherineffectivepublicpolemics).SomeofKant’skeypositionsinthes,sharplycontrastingwiththosehewouldlateradoptinthecriticalperiod,werea(Pyrrhonist-influenced)skepti-cismaboutmetaphysics,aformofempiricism,anda(Hume-influenced)noncognitivisminethics.Herdertookoverthesepositionsinthesandretainedthemthroughouthiscareer.Herder’sessayHowPhilosophyCanBecome,roughandfragmen-taryasitis,isakeyforunderstandingthebroadfoundationsofhisphi-losophy,andthedebtstheseowetotheprecriticalKantoftheearlyandmiddles.TheessaywaswrittenunderstronginfluencefromKant,andespecially,itseems,Kant’sessayDreamsofaSpiritSeer,which,Herderreports,Kantsenthimbeforepublication“asheetatatime.”ItshouldbynomeansbeinferredthatHerder’sdebttotheprecriticalKantisadebttoaninferiorKant.Onthecontrary,foralltheirgreaternovelty,systematicity,andfascinationforprofessionalphilosophers,Kant’scontrarylaterpositionsinthecriticalperiod–forexample,thatanoumenalfreedomofthewill,afterlifeofthesoul,andGodmustbebelievedinaspresuppositionsofmorality;thatmuchinnaturalscienceandphilosophycanbeknowncompletelyapriori;andthatmoralityrestsonasingleprincipleanalogousincharactertothelogicallawofcontradiction,the“categoricalimperative”–areultimatelyfarlessphilosophicallydefensiblethantheprecriticalpositionsjustmentioned.xi\nIntroductionHerder’sessayanswersaprizequestionsetbyasocietyinBerne:“Howcanthetruthsofphilosophybecomemoreuniversalandusefulfortheben-efitofthepeople?”ThisquestionisinthespiritofthePopularphilosophiethatwascompetingwithschoolphilosophyatthetime.KanthimselftendedtoidentifywithPopularphilosophieatthisperiod,albeitonlytran-siently,andHerder’sselectionofthisquestionshowshimdoingsoaswell,thoughinhiscasetheidentificationwouldlastalifetime.Philosophyshouldbecomerelevantandusefulforpeopleasawhole–thisisabasicidealofHerder’sphilosophy.Largelyintheserviceofthisideal,Herderarguesintheessayfortwosharpturnsinphilosophy,turnswhichwouldagainremainfundamentalthroughouthiscareer.Thefirstinvolvesarejectionoftraditionalmeta-physics,andcloselyfollowsanargumentofKant’sinDreamsofaSpiritSeer.Herder’scaseisroughlythis:First,traditionalmetaphysics,byundertakingtotranscendexperience(orstrictly,andalittlemorebroadly,“healthyunderstanding,”whichincludes,besidesempiricalknowledge,alsoordinarymorality,intuitivelogic,andmathematics),succumbstoun-resolvablecontradictionsbetweenitsclaims,andhencetothePyrrhonianskepticalproblemofanequalplausibilityonbothsidesrequiringsuspen-sionofjudgment(“IamwritingforPyrrhonists”).Also(HerderaddsintheFragmentsonRecentGermanLiterature[–]),giventhetruthofabroadlyempiricisttheoryofconcepts,muchterminologyoftraditionalmetaphysicsturnsouttolackthebasisinexperiencethatitwouldneedinordereventobemeaningful,andhenceismeaningless(theillusionofmeaningfulnessarisinglargelythroughtheroleoflanguage,whichspinson,creatingillusionsofmeaning,evenaftertheempiricalconditionsofmeaninghavebeenleftbehind).Second,traditionalmetaphysicsisnotonly,forthesereasons,useless;itisalsoharmful,becauseitdistractsitsadherentsfromthematterswhichshouldbetheirfocus:empiricalnatureandhumansociety.Third,bycontrast,empiricalknowledge(orstrictly,andabitmorebroadly,“healthyunderstanding”)isfreeoftheseproblems.Philosophyoughtthereforetobebasedonandcontinuouswiththis.Herder’ssecondsharpturnconcernsmoralphilosophy.HeremainsindebtedtoKanthere,butalsogoesfurtherbeyondhim.Herder’sbasicclaimsarethese:()MoralityisfundamentallymoreamatterofsentimentsThisdiagnosisintermsoflanguageseemstogobeyondtheprecriticalKant.However,ithasdeepprecedentsandrootsintheempiricisttradition–especiallyBaconandLocke.xii\nIntroductionthanofcognitions.(Herder’ssentimentalismisnotcrude,however;intheCriticalForests[]andOntheCognitionheacknowledgesthatcognitionplaysalargeroleinmoralityaswell.)()Cognitivisttheoriesofmorality–espousedinthisperiodespeciallybyRationalistssuchasWolff,butalsobymanyotherphilosophersbeforeandsince(e.g.PlatoandthecriticalKant)–arethereforebasedonamistake,andhenceuse-lessasmeansofmoralenlightenmentorimprovement.()But(andhereHerder’stheorymovesbeyondKant’s),worsethanthat,theyareactuallyharmfultomorality,becausetheyweakenthemoralsentimentsonwhichitreallyrests.InThisTooandOntheCognitionHerdersuggestsseveralreasonswhy.First,abstracttheorizingweakensthesentimentsgenerally,andhencemoralonesinparticular.Second,thecognitivists’theoriesturnouttobesostrikinglyimplausiblethattheybringmoralityitselfintodisrepute,peoplereactingtothemroughlyalongthelines:“Ifthisisthebestthateventheexpertscansayinexplanationandjustifica-tionofmorality,moralitymustcertainlybeasham,andImayaswellignoreitanddoasIplease.”Third,suchtheoriesdistractpeoplefromrecognizingandworkingtoreinforcetherealfoundationsofmorality:notanimaginarytheoreticalinsightofsomesort,butasetofcausalmeansforinculcatingmoralsentiments.()Morepositively,Herderac-cordinglyturnsinsteadtodeterminingintheoryandpromotinginprac-ticejustsuchasetofcausalmeans.InHowPhilosophyCanBecomehestressesformsofeducationandanemotivetypeofpreaching(twolife-longpreoccupationsofhisinboththeoryandpractice).Elsewhereheaddsexposuretomorallyexemplaryindividuals,morallyrelevantlaws,andliterature(alongwithotherartforms).LiteratureisaspecialfocusofHerder’stheoryandpractice.Heseesitasexertingmoralinfluenceinseveralways–notonlythroughrelativelydirectmoralinstruction,butalsothroughtheliteraryperpetuationorcreationofmorallyexem-plaryindividuals(e.g.JesusintheNewTestament)andtheexposureofreaderstootherpeople’sinnerlivesandaconsequentenhance-mentoftheirsympathiesforthem(amotivebehindhispublicationofthePopularSongs[–]frompeoplesaroundtheworld).Herder’sHumehadprovidedacompelling(thoughnotuncontested)argumentforthispositionintermsofmorality’sintrinsicmotivatingforceandcognition’smotivationalinertness.TheprecriticalKantwasevidentlyinfluencedbythisargument,andthereareindicationsinThisToothatHerderwasaswell.xiii\nIntroductiondevelopmentofthistheoryandpracticeofmoralpedagogywaslifelongandtireless.Herder’sphilosophyoflanguageThematerialsinthepresentvolumerelevanttothistopicincludenotonlythoseinthephilosophyoflanguagesectionbutalsothoseinthephilosophyofmindandhistorysections.TheTreatiseontheOriginofLanguage()isHerder’sbest-knownworkonlanguage.Itismainlyconcernedwiththequestionwhethertheoriginoflanguagemustbeaccountedforintermsofadivinesource(asSu¨ßmilchhadrecentlyargued)orinpurelynatural,humanterms.Herderarguesagainsttheformerviewandforthelatter.Hismotivesarenotstrictlysecular.Rather,heisassumingapositionfromKant’sUniversalNaturalHistoryandTheoryoftheHeavens()thatexplanationsintermsofnaturallawsarenotonlyexplanatorilysuperiorto,butalsoultimatelybettertestimonytoGod’sroleinnaturethan,onesintermsofparticulardivineinterventionsinnature.Still,heprobablyfelttheat-tractivenessofhiscasetoasecularstandpointtobeanadvantage–anditisfromsuchastandpointthatitwillinterestamodernphilosopher.Herder’spositiveargumentforahumanoriginisperhapsmadebest,notinOntheOriginitself(whereitgetsentangledwiththepolemicsagainstSu¨ßmilch),butintheFragments(asexcerptedhere).Theargumentisespeciallyimpressiveforitsmethodology:itsadducingofanumberofindependentempiricalconsiderationsthatseemtoconvergeonthecon-clusionofahumanorigin,andtheadmirablytentative,fallibilistspiritinwhichitdoesthis.However,forallitsbroadplausibility,thiswholecaseisunlikelytobeamodernphilosopher’smainreasonforinterestinHerder’sideasaboutlanguage–derivingitszest,asitdoes,fromareligiousbackgroundthatisnolongerours.OfmuchgreatermodernrelevanceisHerder’stheoryofinterpretation,includinghistheoryoftherelationbetweenthought,concepts,andlanguage.Thistheoryisscatteredthroughmanyworks(severalincludedhere).Thefollowingareitsmainfeatures.Herder’stheoryrestson,butalsointurnsupports,anepoch-makinginsight:()SucheminentEnlightenmentphilosopher-historiansasHumeandVoltairestillbelievedthat,asHumeputsit,“mankindaresomuchthesameinalltimesandplacesthathistoryinformsusofnothingxiv\nIntroductionneworstrange.”WhatHerderdiscovered,oratleastsawmoreclearlyandfullythananyonebefore,wasthatthiswasfalse,thatpeoplesfromdifferenthistoricalperiodsandculturesvarytremendouslyintheircon-cepts,beliefs,andotherpropositionalattitudes,perceptualandaffectivesensations,etc.Healsosawthatsimilar,ifusuallylessdramatic,variationsoccurevenbetweenindividualsinasinglecultureandperiod.()Becauseoftheseradicaldifferences,andthegulfthatconsequentlyoftendividesaninterpreter’sownthoughtfromthatofthepersonhewantstointerpret,interpretationisoftenanextremelydifficulttask,requiringextraordinaryefforts.()Inparticular,theinterpreteroftenfaces,andmustresist,atempta-tionfalselytoassimilatethethoughtwhichheisinterpretingtosomeoneelse’s,especiallyhisown.Howistheinterpretertomeetthechallenge?Herderadvancesthreefundamentalthesesconcerningthought,concepts,andlanguagewhichunderpintherestofhistheoryofinterpretation.ThefirsttwoofthesemadearevolutionarybreakwithapredominantEnlightenmentmodelofthoughtandconceptsasseparablefromandpriortolanguage,therebyestablishingnotonlymoderninterpretationtheorybutalsomodernlinguisticsandphilosophyoflanguage.()Thoughtisessentiallydependenton,andboundedinscopeby,language–i.e.onecanonlythinkifonehasalanguage,andonecanonlythinkwhatonecanexpresslinguistically.Animportantconsequenceofthisprincipleforinterpretationisthataninterpretedsubject’slanguageisareliableindicatorofthescopeofhisthought.()Meaningsorconceptsarenottobeequatedwiththesortsofitems,inprincipleautonomousoflanguage,withwhichmuchofthephilosophicaltraditionhasequatedthem–forexample,thereferentsinvolved,Platonicforms,orthe“ideas”favoredbytheBritishempiricistsandothers.Instead,Thesepositionsareprominentinmanyworks,e.g.OntheChangeofTaste()andOntheCognition.Seee.g.OntheOrigin.Tohiscredit,Herderdoesnotdrawthemoreextreme–andmisguided–conclusiontowhichsomemorerecentphilosophers,suchastheDavidsonians,havebeentemptedthatthetaskwouldbeimpossible.ThisthemeisprominentinThisToo.ThisprincipleisalreadyprominentintheFragments.IndeeditcanbefoundevenearlierinHerder’sOnDiligenceinSeveralLearnedLanguages().Tohiscredit,Herdernormallyrefrainsfrommoreextreme,butphilosophicallyuntenable,versionsofthisprinciple,laterfavoredbyHamannandSchleiermacher,whichidentifythoughtwithlanguage,orwithinnerlanguage.xv\nIntroductiontheyconsistinusagesofwords.Consequently,interpretationwillessen-tiallyinvolvepinningdownwordusages.()Conceptualizationisintimatelyboundupwith(perceptualandaffective)sensation.Morespecifically,Herderdevelopsaquasi-empiricisttheoryofconceptsaccordingtowhichsensationisthesourceandbasisofallourconcepts,thoughweareabletoachievenonempiricalconceptsbymeansofasortofmetaphoricalextensionfromtheempiricalones–sothatallourconceptsultimatelydependonsensationinonewayoranother.Thispositioncarriestheimportantconsequenceforinterpretationthatanyunderstandingofaconceptmustsomehowrecaptureitsbasisinsensation.Herderalsohastwofurtherbasicprinciplesininterpretationtheory:()Aprincipleofsecularismininterpretation:religiousassumptionsmustnotinfluencetheinterpretationoftexts,evensacredtexts.Inpar-ticular,theinterpreterofasacredtextsuchasthebiblemayneitherrelyonreceivingdivineinspirationhimselfwheninterpretingnorontheoriginalauthorshavingreceivedit,andhavingthereforeproducedatextthatwastrueandself-consistentthroughout.()Aprincipleofmethodologicalempiricismininterpretation:interpre-tationmustnotbeconductedinanapriorifashionbutmustalwaysbebasedon,andstrictlyfaithfulto,exactobservationsoflinguisticandotherrelevantevidence.Thisapplieswhendeterminingwordusagesinordertodeterminemeanings;whenconjecturinganauthor’spsychology;andwhendefiningliterarygenres,orthepurposesandrulesthatconstitutethem.Thepositivesideofthisdoctrineanditsrejectionofthe“wayofideas”arealreadyprominentintheFragments.ForHerder’srejectionofPlatonicforms,seeJohannGottfriedHerderBriefe,ed.W.DobbekandG.Arnold(Weimar,–),:–(aletterfrom).TheFragmentsandOntheOriginalreadydevelopseveralpointswhichspeakagainstequatingconceptswithreferents(e.g.thatlanguageisoriginallyandfundamentallyexpressiveratherthandesignativeordescriptiveinnature),andHerdergoesontorejectthisexplicitlyintheIdeas.Notethatthisdoctrinepromisesamuchmoresatisfactoryjustificationandexplanationofdoctrine()thantheonethatHerderexplicitlygivesinOntheOrigin(whichineffectjustamountstoanillicitstipulativeredefinitionof“language”toincludeacertainfundamentalaspectofthought,namelytherecognitionof“characteristicmarks[Merkmale]”).HerderalreadygivesthesuperiorjustificationandexplanationinquestionintheFragmentsandOnDiligence.Forthisdoctrine,seee.g.OntheOriginandOntheCognition.Thisdoctrinemightseematoddswiththeprecedingone,butitneednotbe.Forausageofwordsimplicitlyrequiresacontext,andthecontextinquestionmightverywellessentiallyincludecertainsensations.ThisprincipleisalreadyprominentinwritingsbyHerderonbiblicalinterpretationfromthesnotincludedinthisvolume.ThispointisprominentintheFragments.Seee.g.OnThomasAbbt’sWritings().Foraclassicexpressionofthispositionongenres,seeHerder’sessayShakespeare().xvi\nIntroductionBeyondthis,Herderalsoadvancesafurthersetofinterpretativeprincipleswhichcansoundmore“touchy-feely”atfirsthearing(thefirstofthemratherliterallyso!),butwhichareinfactonthecontrarydeeplymotivated:()EspeciallyinThisToo,HerderfamouslyproposesthatthewaytobridgeradicaldifferencewheninterpretingisthroughEinf¨uhlung,“feelingone’swayin.”Thisproposalhasoftenbeenthought(e.g.byMeinecke)tomeanthattheinterpretershouldperformsomesortofpsy-chologicalself-projectionontotexts.But,asthecontextinwhichitisintroducedinThisTooshows,thatisemphaticallynotHerder’sidea–forthatwouldamounttoexactlythesortofassimilationofthethoughtinatexttoone’sownwhichheisaboveallconcernedtoavoid.Thesamecontextmakesclearthatwhathehasinmindisinsteadanarduouspro-cessofhistorical-philologicalinquiry–soEinf¨uhlungisreallyametaphorhere.What,though,morespecifically,isthecashvalueofthemetaphor?Ithasatleastfivecomponents:First,itimplies(onceagain)thattheretypicallyexistsaradicaldifference,agulf,betweenaninterpreter’smen-talityandthatofthesubjectwhomheinterprets,makinginterpretationadifficult,laborioustask(itimpliesthatthereisan“in”therewhichonemustcarefullyandlaboriously“feelone’swayinto”).Second,itim-plies(ThisTooshows)thatthisprocessmustincludethoroughresearchnotonlyintoatext’suseoflanguagebutalsointoitshistorical,geo-graphical,andsocialcontext.Third,itimpliesaclaim–derivingfromHerder’squasi-empiricisttheoryofconcepts–thatinordertointerpretasubject’slanguageonemustachieveanimaginativereproductionofhisperceptualandaffectivesensations.Fourth,itimpliesthathostilityinaninterpretertowardsthepeopleheinterpretswillgenerallydistorthisinterpretationandmustthereforebeavoided.(Herderisalsoopposedtoexcessiveidentificationwiththemforthesamereason.)Fifth,italsoimpliesthattheinterpretershouldstrivetodevelophisgraspoflinguisticInwritingsontheOldTestamentHerderastutelyforestallssomeobviousobjectionshere,notingthatthisreproductionneednotinvolveactuallysharingthesensations.Sohisideaisthatasortofimaginativereproductionofaninterpretedsubject’ssensationsispossiblewhich,whilemorethanamerepropositionalgraspofthem,isalsolessthananactualsharingofthem,andthatonlythisisrequiredforinterpretation.Thisisanimportantidea:forexample,itsuggestsaneffectiveresponsetoGadamer’sconcernthatdiscrepanciesin“pre-understanding”precludeunprejudicedinterpretation.SomeofHerder’sownsuccessesasaninterpretercamefromfollowingpreciselythisprinciple–e.g.hisrecognition,incontradictionofantisemiticinterpreterssuchasKant,thattheviewpointsoftheOldandNewTestamentswerefarmorecontinuousthandiscontinuous.xvii\nIntroductionusage,contextualfacts,andrelevantsensationstothepointwherethisachievessomethingofthesameimmediate,automaticcharacterthatithadforatext’soriginalaudiencewhentheyunderstoodthetextinlightofsuchthings(sothatitacquiresforhim,asithadforthem,thephenomenologymoreofafeelingthanacognition).()Inaddition,Herderinsistsonaprincipleofholismininterpreta-tion.Thisprinciplerestsonseveralmotives,includingthefollowing.First,inordertobegininterpretingapieceoftextaninterpreterneedstoknowrangesoflinguisticmeaningswhichitswordscanbear.But,espe-ciallywhentextsareseparatedfromtheinterpreterbyradicaldifference,suchknowledgepresentsaproblem.Howishetopindowntherangeofpossiblemeanings,i.e.possibleusages,foraword?Thisrequiresthathecollatetheword’sknownactualusesandinferfromthesetheruleswhichgovernthem,i.e.usages,acollationwhichinturnrequiresthathelooktoremotercontextsinwhichthesamewordoccurs(otherpartsofthetext,otherworksintheauthor’scorpus,worksbyothercontemporaries,etc.),orinshort:holism.Second,evenwhenthatisdone,apieceoftextcon-sideredinisolationwillusuallybeambiguousinrelationtosuchranges,andinordertoresolvetheambiguitiestheinterpreterwillneedtoseektheguidanceprovidedbysurroundingtext.Third,anauthortypicallywritesaworkasawhole,conveyingideasnotonlyinitsparticularpartsbutalsothroughthemannerinwhichthesearefittedtogethertomakeupawhole(eitherininstantiationofageneralgenreorinwaysmorespecifictotheparticularwork).Consequently,readingswhichfailtointerprettheworkasawholewillmissessentialaspectsofitsmeaning–boththeideasinquestionthemselvesandmeaningsofparticularpartsonwhichtheyshedvitallight.()InOnThomasAbbt’sWritingsandOntheCognitionHerdermakesoneofhismostimportantinnovations:interpretationmustsupplementitsfocusonwordusagewithattentiontoauthorialpsychology.Herderimpliesseveralreasonsforthis.Afirsthasalreadybeenmentioned:Herder’squasi-empiricisttheoryofconceptswithitsimplicationthatinordertounderstandanauthor’sconceptstheinterpretermustrecap-turehisrelevantsensations.Second,asQuentinSkinnerhasstressed(insomeofthemostimportantworkoninterpretationtheorysinceHerder),understandingthelinguisticmeaningofanutteranceortextisonlyaThisinsistenceisespeciallyprominentintheCriticalForests(notincludedinthisvolume).xviii\nIntroductionnecessary,notasufficient,conditionforunderstandingittoutcourt–inaddition,oneneedstoestablishtheauthor’sillocutionaryintentions.Forexample,astrangertellsme,“Theiceisthinoverthere”;Iunderstandhislinguisticmeaningperfectly;butishesimplyinformingme?warn-ingme?threateningme?joking?...Third,Skinnerimpliesthatonecandeterminelinguisticmeaningspriortoestablishingauthorialintentions.Thatmayperhapssometimesbeso(e.g.intheexamplejustgiven),butisitgenerally?Herderimpliesnot.Andthisseemsright,becausecommonlyalinguisticformula’smeaningisambiguousintermsofthebackgroundlinguisticpossibilities,andinordertoidentifytherelevantmeaningonemustturn,notonly(aswasmentioned)tolargerbodiesoftext,butalsotohypotheses,largelyderivedtherefrom,abouttheauthor’sintentions(e.g.aboutthesubjectmatterthatheintendstotreat).Afourthreasonconsistsinthealready-mentionedfactthatauthorstypicallyexpresssomeideasinaworknotexplicitlyinitspartsbutholistically,andthattheseneedtobedeterminedbothfortheirownsakesandforthelighttheyshedonthemeaningsofparts.Fifth,Herderalsoseesasourceoftheneedforpsychologicalinterpretationinthesecondlimbofhisdoctrineofradicaldifference:individualvariationsinmodeofthoughtevenwithinasinglecultureandperiod.Whydoesanyspecialneedarisehere?Partoftheanswerseemstobethatwhenoneisinterpretingaconceptthatisdistinctiveofaparticularauthorratherthancommontoawholeculture,onetypicallyfacesaproblemofrelativepaucityandlackofcontextualvarietyintheactualusesofthewordavailableasempiricalevidencefromwhichtoinfertheruleforuse,orusage,constitutiveofitsmeaning.Henceoneneedsextrahelpinthiscase,andknowledgeofauthorialpsychologymaysupplythis.()InthesametwoworksHerderalsoarguesthatinterpretation,es-peciallyinitspsychologicalaspect,requirestheuseofdivination.Thisisanotherprinciplewhichcansounddisturbingly“touchy-feely”atfirsthearing;inparticular,itcansoundasthoughHerdermeanssomesortofpropheticprocessenjoyingareligiousbasisandperhapseveninfal-libility.However,whathereallyhasinmindis(farmoresensibly)aprocessofhypothesis,basedonmeagerempiricalevidence,butalsogoingwellbeyondit,andthereforevulnerabletosubsequentfalsification,andabandonmentorrevisioniffalsified.()Finally,apointconcerningthegeneralnatureofinterpretationanditssubjectmatter.AfterHerder,thequestionarosewhetherinterpretationxix\nIntroductionwasascienceoranart.Herderdoesnotreallyaddressthisquestion,buthisconsideredinclinationwouldclearlybetosaythatitislikeratherthanun-likenaturalscience.Thereareseveralreasonsforthis.First,heassumes,asdidvirtuallyeveryoneatthisperiod,thatthemeaningofanauthor’stextisasmuchanobjectivematterasthesubjectsaddressedbythenat-uralscientist.Second,thedifficultyofinterpretationthatresultsfromradicaldifference,andtheconsequentneedforamethodologicallysubtleandlaboriousapproachtoitinmanycases,constitutefurtherpointsofsimilaritywithnaturalscience.Third,theessentialroleof“divination”quahypothesisininterpretationconstitutesanotherimportantpointofsimilaritywithnaturalscience.Fourth,eventhesubjectmatterofinter-pretationisnot,inHerder’sview,sharplydifferentfromthatdealtwithbynaturalscience:thelatterinvestigatesphysicalprocessesinnatureinordertodeterminetheforcesthatunderliethem,butsimilarlyinterpretationinvestigateshumanverbal(andnonverbal)physicalbehaviorinordertodeterminetheforcesthatunderlieit(Herderexplicitlyidentifyingmentalconditions,includingconceptualunderstanding,as“forces”).Herder’stheoryowesmanydebtstopredecessors.Hamannhascom-monlybeencreditedwithintroducingtherevolutionarydoctrinescon-cerningthought,concepts,andlanguage()and().Butthatseemstobeamistake;Herderwasalreadycommittedtotheminthes,Hamannonlylater.Instead,Herderisindebtedfor()toagroupofauthors,includ-ingAbbtandSu¨ßmilch,whowereinfluencedbyWolff,andfor(),(),(),(),(),and()toErnesti.However,Herder’sborrowingsincorporateimportantrefinements,andhisoverallcontributionisenormous.Herder’stheorywastakenovervirtuallyinitsentiretybySchleier-macherinhishermeneutics.Certainly,Schleiermacher’stheoryisalsodirectlyinfluencedbysourceswhichheshareswithHerder,especiallyErnesti,butsuchfundamentalandfamouspositionsinitasthesup-plementingof“linguistic”with“psychological”interpretationandtheidentificationof“divination”asthemethodespeciallyofthelatterareThisassumptionhasbeenstigmatizedas“positivist”byGadamer,butonthebasisofverydu-biousphilosophicalarguments.H.D.Irmischerin“GrundzugederHermeneutikHerders,”in¨B¨uckeburgerGespr¨ache¨uberJ.G.Herder(Buckeburg,¨),questionsthesortofcharacteri-zationofHerder’spositiongivenhere,arguingthatHerderanticipatesGadamer’sownconceptionofmeaningassomethingrelativetoadevelopinginterpretativecontext.TherearesomethingsinHerderwhichcansuggestsuchaview.Butitisclearlynothisconsideredposition.Thiscanbeseen,forexample,fromtheexcerptsincludedinthisvolumefromOnThomasAbbt’sWritings.Concerningsomeoftheseissues,seemy“Herder’sPhilosophyofLanguage,Interpretation,andTranslation:ThreeFundamentalPrinciples”(forthcominginTheReviewofMetaphysics).xx\nIntroductiondueentirelytoHerder.Moreover,whereHerderandSchleiermacherdooccasionallydisagree,Herder’spositionisalmostalwaysphilosophicallysuperior.Forexample,unlikeHerder,Schleiermacherstandardlyinclinestoinferiorversionsofdoctrine()whichidentifythoughtwithlanguage,orinnerlanguage(suchversionsareeasilyrefutablebycounterexamples).Heattemptstoestablishthedeepindividualityofinterpretedsubjects,notlikeHerderinanempiricalwayandasaruleofthumb,butinanaprioriwayasauniversaltruth,andwiththeextremelycounterintuitiveconsequencethatexactunderstandingneveroccurs.HeworsensHerder’stheoryofpsychologicalinterpretationbyintroducingtheunhelpfulideathatthisshouldconsistinidentifying,andtracingthenecessarydevelopmentof,asingleauthorial“seminaldecision[Keimentschluß]”(forhowmanytextsarewrittenandproperlyinterpretableinthatway?).Heworsensitagainbyrestrictingtheevidenceforauthorialpsychologytotextualevidenceonly,insteadofalsoincludingnonlinguisticbehaviorasHerderdoes.Finally,hemistakenlyseestheroleininterpretationof“divination,”whichlikeHerderheunderstandsasamethodoffallibleandrevisablehypothesisfrommeagerempiricalevidence,asagroundforsharplydistinguishinginterpretationfromnaturalscience,andhenceforclassifyingitasanartratherthanascience,insteadofasagroundforassimilatingthem(amistakecausedbyafalseassumptionthatnaturalscienceworksbyplaininduction).Herder’sphilosophyofmindHerderalsodevelopsanextremelyinterestingandinfluentialpositioninthephilosophyofmind.Hispositionisthoroughlynaturalisticandanti-dualisticinintent.InOntheCognitionhetriestoeffacethedivisionbetweenthementalandthephysicalintwospecificways.First,head-vancesthetheorythatmindsconsistinforces(Kr¨afte)whichmanifestthemselvesinpeople’sbodilybehavior–justasphysicalnaturecontainsforceswhichmanifestthemselvesinthebehaviorofbodies.Heisoffi-ciallyagnosticaboutwhatforceis,exceptforconceivingitassomethingapttoproduceatypeofbodilybehavior,andasarealsourcethereof(notjustsomethingreducibletoit).Thisstrictlyspeakingabsolveshisthe-oryfromsomecommoncharacterizationsandobjections(e.g.vitalism),Notethatthegeneralnotionofmentalforces(Kr¨afte)wasalreadycommonbeforeHerderamongRationalistssuchasWolffandSu¨ßmilch.xxi\nIntroductionbutalsoleavesitwithenoughcontenttohavegreatvirtuesoverrivaltheories:Ontheonehand,ittiestypesofmentalstatesconceptuallytocorrespondingtypesofbodilybehavior–whichseemscorrect(e.g.desir-inganappledoesseemconceptuallytiedtoapple-eatingbehavior),andthereforemarksapointofsuperiorityoverdualistictheories,andovermind-brainidentitytheoriesaswell.Ontheotherhand,italsoavoidsreducingmentalstatestobodilybehavior–whichagainseemscorrect,inviewofsuchobviousfactsasthatwecanbe,andindeedoftenare,inparticularmentalstateswhichreceivenobehavioralmanifestation,andhencemarksapointofsuperiorityoveroutrightbehavioristtheories.Second,healsotriestoexplainthemindintermsofthephenomenonofirritation(Reiz),aphenomenonrecentlyidentifiedbyHallerandexem-plifiedbymusclefiberscontractinginresponsetodirectphysicalstimuliandrelaxingupontheirremoval–inotherwords,aphenomenonwhich,whilebasicallyphysiological,alsoseemstoexhibitatransitiontomentalcharacteristics.ThereisanambiguityinHerder’spositionhere:usuallyhewantstoresistphysicalistreductionism,andsoavoidssayingthatirri-tationispurelyphysiologicalandfullyconstitutesmentalstates;butinthedraftofOntheCognitionandeveninpartsofthepublishedversion,thatishisposition.Andfromamodernstandpoint,thisisanothervirtueofhisaccount(thoughwewouldcertainlytodaywanttorecastitintermsofdifferent,andmorecomplex,physiologicalprocessesthanirritation).AfurtherimportantthesisinHerder’sphilosophyofmindaffirmsthatthemindisaunity,thatthereisnorealdivisionbetweenitsfaculties.ThispositioncontradictstheoristssuchasSulzerandKant.However,itisnotinitselfnewwithHerder,havingalreadybeencentraltoRational-ism,especiallyWolff.WhereHerderismoreoriginalisinrejectingtheRationalists’reductionofsensationandvolitiontocognition,establishingtheunitythesisinanempiricalratherthanaprioristway,andaddinganormativedimensiontothethesis–thisisnotonlyhowthemindisbutalsohowitoughttobe.Thislastideacansoundincoherent,sinceiftheThissecondlineofthoughtmightseematoddswithhisfirstone(forces),butitneednotbe,for,givenhisofficialagnosticismaboutwhatforcesare,itcould,sotospeak,fillinthe“blackbox”ofthehypothesizedrealforces,namelyinphysicalistterms.Inotherwords,itturnsout(notasaconceptualmatter,butasacontingentone)thattherealforcesinquestionconsistinphysiologicalprocesses.Herder’sintroductiontohisdraft(includedhere)showsthatheisfullyawareofthisdebt.Hamanncanthereforeclaimlittlecreditasaninfluencehere(thoughhecanclaimsomewhatmoreforthefurtherdoctrinesindicatedinthenextsentence).xxii\nIntroductionmindisthiswaybyitsverynature,whatsenseisthereinprescribingtopeoplethatitshouldbesoratherthanotherwise?ButHerder’sideaisinfactthecoherentonethat,whilethemindisindeedthiswaybyitsverynature,peoplesometimesbehaveasthoughonefacultycouldbeab-stractedfromanother,andtrytoeffectthat,andthisthenleadstovariousmalfunctions,andshouldthereforebeavoided.Herder’swholepositiononthemind’sunityrestsonthreemorespecificdoctrinesofintimatemutualinvolvementsbetweenmentalfaculties,andmalfunctionsthatarisefromstrivingagainstthem,doctrineswhichareinlargepartempiricallymotivatedandhencelendtheoverallpositionasortofempiricalbasis.Thefirstconcernstherelationbetweenthoughtandlanguage:notonlydoeslanguageofitsverynatureexpressthought(anuncontroversialpoint),butalso,aswesaw,accordingtoHerderthoughtisdependentonandboundedbylanguage.Herderbasesthisfurtherclaimlargelyonempiricalgrounds(e.g.concerninghowchildren’sthoughtdevelopswithlanguageacquisition).Thenormativeaspectofhispositionhereisthatattempts(inthemannerofsomemetaphysics)tocutlanguagefreefromtheconstraintsofthoughtor(amoreoriginalpoint)viceversaleadtononsense.Asecondareaofintimatemutualinvolvementconcernscognitionandvolition,oraffects.Theclaimthatvolitionisandshouldbebasedoncognitionisnotparticularlycontroversial.ButHerderalsoarguestheconverse,thatallcognitionisandshouldbebasedonvolition,onaffects(andnotonlyonsuchrelativelyanemiconesastheimpulsetoknowthetruth,butalsoonlessanemicones).Herderisespeciallyconcernedtocombattheideathattheoreticalworkisorshouldbedetachedfromvolition,fromaffects.Inhisview,itneverreallyisevenwhenitpurportstobe,andattemptstomakeitsomerelyimpoverishandweakenit.Hisgroundsforthispositionareagainmainlyempirical.Athirdareaofintimatemutualinvolvementconcernsthoughtandsen-sation.Conceptualizationandbelief,ontheonehand,andsensation(bothperceptualandaffective),ontheother,areintimatelyconnectedaccord-ingtoHerder.Thusheadvancesthequasi-empiricisttheoryofconceptsmentionedearlier,whichentailsthatallourconcepts,andhencealsoallourbeliefs,ultimatelydependinonewayoranotheronsensation.Andconversely,heargues–anticipatingmuchrecentworkinphilosophy(e.g.HansenandKuhn)–thatthereisadependenceintheotherdirectionxxiii\nIntroductionaswell,thatthecharacterofoursensationsdependsonourconceptsandbeliefs.Normatively,heseesattemptstoviolatethisinterdependenceasinevitablyleadingtointellectualmalfunction–forexample,aswasmen-tioned,metaphysicians’attemptstocutentirelyfreefromtheempiricaloriginofconceptsleadtomeaninglessness.Hisgroundsforthispositionareagainlargelyempirical.Herderalsohasfurtherimportantdoctrinesinthephilosophyofmind.Oneoftheseisadoctrinethatlinguisticmeaningisfundamentallysocial,sothatthoughtandotheraspectsofhumanmentallife(asessentiallyarticulatedintermsofmeanings),andthereforealsotheveryself(asessentiallydependentonthoughtandotheraspectsofhumanmentallife,anddefinedinitsspecificidentitybytheirs),aresotoo.Herder’sversionofthispositionseemsmeantonlyasanempiricallybasedcausalgeneralization.Ithassincefatheredattemptstogeneratemoreambitiousargumentsforstrongerversionsoftheclaimthatmeaning–andhencealsothoughtandtheveryself–issociallyconstituted(e.g.byHegel,Wittgenstein,Kripke,andBurge).However,itmayverywellbethatthesemoreambitiousargumentsdonotwork,andthatHerder’sversionisexactlywhatshouldbeaccepted.Herderalsoinsiststhat,evenwithinasinglecultureandperiod,humanmindsaredeeplyindividual,deeplydifferentfromeachother–sothatinadditiontoageneralizingpsychologywealsoneedapsychologyorientatedtoindividuality.Thisisanimportantideawhichhashadastronginfluenceonsubsequentthinkers(e.g.Schleiermacher,Nietzsche,Proust,Sartre,andManfredFrank).Herderadvancesitonlyasanempiricalruleofthumb.Bycontrast,aprominentstrandinSchleiermacherandFrankpurportstomakeitanaprioriuniversaltruth.ButHerder’spositionisagainthemoreplausibleone.Finally,likepredecessorsintheRationalisttraditionandlikeKant,HerdersharplyrejectstheCartesiannotionofthemind’sself-trans-parency,insteadinsistingthatmuchofwhatoccursinthemindisun-conscious,sothatself-knowledgeisoftendeeplyproblematic.ThisisThepreviousdoctrineofthesocialityofmeaning,thought,andselfmightseeminconsistentwiththisdoctrineofindividuality.However,evenwhenthedoctrineofindividualityispusheddownasfarasthelevelofmeanings,thereneedbenoinconsistencyhere,providedthatthedoctrineofsocialityisassertedonlyasanempiricallygroundedcausalrule,asHerderassertsit,ratherthanasastrongerdoctrineaboutsocialpracticeconstitutingtheveryessenceofmeanings.Society,sotospeak,providesacommonsemanticalclay,which,however,thenoftengetsmoldedinindividualways.xxiv\nIntroductionanothercompellingpositionwhichhashadastronginfluenceonsubse-quentthinkers.ThiswholeHerderianphilosophyofmindowesmuchtopredecessorsintheRationalisttradition,butitisalsoinmanywaysoriginal.Thetheoryisimportantinitsownright,anditexercisedanenormousinfluenceonsuccessors–forexample,onHegelinconnectionwithanti-dualism,theroleofphysicalbehaviorinmentalconditions,facultyunity,andthesocialityofmeaning,thought,andself;onSchleiermacherinconnectionwithanti-dualismandfacultyunity;andonNietzscheinconnectionwiththeinterdependenceofcognitionandvolition,oraffects,theindividualityofthemindandtheneedforacorrespondingsortofpsychology,andthemind’slackofself-transparency.Herder’sphilosophyofhistoryHerder’sphilosophyofhistoryappearsmainlyintwoworks,ThisTooandthelaterIdeasforthePhilosophyofHistoryofHumanity(–).Hisfundamentalachievementinthisarealiesinhisdevelopmentofthethesismentionedearlier,contradictingsuchEnlightenmentphiloso-pher-historiansasHumeandVoltaire,thatthereareradicalmentaldiffer-encesbetweenhistoricalperiods,thatpeople’sconcepts,beliefs,andotherpropositionalattitudes,perceptualandaffectivesensations,etc.,differinmajorwaysfromoneperiodtoanother.ThisthesisisalreadyprominentinOntheChangeofTaste().ItexercisedanenormousinfluenceonsuchsuccessorsasHegelandNietzsche.Herdermakestheempiricalexplorationoftherealmofmentaldiversitypositedbythisthesistheverycoreofthedisciplineofhistory.For,ashasoftenbeennoted,hetakesrelativelylittleinterestinthe“great”politicalandmilitarydeedsandeventsofhistory,focusinginsteadonthe“innerness”ofhistory’sparticipants.Thischoiceisquitedeliberateandself-conscious.Becauseofit,psychologyandinterpretationinevitablytakecenter-stageinthedisciplineofhistoryforHerder.ItislessoftennoticedthatHerderhasdeepphilosophicalreasonsforthischoice,andhenceforassigningpsychologyandinterpretationacentralroleinhistory.Tobeginwith,hehasnegativereasonsdirectedagainsttraditionalpolitical-militaryhistory.Why,onemightask,shouldhistoryfocusonthe“great”politicalandmilitarydeedsandeventsofthepast?Thereareseveralpossibleanswers.Afirstwouldbethatthesexxv\nIntroductiondeedsandeventsarefascinatingormorallyedifying.ButHerderwillnotacceptthis.Foronething,hedeniesthatmerefascinationorcuriosityisasufficientlyseriousmotivefordoinghistory.Foranother,hisanti-authoritarianism,anti-militarism,andborderlesshumanitarianismcausehimtofindtheactsofpoliticaldomination,war,andempirewhichmakeupthevastbulkofthese“great”deedsandeventsnotmorallyedifyingbutmorallyrepugnant.Thisleavestwoothertypesofmotivationthatmightbeappealedtofordoingthesortofhistoryinquestion:becauseexaminationofthecourseofsuchdeedsandeventsrevealssomesortofoverallmeaninginhistory,orbecauseitleadstoefficient-causalinsightswhichenableustoexplainthepastandperhapsalsopredictorcontrolthefuture.Herderisagainskepticalabouttheserationales,however.ThisskepticismisclearestinthematerialincludedherefromtheOlderCriticalForestlet(–),where,incriticismoftheformerrationale,heconsignsthetaskof“thewholeorder-ingtogetherofmanyoccurrencesintoaplan”nottothehistorianbuttothe“creator...painter,andartist,”andincriticismofthelatterrationale,hegoesasfarastoassert(onthebasisofaHume-andKant-influencedgen-eralskepticismaboutcausalknowledge)thatwiththesearchforefficientcausesinhistory“historicalseeingstopsandprophecybegins.”Hislaterwritingsdepartfromthisearlypositioninsomeobviousways,butinlessobviouswaysremainfaithfultoit.Theybynomeansofficiallystayloyaltotheviewthathistoryhasnodiscerniblemeaning;famously,ThisTooinsiststhathistorydoeshaveanoverallpurpose,andthatthisfact(thoughnotthenatureofthepurpose)isdiscerniblefromthecumulativewayinwhichcultureshavebuiltupononeanother,andtheIdeasthentellsalongstorytotheeffectthathistory’spurposeconsistsinitssteadyrealizationof“humanity”and“reason.”However,Herderclearlystillharborsgravedoubtsjustbelowthesurface.ThatisvisibleinThisToofromthework’sironicallyself-deprecatingtitle;Pyrrhonian-spiritedmotto;vacillationsbetweenseveralincompatiblemodelsofhistory’sdirection(progressive?progressiveandcyclical?merelycyclical?evenregressive?);andmorbiddwellingon,andunpersuasiveattempttorebut,the“skeptical”viewofhistoryasmeaningless“Penelope-work.”(AfewyearslaterHerderwouldwritethathistoryis“atextbookofthenullityofallhumanthings.”)ItisHereHerder’spositioniscontinuouswiththatofhisarchopponentinthephilosophyofhistory,Voltaire,whoalsoanticipateshimbyturningawayfrompolitical-militaryhistorytowardsahistoryofculture.xxvi\nIntroductionalsovisibleintheIdeasfromthefactthatHerder’sofficialaccountthereofthepurposivenessofhistoryiscontradictedbypassageswhichinsistontheinappropriatenessofteleological(ascontrastedwithefficient-causal)explanationsinhistory.Herder’sofficialpositioncertainlyhadapower-fulinfluenceonsomesuccessors(especiallyHegel),butitisthisquietercounterstrandofskepticismthatrepresentshisbetterphilosophicaljudg-ment.Concerningtheprospectoffindinginhistory’s“great”deedsandeventsefficient-causalinsightsthatwillenableustoexplainthepastandperhapsalsopredictorcontrolthefuture,Herder’slaterworksagaininasensestayfaithfultohisskepticalpositionintheOlderCriticalForestlet–buttheyalsomodifyit,andthistimeforthebetter,philosophicallyspeak-ing.ThematureHerderdoesnot,liketheHerderofthatwork,resthiscaseonageneralskepticismabouttheroleorthediscernibilityofefficientcausationinhistory.Onthecontrary,heinsiststhathistoryisgovernedbyefficientcausationandthatweshouldtrytodiscoverasfaraspossiblethespecificwaysinwhichitisso.Butheremainshighlyskepticalabouttheextenttowhichsuchanundertakingcanbesuccessful,andhenceabouthowfaritcantakeustowardsrealexplanationsofthepast,ortowardspredictingorcontrollingthefuture.Hismainreasonforthisskepticismisthatmajorhistoricaldeedsandeventsarenottheproductsofsomeoneorfewreadilyidentifiablecausalfactors(aspoliticalandmilitaryhistorianstendtoassume),butratherofchanceconfluencesofhugenumbersofdif-ferentcausalfactors,manyofwhich,moreover,areindividuallyunknownandunknowablebythehistorian(e.g.becauseinthemselvestootrivialtohavebeenrecorded,orbecause,inthecaseofpsychologicalcauses,thehistoricalagentfailedtomakethempublic,deliberatelymisrepresentedthem,orwashimselfunawareofthemduetothehiddendepthsofhismind).Complementingthisnegativecaseagainsttheclaimsoftraditionalpolitical-militaryhistorytobeofoverridingimportance,Herderalsohaspositivereasonsforfocusinginsteadonthe“innerness”ofhumanlifeinhistory.OnereasoniscertainlyjustthesheerinterestofthissubjectmatterforHerderandothersofhissensibility–but,aswasmentioned,thatwouldnotbeasufficientmotiveinhiseyes.AnotherreasonisthathisdiscoveryofradicaldiversityinhumanmentalityhasshowntheretobeaHerder’sargumentsagainstthesethreerationales,thoughmorefullystatedindividuallyelsewhere,areallinawaybrieflysummarizedintheTenthCollectionoftheLettersfortheAdvancementofHumanity(–),Letters–(includedinthisvolume).xxvii\nIntroductionmuchbroader,lessexplored,andmoreintellectuallychallengingfieldforinvestigationherethanpreviousgenerationsofhistorianshaverealized.Twofurtherreasonsaremoralinnature.First,Herderbelieves,plausibly,thatstudyingpeople’smindsthroughtheirliterature,visualart,etc.gen-erallyexposesustothemattheirmoralbest(insharpcontrasttostudyingtheirpolitical-militaryhistory),sothattherearebenefitsofmoraledifi-cationtobegleanedhere.Second,hehascosmopolitanandegalitarianmoralmotivesforsuchstudy:becauseliterature,visualart,etc.makeusacquaintedwithdifferentpeoples,atdifferentsociallevels,includ-inglowerones,andattheirmostsympathetic,itpromisestoenhanceoursympathiesfordifferentpeoplesatdifferentsociallevels,includinglowerones(unlikeelite-focusedandmorallyunedifyingpolitical-militaryhistory).Finally,doing“inner”historyisalsoanimportantinstrumentforournonmoralself-improvement.First,itservestoenhanceourself-understanding.Onereasonforthisisthatitisby,andonlyby,contrastingone’sownoutlookwiththeoutlooksofotherpeoplesthatonerecognizeswhatisuniversalandinvariantinitandwhatbycontrastdistinctiveandvariable.Anotherimportantreasonisthatinorderfullytounderstandone’sownoutlookoneneedstoidentifyitsoriginsandhowtheydevel-opedintoit(thisisHerder’srightlyfamous“geneticmethod,”whichsubsequentlybecamefundamentaltotheworkofHegel,Nietzsche,andFoucault).Second,Herderbelievesthatanaccurateinvestigationofthe(nonmoral)idealsofpastagescanservetoenrichourown(nonmoral)idealsandhappiness.Thismotivefindsbroadapplicationinhiswork.AnexampleishisexplorationofpastliteraturesintheFragmentslargelywithaviewtodrawingfromthemlessonsabouthowbettertodevelopmodernGermanliterature.Herder’sdecisiontofocusonthe“innerness”ofhistory’sparticipants,andhisconsequentemphasisonpsychologyandinterpretationashis-toricalmethods,strikinglyanticipatedandinfluencedDilthey.SotoodidHerder’srationaleforthis,asdescribedabove,whichisindeedarguablysuperiortoDilthey’s,especiallyonitspositiveside.Finally,Herderisalsoimpressiveforhavingrecognized,and,thoughnotsolved,atleastgrappledwith,aproblemthatflowsfromhispictureofhistory(andinterculturalcomparisons)asanarenaofdeepvariationsinhumanmentality.Thisistheproblemofskepticism.HetendstorunAsofteninthisintroduction,thereasonslistedinthisparagraphareculledfromalargenumberofwritingsonlysomeofwhichareincludedinthisvolume.xxviii\nIntroductiontogethertwoproblemshere:first,thatofwhetherthereisanymeaningtotheseeminglyendless,bewilderingseriesofchangesfromepochtoepoch(orculturetoculture);and,second,theproblemthatthemultiplicationofconflictingviewpointsonvirtuallyallsubjectsthatisfoundinhistory(orininterculturalcomparisons)produces,oratleastexacerbates,theancientskeptic’sdifficultyofunresolvabledisputesforcingonetosuspendbeliefonvirtuallyallsubjects.Thefirstproblemhasbeendiscussed.Hereitisthesecondthatconcernsus.ThisisaproblemthatTroeltschwouldmakemuchofinthetwentiethcentury,butHerderhadalreadyseenit.Herderisdeterminedtoavoidthissortofskepticism.Hehastwomainstrategiesfordoingso,whichareinconsistentwitheachother.Hisfirstistotrytodefusetheproblematsourcebyarguingthat,oncloserinspection,thereismuchmorecommongroundbetweendifferentperiodsandculturesthanitrecognizes.ThisstrategyplaysacentralroleintheIdeas,whereinparticular“humanity”ispresentedasasharedhumanvalue.Herder’ssecondstrategyisrathertoacknowledgetheproblemfullyandtorespondwithrelativism:especiallyinThisToohearguesthat–atleastwherequestionsofaesthetic,moral,andprudentialvalueareconcerned–thedifferentpositionstakenbydifferentperiodsandculturesareequallyvalid,namelyfortheperiodsandculturestowhichtheybelong,andthattherecanthereforebenoquestionofanypreferentialrankingbetweenthem.ThelaterLettersvacillatesbetweenthesetwostrategies.Neitherofthesestrategiesissatisfactory.Thefirst,thatofassertingdeepcommonalities,ishopeless(notwithstandingitseternalappealtoempiricallyunderinformedAnglophonephilosophers).Foronething,itfliesinthefaceoftheempiricalevidence.Forexample,HerderinthismodesentimentallypraisesHomerforhis“humanity,”andtherebylayshimselfopentoNietzsche’sjustretortthatwhatisstrikingaboutHomerandhiscultureisrathertheircruelty.Foranotherthing,itfliesinthefaceofHerder’sownbetterinterpretativejudgmentsabouttheempiricalevidence–forexample,hisobservationinOntheChangeofTastethatbasicvalueshavenotonlychangedthroughhistorybutincertaincasesactuallybeeninverted(anobservationwhichstrikinglyanticipatesNietzsche’sbrilliantinsightthataninversionofethicalvaluesoccurredinlaterantiquity).Nietzsche,Homer’sContest.Thehistoricalissuehereisofcourseverycomplicated.xxix\nIntroductionHerder’salternative,relativist,strategy,whilemorepromising,isnotintheendsatisfactoryeither(evenconcerningvalues,whereitsprospectsseembest).Thereareseveralpotentialproblemswithit.Onewhichisofhistoricalinterestbutprobablynotintheendfatalisthis:HegelinthePhenomenologyofSpiritandthenNietzscheinhistreatmentofChristianmoralvaluessawthepossibilityofacceptingHerder’sinsightthattherewerebasicdifferencesinvaluesbutnonethelessavoidinghisrelativismbysubjectingothers’valuestoaninternalcritique,ademonstrationthattheywereinternallyinconsistent.Forexample,Nietzsche(whoseversionofthisideaisthemoreplausible)tracedbacksuchChristianvaluesasforgivenesstoacontraryunderlyingmotiveofresentment(ressentiment).However,inordertowork,sucharesponsewouldneedtoshowthattheinconsistencywasessentialtothevaluesinquestion,notmerelysomethingcontingentthatcoulddisappearleavingthevaluesconsistentlyheld–andthisitprobablycannotdo.AmoreseriousproblemisratheradoubleonewhichNietzscheagainsaw.First,wecannotinfactsustainsucharelativistindifferencevis-a-visothers’values.(Dowe,forexample,`reallythinkthatamoralrulerequiringtheforcibleburningofdeadmen’swivesisnobetterandnoworsethanoneforbiddingit?)Second,nordoesthephenomenonoffundamentalvaluevariationsrequireustoadoptsuchanindifference.For,whileitmayindeedshowtheretobenouniversalvalues,itstillleavesuswithabetteralternativetoindifference:continuingtoholdourvaluesandtojudgeothers’valuesinlightofthem,onlynowinaself-consciouslynonuniversalway.(AsNietzscheputit,“Myjudgmentismyjudgment.”OrifwerejectNietzsche’sextremeindividualism,“Ourjudgmentisourjudgment,”forsomeless-than-universalus.)Herder’spoliticalphilosophyHerderisnotusuallythoughtofasapoliticalphilosopher.Buthewasone,andmoreoveronewhosepoliticalidealsaremoreadmirable,thematicfociofmoreenduringrelevance,andtheoreticalstancesmoredefensiblethanthoseofanyotherGermanphilosopheroftheperiod.Hewasinterestedinpoliticalphilosophythroughouthiscareer,buthismostdevelopedtreatmentofitoccurslate,inaworkpromptedbytheFrenchRevolutionof:theLetters(includingtheearlydraftof,importantforitsfrankstatementofhisviewsaboutdomesticpolitics).xxx\nIntroductionWhatarethemainfeaturesofHerder’spoliticalphilosophy?Letusbeginwithhispoliticalideals,firstindomesticandthenininternationalpolitics.Indomesticpolitics,thematureHerderisaliberal,arepublicananddemocrat,andanegalitarian(thisincircumstanceswheresuchpo-sitionswerenotcommonplaces,andwereembracedatapersonalcost).Hisliberalismisespeciallyradicalindemandingvirtuallyunrestrictedfreedomofthoughtandexpression,includingfreedomofworship.Hehasseveralreasonsforthisposition.First,hefeelsthatsuchfreedombe-longstopeople’smoraldignity.Second,hebelievesthatitisessentialforindividuals’self-realization.Third,aswasmentionedearlier,hebelievesthatpeople’scapacitiesfordiscerningthetrutharelimitedandthatitisthrough,andonlythrough,anongoingcontestbetweenopposingview-pointsthatthecauseoftruthgetsadvanced.(J.S.Milllaterborrowedtheseconsiderations–partlyviaintermediariessuchasvonHumboldt–toformthecoreofhiscaseforfreedomofthoughtandexpressioninOnLiberty.)Herderisalsocommittedtorepublicanismanddemocracy(advocatingamuchbroaderfranchisethanKant,forexample).Hehasseveralreasonsforthisposition,eachderivingfromanegalitarianconcernfortheinterestsofallmembersofsociety.First,hethinksitintrinsicallyrightthatthemassofpeopleshouldshareintheirgovernment,ratherthanhavingitimposeduponthem.Second,hebelievesthatthiswillbet-terservetheirotherinterestsaswell,sincegovernmentbyalsotendstobegovernmentfor.Third,heinparticularbelievesthatitwilldiminishthewarfarethatispervasiveundertheprevailingautocraticpoliticalsystemsofEurope,whereitbenefitsthefewrulerswhodecideonitbutcoststhemassofpeopledearly.Finally,Herder’segalitarianismalsoextendsfurther.Hedoesnotrejectclassdifferences,property,orinequalitiesofpropertyoutright,butheopposesallhierarchicaloppression,arguesthatallpeopleinsocietyhavecapacitiesforself-realizationandmustreceivetheopportunitytorealizethem,andinparticularinsiststhatgovernmentmustintervenetoensurethattheydo(e.g.byguaranteeingeducationandaminimumstandardoflivingforthepoor).Concerninginternationalpolitics,Herderisoftenclassifiedasa“nationalist”or(evenworse)a“Germannationalist,”butthisisdeeplyForexample,byR.Ergang,inHerderandtheFoundationsofGermanNationalism(NewYork,),andK.R.Popper,inTheOpenSocietyanditsEnemies(London,),whoincludesHerderinasortofHallofShamerecapitulatingtheriseofGermannationalism.xxxi\nIntroductionmisleadingandunjust.Onthecontrary,hisfundamentalpositionininternationalpoliticsisacommittedcosmopolitanism,inthesenseofanimpartialconcernforallhumanbeings.Thisisalargepartoftheforceofhisidealof“humanity.”HenceintheLettershissloganis“Nooneforhimselfonly,eachforall!”andheapprovinglyquotesFenelon’sremark,´“Ilovemyfamilymorethanmyself;morethanmyfamilymyfatherland;morethanmyfatherlandhumankind.”Herderdoesindeedalsoinsistonrespecting,preserving,andadvancingnationalgroupings.Butthisinsistenceisunalarming,forthefollowingreasons.First,forHerder,thisisemphaticallysomethingthatmustbedoneforallnationalgroupingsequally(notjustorespeciallyGermany!).Second,the“nation”inquestionisnotracialbutlinguisticandcultural(Herderrejectstheveryconceptofrace).Third,nordoesitinvolveacentralizedormilitaristicstate(Herderisanadvocateofsuchastate’sdis-appearanceandreplacementbylooselyfederatedlocalgovernmentswithminimalinstrumentsofforce).Fourth,Herder’sinsistenceonrespectingnationalgroupingsisaccompaniedbythestrongestdenunciationsofmil-itaryconflict,colonialexploitation,andallotherformsofharmbetweennations;ademandthatnationsinsteadpeacefullycooperateandcompeteintradeandintellectualendeavorsfortheirmutualbenefit;andaplea,indeed,thattheyactivelyworktohelpeachother.Moreover,Herderhascompellingreasonsforhisinsistenceonre-spectingnationalgroupings.Hebelievesthatthedeepdiversityofvaluesbetweennationsentailsthathomogenizationisultimatelyimpracticable,onlyafantasy;thatitalsoentailsthat,totheextentthathomogenizationispracticable,itcannotoccurvoluntarilybutonlythroughexternalco-ercion;thatinpracticeattemptstoachieveit,forexamplebyEuropeancolonialism,aremoreovercoercivefrom,andsubserve,ulteriormotivesofdominationandexploitation;and,furthermore,thatrealnationalvarietyispositivelyvaluable,bothasaffordingindividualsavitalsenseoflocalbelongingandinitself.Herder’sfundamentalprincipleofcosmopolitanismwasnotnew,ofcourse.Inparticular,itwassharedby,andnodoubtpartlydueto,hisHerdercertainlyworkedespeciallyhardinGermany’sinterests.However,thiswasfromaversionofwhatwewouldtodaycalltheprinciple“Thinkglobally,actlocally”(hencewhenhelivedinRiga,aRussianpossession,duringtheshiseffortsinsteadfocusedontheinterestsofRussia)andfroma(realistic)senseofGermany’spresentinferiorityincomparisonwithneighborssuchasFranceandBritain.UnlikeFichteforexample,HerderneverclaimedorsoughtGermany’ssuperiority,insteademphaticallyrejectingallsuchideasofa“Favoritvolk.”xxxii\nIntroductionformerteacherKant,whopublishedhisownversionofitinhisessayIdeaforaUniversalHistoryfromaCosmopolitanPointofView().However,Herder’sversionofthepositionismoreattractivethanKant’s.Firstandforemost,itisa“nastylittlesecret”aboutKantthat,alongsidehisofficialcosmopolitanconcernforallhumanbeings(or,moreaccurately,andsignificantlydifferently,forthe“rationality”inallhumanbeings),heharboredsomeveryintellectuallyirresponsible(i.e.empiricallycoun-terevidenced,unevidenced,oratbestunderevidenced)andmorallyobjectionableprejudicesabouthumanbeingsofvarioussorts.Inpar-ticular,hewasamisogynist,anantisemite(apassageinhisLecturesonEthicsineffectsaysthatallJewsareliarsbecauseallJewsarecowards),andaracist(hepublishedaseminalessayonracialtaxonomy,andmakeswholesalenegativeremarksaboutsuchracesasAfricannegroesinhisAnthropology).Insharpcontrast,andtohiseternalcredit,Herderem-phaticallyrejectedsuchprejudices,andworkedtirelesslytocombatthem.Thus,ascanalreadybeseeninHowPhilosophyCanBecome,farfrombeingamisogynist,heisaproto-feministwhorecognizeswomen’spotentialsandseekstomakepossibletheirrealization;farfrombeinganantisemite,hewroteworksontheOldandNewTestamentswhichgiveextremelyfavorableinterpretationsofancientJudaismandstressitscontinuitywithChristianity,andinseveralplacesheexpressesdisgustatmodernper-secutionsofJewsbyEuropeanChristians;andfarfrombeingaracist,herejectstheveryconceptofrace,insteadpreferringthelinguistic-culturalconceptofanationorpeople,andhearguesforequalrespectforallpeoples,andinparticulardenouncescolonialismandslaveryinthestrongestterms.Second,Herder’sinsistenceon,andargumentsfor,combiningcosmopolitanismwithrespectfordifferentnationalgroupings(discussedabove)areafurtherpointofsuperiority.ThecriticalKant’simplausibleassumptionoftheimplicituniversalacceptanceofasinglemoralstandpoint(the“categoricalimperative”)preventedhimfromsee-ingarealissuehere,letalonefeelingtheweightofHerder’sarguments.AthirdandfinalpointofsuperiorityisthefoundationofHerder’spositiononaplausiblenoncognitivisminethics,insteadofonthecriticalKant’simplausiblecognitivistethicaltheory.Somereadersmayhavenoddedinassentuptothispoint,butstillfeelinclinedtoobjectthatallthisdoesnotyetreallyamounttoapoliticaltheory–suchasotherphilosophershavegiven,includingsomeofHerder’scontemporariesinGermany.Inasensethatistrue,butphilosophicallyxxxiii\nIntroductiondefensible;inanothersenseitisfalse.Itistrueinthissense:ThereiscertainlynograndmetaphysicaltheoryunderpinningHerder’sposition–noPlatonictheoryofforms,nocorrelationofpoliticalinstitutionswith“moments”inaHegelianLogic,no“deduction”ofpoliticalinstitutionsfromtheverynatureoftheselforthewillalaFichteandHegel,etc.`Butthatisdeliberate,givenHerder’sskepticismaboutsuchmetaphysics.Andisitnotindeedphilosophicallyagoodthing?NordoesHerderhaveanyelaborateaccountpurportingtojustifythemoralintuitionsatworkinhispoliticalpositionasasortoftheoreticalinsight–inthemannerofKant’stheoryofthe“categoricalimperative”orRawls’stheoryofthe“originalposition,”forexample.Butthatisagainquitedeliberate,givenhisnoncognitivisminethics,andhisrejectionofsuchtheoriesasbothfalseandharmful.Andishenotrightaboutthis,andtheabsenceofsuchanaccountthereforeagainagoodthing?NorisHerdersympatheticwithsuchfurthertiredstaplesofpoliticaltheoryasthestateofnature,thesocialcontract,naturalrights,thegeneralwill,andutopiasforthefuture.But,again,hehasgoodreasonsforskepticismabouttheseideas.This,then,isthesenseinwhichtheobjectioniscorrect;Herderdoesindeedlacka“politicaltheory”ofthesesorts.Buthelacksitonprinciple,andisarguablyquiterighttodoso.Ontheotherhand,hedoeshavea“politicaltheory”ofanother,andarguablymorevaluable,sort.Foronething,consistentlywithhisgen-eralempiricism,hispositioninpoliticalphilosophyisdeeplyempiri-callyinformed.Forinstance,ascanbeseenfromhisDissertationontheReciprocalInfluenceofGovernmentandtheSciences(),histhesisabouttheimportanceoffreedomofthoughtandexpression,andthecompe-titionbetweenviewswhichitmakespossible,forproducingintellectualprogressislargelybasedonthehistoricalexampleofancientGreeceandinparticularAthens(ascontrastedwithsocietieswhichhavelackedthefreedomandcompetitioninquestion).AndinthedraftoftheLettersheevendescribestheFrenchRevolutionanditsattemptstoestablishamoderndemocracyasasortof“experiment”fromwhichwecanlearn(e.g.whetherdemocracycanbesuccessfullyextendedtonationsmuchlargerthanancientAthens).Foranotherthing,conformablywithhisgeneralnoncognitivismaboutmorals,heisacutelyawarethathispolit-icalpositionultimatelyrestsonmoralsentiments–hisownand,foritsForsomehelpfulpointersaboutthis,seeF.M.Barnard,Herder’sSocialandPoliticalThought:FromEnlightenmenttoNationalism(Oxford,),pp.–,–,–,.xxxiv\nIntroductionsuccess,otherpeople’saswell.Hence,forexample,theTenthCollectionoftheLettersstressesthefundamentalroleofmoral“dispositions”or“feelings”asrequiredsupportsforhispoliticalposition’srealization.Thisstandpointabsolveshimoftheneedtodocertainsortsoftheorizing–notonlyprecludingcognitivistgroundingsofthemoralintuitionsinques-tion,butalsopromisingshort,effectiveanswerstosomeproblemsthatwouldprobablylooklikerealbrain-teaserstoacognitivist.However,italsoleadshimtoengageinanothersortoftheorizing,namelytheo-rizingabouthow,andbywhatmeans,people’smoralsentimentsshouldbemoldedinordertorealizetheidealsofhispoliticalposition.Hisdis-cussionofmoral“dispositions”intheTenthCollectionisanexampleofsuchtheorizing(inthiscaseconcerningthehowratherthanthemeans;someofhistheorizingaboutmeanswassketchedearlier).ThesetwosortsoftheorizingaredeeplydevelopedinHerder,andtheyarearguablymuchmorepointfulthanthesortswhicharenot.Inshort,totheextentthatHerder’spoliticalphilosophyreallyisthe-oreticallysuperficial,itisarguably,toborrowaphraseofNietzsche’s,“superficial–outofprofundity”(whereasmorefamiliarformsofpoliticalphilosophyareprofoundoutofsuperficiality).Andinanother,moreim-portant,senseitisnottheoreticallysuperficialatall.These,then,aresomefeaturesofHerder’spositionsintheseveralareasofphilosophycoveredbythepresentvolumewhichseemtomenotewor-thy.AnumberofyearsagoIsaiahBerlinandCharlesTaylorattemptedtobringHerder’sphilosophicalimportancetotheattentionofAnglophonephilosophy.Anglophonephilosophywasquicktorecognizethequalityofthemessengers,buthasbeenparadoxicallyslowtoheedtheirmessage.Itismyhopethatthepresentvolumemayhelptorectifythisunfortunatesituation.Forexample:Howdoyoureconcileyourcosmopolitanismwithyourrespectfordifferentnationswhenthesenationsturnouttohavereallyinhumanepractices?ThisproblemwouldprobablystrikeacognitivistasthediscoveryofanembarrassingcontradictioninHerder’sposition.ButtoanoncognitivistlikeHerderitinsteadjustlookslikethesortofpracticallychallengingbuttheo-reticallyunpuzzlingconflictthatcanalwaysinprinciplearisewhenonehasmultiplesentiments,orcommitments.HowdoyoureconcileyourdevotiontoMarywithyourcommitmenttoyourjobwhenyourjobrequiresyoutoneglecther?xxxv\nChronologyJohannGottfriedvonHerderisborninMohrungen,asmalltowninEastPrussia,toJohannHerder,aclothmakerandgirls’schoolteacher.Hegrowsupinhumblecircumstances.KantpublisheshisUniversalNaturalHistoryandTheoryoftheHeavens,aworkthatwouldcometoexercisealifelonginfluenceonHerder.HerderenrollsattheUniversityofKonigsberg,wherehemeets¨andstudieswithKant,whoaccordshimspecialprivilegesandattentionbecauseofhisunusualintellectualabilities.LaterinthisperiodhebeginsalifelongfriendshipwiththeirrationalistphilosopherHamann.HerderleavesKonigsbergtotakeupaschool-teachingpositionin¨Rigawhichhewillholduntil.HepublishesthesignificantearlyessayOnDiligenceinSeveralLearnedLanguages.HewritestheprogrammaticessayHowPhilosophyCanBecomeMoreUniversalandUsefulfortheBenefitofthePeopleunderstronginfluencefromKant.HewritestheessayOntheChangeofTaste.KantpublisheshisDreamsofaSpiritSeer.Herderbeginspublishinghisfirstmajorwork,onthephilosophyoflanguageandliterature,theFragmentsonRecentGermanLiterature(–).HepublishesOnThomasAbbt’sWritings.Hepublishesthefirstthreepartsofanimportantworkinaesthetics,theCriticalForests.HeresignshispositioninRigaandsubsequentlyspendsaperiodtraveling–firsttoFrance;thenthroughHollandandGermany,wherehemeetshisfuturewifexxxvi\nChronologyKarolineFlachslandinDarmstadt;thentoStrasbourg,wherehemeets,andhasapowerfulimpacton,theyoungGoethe.HerderwinsaprizefromtheBerlinAcademyforhisbest-knownworkinthephilosophyoflanguage,theTreatiseontheOriginofLanguage(published).HetakesupapositionascourtpreachertotherulinghouseinBuckeburgwhichhewillholduntil¨.Hepublishesaseminalessay,Shakespeare,whichcontrastsancientandShakespeareantragedyasdistinctgenresanddefendsthelatteragainstcritics.Hepublisheshisfirstmajoressayonthephilosophyofhistory,ThisTooaPhilosophyofHistoryfortheFormationofHumanity.HeisappointedGeneralSuperintendentoftheLutheranclergyinWeimar,partlythroughGoethe’sinfluence,apostinwhichhewillremainfortherestofhislife.Hepublishestheimportantessayinthephilosophyofmind,OntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoul.Hebeginspublishinganinfluentialcollectionoftranslationsofpopularpoetryfromaroundtheworld,PopularSongs(–).KantpublisheshisCritiqueofPureReason.HerderbeginspublishinghismostimportantworkontheOldTestament,OntheSpiritofHebrewPoetry(–).Hebeginspublishinghiswell-knownlongerworkonthephilosophyofhistory,theIdeasforthePhilosophyofHistoryofHumanity(–).HamannfinisheshisMetacritiqueonthePurismofPureReason,anattackonKant’sCritiqueofPureReason.KantpublishestwocondescendingreviewsofHerder’sIdeasforthePhilosophyofHistoryofHumanity.JacobipublisheslettersinwhichherevealsandrejectsLessing’sSpinozism,therebyopeningafamouscontroversyonthissubject.Herderpublishesaninfluentialworkinthephilosophyofreligion,God.SomeConversations,inwhichhedefendsamodifiedversionofSpinoza’smonism.Hamanndies.KantpublisheshisCritiqueofPracticalReason.TheFrenchRevolutionbegins.Herderwelcomesitenthusiastically.KantpublishesthelastofhisthreeCritiques,theCritiqueofJudgment.Herderbeginspublishingaworklargelyonpoliticalphilosophy,writteninreactiontotheFrenchRevolution,theLettersfortheAdvancementofHumanity(–).xxxvii\nChronologyHebeginspublishingaseriesofessaysconcernedmainlywiththeorigins,character,relationsbetween,andproperprinciplesforinterpretingthepartsoftheNewTestament,theChristianWritings(–).HepublishesthefirstoftwoworkscriticizingaspectsofKant’scriticalphilosophy,AMetacritiqueontheCritiqueofPureReason,directedagainstthetheoreticalphilosophyofKant’sCritiqueofPureReason.HepublishesthesecondofhisworkscriticizingKant’scriticalphilosophy,theCalligone,directedagainsttheaesthetictheoryofKant’sCritiqueofJudgment.Herderdies.Kantdies.xxxviii\nFurtherreadingTranslationsHerderhasnotbeenveryextensivelytranslatedintoEnglish.Indeed,manyimportantworkshavenotyetbeentranslatedatall.H.Adler,E.A.Menze,OnWorldHistory(Armonk,)containsshortexcerptsonhistoryfromavarietyofworks,prominentlyincludingtheIdeas.F.M.Barnard,J.G.HerderonSocialandPoliticalCulture(Cambridge,)isespeciallyhelpful,includ-inggood(partial)translationsofHerder’sJournalofMyJourneyintheYear,theDissertationontheReciprocalInfluenceofGovernmentandtheSciences,andtheIdeas,aswellasaverygoodintroduction.F.H.Burkhardt,God.SomeConversations(NewYork,)isatranslationofHerder’smostimportantworkinthephilosophyofreligion.T.Churchill,OutlinesofaPhilosophyoftheHistoryofMan(London,)isatranslationoftheIdeas.J.Marsh,TheSpiritofHebrewPoetry(Burlington,VT,)isatranslationofHerder’smostimportantworkontheOldTestament.E.A.Menze,K.Menges,M.Palma,JohannGottfriedHerder:SelectedEarlyWorks,–(UniversityPark,Pennsylvania,)containssomeearlyessaysandexcerptsfromtheFragments.J.H.Moran,A.Gode,OntheOriginofLanguage(Chicago,)containsapartialtranslationofOntheOrigin.H.B.Nisbet,GermanAestheticandLiteraryCriticism:Winckelmann,Lessing,Hamann,Herder,Schiller,Goethe(Cambridge,)containstwopiecesofHerder’sonaesthetics,includinghisimportantessayShakespeare.SecondaryliteratureinEnglishConcerninggeneraltreatments,I.Berlin,VicoandHerder(NewYork,)isconciseandexcellent.R.T.ClarkJr.,Herder:HisLifeandThought(Berkeley,)isfairlydetailedandusefulthoughunimaginative.F.C.Beiser,TheFateofxxxix\nFurtherreadingReason(Cambridge,MA,),ch.,coversseveraltopicshelpfully,includingHerder’sphilosophiesoflanguage,mind,andreligion.ConcerningHerder’sgen-eralprogramandhisdebtstotheprecriticalKant,J.H.Zammito,Kant,Herder,andtheBirthofAnthropology(Chicago,)ishelpful.ConcerningHerder’sphilosophyoflanguage,twoessaysbyC.Taylorareespeciallyuseful:“TheIm-portanceofHerder,”inE.andA.Margalit(eds.),IsaiahBerlin:ACelebration(Chicago,),and“LanguageandHumanNature,”inC.Taylor,HumanAgencyandLanguage:PhilosophicalPapers(Cambridge,).ConcerningHerder’sphilosophyofhistory,A.O.Lovejoy,“HerderandtheEnlightenmentPhilosophyofHistory,”inhisEssaysontheHistoryofIdeas(Baltimore,),isahelpfulshorttreatmentwhichexplainsHerder’spositioninthecontextofEnlightenmentthought.F.Meinecke,Historism:TheRiseofaNewHistoricalOutlook(London,),ch.,isespeciallyhelpful.Concerningpoliticalphi-losophy,R.Ergang,HerderandtheFoundationsofGermanNationalism(NewYork,)isinformativebothonHerder’spoliticalthoughtandonhisgen-eralintellectualinfluence(thoughmarredbyanassimilationofHerder’sformofnationalismtolaterGerman,state-centerednationalism,andbyanundulywarmassessmentofsuchaposition–forbothofwhichflawsBarnard,Berlin,andBeiseraregoodcorrectives).F.M.Barnard,Herder’sSocialandPoliticalThought:FromEnlightenmenttoNationalism(Oxford,)ishelpful,esp.chs.–onHerder’spoliticalthought.F.C.Beiser,Enlightenment,Revolution,andRomanticism(Cambridge,MA,),esp.ch.,isoutstanding,amongotherthingsdecisivelyrefutingthelingeringmyththatHerderandotherGermanphilosophersofhisagewereapolitical.Concerningothersubjects,H.B.Nisbet,HerderandthePhilosophyandHistoryofScience(Cambridge,MA,)pro-videsanexcellentaccountofHerder’sstancetowardsscience.R.E.Norton,Herder’sAestheticsandtheEuropeanEnlightenment(Ithaca,)ishelpfulbothonaspectsofHerder’saesthetictheoryandonHerder’sgeneralrelationtotheEnlightenment(thoughtheHerderiantheorycorrelatingdifferentartformsone-to-onewithdifferentsensesonwhichNortonlargelyfocusesisfarfromthemostphilosophicallyinterestingaspectofHerder’saesthetics).SecondaryliteratureinGermanThisisextensive.ByfarthemosthelpfulsingleitemremainsR.Haym,HerdernachseinemLebenundseinenWerken(Berlin,)–aclassic,detailedintellectualbiographywhosetreatmentisoutstanding(despiteaKantianbiasandanocca-sionalunwarrantednoteofcondescension).Alsoextremelyhelpfularethespe-cifictextualcommentariesinU.Gaieretal.(eds.),JohannGottfriedHerderWerke(FrankfurtamMain,–).H.D.Irmischerhaswrittenseveralimportantxl\nFurtherreadingarticlesrelevanttothesubjectscoveredinthisvolume,including“Grundzuge¨derHermeneutikHerders,”inB¨uckeburgerGespr¨ache¨uberJ.G.Herder(Buckeburg,¨),and“GrundfragenderGeschichtsphilosophieHerdersbis,”inB¨uckeburgerGespr¨ache¨uberJ.G.Herder(Buckeburg,¨).A.F.Kelletat,HerderunddieWeltliteratur(FrankfurtamMain,)isanexcellent,unpretentioustreatmentofHerder’sinterestinworldliterature,andinparticularhistheoryandpracticeoftranslation.T.Willi,HerdersBeitragzumVerstehendesAltenTestaments(Tubingen,¨)isaverygoodtreatmentofHerder’sworkontheOldTestament.TwofairlyusefulrecentcollectionsofessayswhichcoverabroadrangeoftopicsareG.Sauder(ed.),JohannGottfriedHerder–(Hamburg,)andM.Bollacher(ed.),JohannGottfriedHerder:GeschichteundKultur(Wurzburg,¨).xli\nNoteonthetextsandtranslationThetextsarebasedontwoexcellentGermaneditions:U.Gaieretal.(eds.),JohannGottfriedHerderWerke(FrankfurtamMain,–)andB.Suphanetal.(eds.),JohannGottfriedHerderS¨amtlicheWerke(Berlin,–).Referencestotheseeditionstaketheformoftheprimaryeditor’ssurnameinitialfollowedbyvolumenumberandpagenumber(e.g.G:orS:).Theformereditionisthemainsource,withthelatterservingforthedraftofOntheCognition,supplementstoothertexts,andcertainemendations.Ihaveoccasionallyalsomadeemendationsmyself,butconservativelyandalwayswithanexplanatoryfootnote.ThetranslatorofHerderworksintheshadowofHerder’sownfor-midabletheoryandpracticeoftranslation.HistheoryoftranslationisrepresentedinthisvolumebytheselectionsfromtheFragments.Twoprinciplesofthetheory,bothdeeplygroundedinhisphilosophyoflan-guage,areparticularlynoteworthy:First,translationproper(Ubersetzung¨)(whichhedistinguishessharplyfrommereimitation[Nachbildung],agenrewhich,however,healsotoleratesandsometimespractices)canandshouldcopewiththediscrepanciesthatfrequentlyoccurbetweencon-cepts,orwordusages,intheoriginallanguageandconcepts,orwordusages,inthelanguageintowhichthetranslationistobedoneby“bend-ing”the(closest)latterwordusagesoverthecourseofthetranslation.Thisinparticularentailspreferringtogiveuniformtranslationsofagivenword/conceptintheoriginalratherthanvaryingtranslations,de-spite(andindeedinawayforthesakeof)thegreaterimpressionofstrangenesstowhichthiswillgiveriseincertaincontexts.ThealternativeOnthissee,besidestheFragments,alsoPopularSongs,G:.xlii\nNoteonthetextsandtranslationwayofproceedingcanmakeforsmootherreading,butonlyattheun-acceptablecostofasacrificeintheexactnesswithwhichreadersofthetranslationcangrasptheauthor’smeaning.Second,translationshouldalsoattempttoreproducethemoremusicalandstylisticfeaturesofthetexttranslated.Thisisnot,forHerder,merelyadesirableluxuryoverandabovethemorefundamentalgoaloffaithfullyreproducingmean-ing;itisalsoarequirementforthelatter.Onereasonforthisisthatthemusicalandstylisticaspectsofatextprovidereaderswithindispensablecluestotheexactcharacteroftheauthorialsensationswhich,accordingtoHerder’squasi-empiricisttheoryofconcepts,areinternaltotheauthor’smeanings.Thepresentvolumeaimsattranslationproper,afaithfulreproductionofmeaning(ratherthanmereimitation).ThetextsinvolvedheredonotposethechallengesthatHerder’stwoprinciplesaredesignedtoaddressinashighadegreeassome(e.g.conceptualdiscrepancyisabiggerproblemwithancienttexts,andmusical-stylisticfeaturesaremoreimportantinpoetrythaninprose).Nonetheless,theydoposethemtoadegree,andIhavegenerallyattemptedtoconformtoHerder’stwoprinciplesasfaraspossiblewheretheyarerelevant–notbecausetheyareHerder’s,butbecausetheyseemtomebroadlycorrect.Accordingly,Ihaveattemptedtotranslateimportanttermsinauni-formwayasfaraspossible(e.g.Menschheit,whichHerdersometimesusesinamoreorlessdescriptive,morallyneutralwayandsometimesinawaywhichconnotesamoralideal,isalwaystranslatedashumanityratherthansometimesasthemorallyneutralhumankindandatothertimesasthemoremorallysuggestivehumanity–achoicemadeeasyinthiscasebythefactthateveninstandardEnglishhumanityissometimesusedinades-criptive,morallyneutralway).However,afewimportanttermsres-isteduniformtranslationforvariousreasons(primeexamplesarebilden/Bildung,which,dependingonthecontext,appearhereasform/formation,educate/education,civilize/civilization,cultivate/cultivationorculture;alessextremeexampleisGeist,which,dependingonthecontext,becomeseithermindorspirit).Insuchcases,IhavecompensatedbyindicatingthesingleGermanwordinvolvedinsquarebracketsorfootnotes.Seee.g.G::itisessentialtopreserveShakespeare’srhymesintranslationbecauseofthesemanticallyrelevantnuancesoffeelingwhichonlytheyconveyexactly.SuchcasesillustrateanimportantpointaboutHerder’sinjunctionto“bend”usagesintranslation:thiscannotwellbesustainedasanabsoluterequirement,onlyasapresumption.xliii\nNoteonthetextsandtranslationIhavealsoattemptedtopreservethemusicalandstylisticfeaturesofthetextsasfaraspossible.Thisinparticularmeantpreserving,ratherthansmoothingout,thedeliberateroughnessofHerder’swriting–includinghisuseofsuchartfullyroughrhetoricaldevicesasanacoluthon,chiasmus,andhysteronproteron.Withregardtopunctuation,thetranslationismuchfreer.SomeofHerder’sidiosyncrasieshavebeenkeptforvariousreasons(e.g.hisuseofquotationmarksnotonlyforquotationsbutalsoforemphasizingstatementsofhisown),butotherwisepunctuationhasbeenfreelymod-ernizedintheinterestofconveyinghismeaningaseffectivelyaspossible.Somemoredetailedobservationsconcerningtheseandothermattersrelatingtothetranslationcanbefoundinfootnotesatrelevantpointsinthetexts.LetteredfootnotesareHerder’sown;numberedfootnotesmine.Squarebrackets,[],indicateaneditorialsupplementtoHerder’stexts,ortheoriginalGermanwording;curvedbrackets,(),areHerder’sown.Inthisspirit,HerderpraisedAbbt’stranslationsofLatinauthorsforpreservingthedistinctiveroughnessoftheoriginalsratherthansmoothingitoutintoeasier-to-read“FrenchifiedGerman.”xliv\nPartIGeneralPhilosophicalProgram\n\nHowPhilosophyCanBecomeMoreUniversalandUsefulfortheBenefitofthePeople()[Introduction]Ifanysciencehasbeenanobjectofcontradictions,andyetamidthesestonesandearthenclodsthathavebeencastatitanobjectofreverence,thenitisexaltedphilosophy[Weltweisheit].Sinceitsbeginningithadconstantlybeenasourceofannoyancetotheoneparty,acorner-stoneoftruthtotheother;andthissopeculiarphenomenonofcontradictionhasnotmerelybeenamarkofdistinctionandashibboleth,sotospeak,amongwholeages,peoples,andsects,butphilosophyhashadtosurvivethismetamorphosisofjudgmentatonetimeandamongonepeople,indeedoftenindifferentphasesofoneandthesameperson.Thisisindeedasremarkableaphenomenonofthehumanunderstandingforapersonwhoisnotascholarasitisaremarkablethingforapersonwhoisnotapoliticianwhenpeopleconflictwithpeople.PhilosophyhasbecomeaProteusamongthenations.Whereitwasvictorious,behold,itgenerallybuiltitsthroneontheruinsofmathematicsandexperiencesfromphysics;butcommonlyitremainedanallyofphilology,withwhichitalsocommonlyassociatedPhilosophie.InthisessayHerderalsousesthemorecolorfulwordWeltweisheitmoreorlessinter-changeablywiththisword.ThistitleistakenbyHerder’sGermaneditorfromaletterthatHerderwrotetoHamannaboutthisessayonApril.AnearlierdraftoftheessayactuallyborethesimilarbutnotidenticaltitleHowCantheTruthsofPhilosophyBecomeMoreUniversalandUsefulfortheBenefitofthePeople?Therewouldbeagoodargumentforretainingthelattertitle.HeadingsinsquarebracketsaresuppliedbyHerder’sGermaneditorinlightofanessayplanforthisessaywhichHerderwrote.HerderusesthiswordmoreorlessinterchangeablywithPhilosophieinthisessay.Literallyitmeansworld-wisdom,butIhavetranslatedbothtermsasphilosophythroughout.\nGeneralPhilosophicalProgramtoointimately;whereasonecansaythatmathematicsandphilologyhardlyevertookroottogether.Sinceinthedefenses,theoffensivewars,andthedefensivewarsovermetaphysics[Metaphysik]themostpatentsectarianisms,partisanships,havecertainlybeenthebanner,oneoughtnottobesurprisedthattheragingheatofthebattleandthefogofwhicheachpersonaccusedtheotherleftnoparty’seyesfreebutonlytheirhands,andthatnoonelosttheblindfoldofthefactthathewasfightingwithspecters,andperhapswithhisownshadow.Butsincethisbattlewassolonglasting,switchedbetweensuchdifferentfortunes,sinceinitthecircleofmilitarystratagems,fighter’stricks,andrealbraveryhadalmostbeenexhausted,itissurprisingthatnoidlespectatorwithcoolpassionmadeboldenoughtoturnhimselfintoapragmaticThucydidesorPolybiusfromit,surveyedthewholeinthelargewithanalerteye,thepossibilityofexplainingthedrives,theconnectionofthemotives,andthesecreteffects.IsayaPolybius,forwehavenoshortageofnewspaperreporters.Itisstillworsethatpeoplehavefoughtovermereabstractions,withoutseeingtherealbenefit.Thedefendersthoughttheirbenefittooholyandgreatandobviouseventowanttomaketrialsofit.Andevenhadtheybeenunwillingtodothisforthesakeoftheirtranslators–whichtrialwouldhavebeenverynecessary,however–theyshouldatleasthavepresentedittotheweakasademonstrationofundeniability.Thedespisers,ontheotherhand,mostlythoughttheabstractionssocompletelyuselessthatitwasanewfoolishnesstothinkofapplyingtheminothersciences.Atleasteconomicshadposedtheproblem:WhatmustIdowithagood-for-nothing[metaphysics]whichunfortunatelyexists,whichhasforsolongspreadharm?WhatmustIdowithitinordertoreapfromit,insteadofharm,somebenefitatlast?Allenemiesofmetaphysicsfightintwogreathordes,eachofwhichhasadifferentsideoftheenemy,differentweaponsandrulesofwarfare,itsownmannerofattackanddefense.Oneattacksthetruthsofphilosophy[Philosophie],theothertheiruseandapplication.Theformeristhesectofthemathematicianswhooftenconcedetotheirenemynotruth,nevercer-tainty,veryrarelyclarity;andwhentheyfinallyaddcompleteuselessnesstotheresultoftheircalculation,thecondemnationiscomplete.Thesetwoscienceshavebeenconstantenemies:iftheonewon,etc.IntheThetranslationherefollowsGaier’sclearlycorrecthypothesisaboutHerder’sintentions(G:),ratherthanGaier’sprintedtext.\nHowPhilosophyCanBecomeMoreUniversalend,sinceneithercouldeliminatetheother,theyproceededliketheTurksandSaracens:philosophy,theweaker,borrowedfrommathematicsitsmanner,itsprocedure,itsexpressions,andintheprocessreallylostitsspirit.Eveninindividualmenthesedisciplines’spiritshaveneverbeenabletocoexist:inSpinozaandDescartesphilosophyturnedintoatis-sueofunfortunatehypotheses;Leibnizwasamorefortunatepoet;andWolff,thegreatspokesmanofhisinventor[Leibniz],gavephilosophyitsmathematicalregimentationandsloganswithwhatsuccess?Itwouldbeadigressionfrommypurposetopassjudgmentonthis;Imerelypointtoathemewhichhasperhapsnotyetreceivedananswer.Whencecomestheinnerquarrelbetweenphilosophyandmathematics?Howcanitbesettled?Shouldonesciencebecomparedwiththeother,inordertodemandmathematicalcertainty,clarity,andusefulnessinphi-losophy?Howcanonescienceflowintotheotherwithoutdoingitthedamagewhichwehaveexperiencedfromtheunificationofboth?Onewillseeinwhatrespect.Thesecondspeciesofthosewhocontradictphilosophyismerelyanoffshootoftheformerone:thephysicists(butunfortunatelytherehavebeentoofewofthem).Theydaredtoinvestigatethephenomenaofab-stractionlikethenoteworthyfeaturesofnatureetc.,tojudgethemfromexperiencesnotfromhypotheses,totransferthespiritofphysicalanalysisintophilosophyinsteadofmathematicalsynthesis,inshort,toattemptadissectionoftheproductsofourspirit,betheyerrorsortruths.InphysicsDescartes’hypotheseswerefollowedbyaNewton.Inphilosophy,maythemathematicalaeonsbefollowedbythephysicalones–statpalmainmedio,quipoterit,rapiat!Thosewhohavemadeaposterioriobservationsaboutphilosophyalsoconstitutetwoarmiesofquitedifferentpeople:theyarethetheologiansandthepoliticalthinkers,orifoneprefers,thefriendsofGodandmen.Theformerhaveinaveryprematuremannertransplantedphilosophi-caltruthintotherealmofreligioustruth,andtherebydistortedboth.WhatareallthescholasticmethodsofourdogmaticsbutsadremainsfromtheAristotelianleaven,whichunfortunatelyprotectthemselvesbymeansoftheprejudiceofholyoldage,andwhichscarcelytwoorthreeofourtheologico-philosophershavebeguntorootoutwithfearfulbold-ness?Ontheotherhand,onewillalsobeabletocalltomindthenewestThepalmstandsinthemiddle,whoevercan,lethimseizeit.\nGeneralPhilosophicalProgramfashion-philosophyinGermany,whichbringspostulatesfromtheologyintothefirstprinciplesofmetaphysics,considersthewholeofphilosophyfromatremblingtheologicalpointofviewasthoughitwereanenemy,sotospeak,andhenceistheidolofyoungtheologians,whoaretobemeta-physiciansatothers’expense.Todiscoverthewholeenormousdifferenceinviewpoint,mannerofinference,andmannerofproof,indeedintheori-ginalsourcesofknowledgeofthetwosciences(whichscarcelybearthename‘science’inasinglesense),toeliminatesomanyuselessphilosophi-caldoctrinesfromthemethodofourtheologians,and,ontheotherhand,todiscovernewpathsandplansforspreadingaphilosophicalspiritaboutthemostbiblicaltruthssothatoneisnotbelievingaholynullity–thisisalaborforwhichtheEnglishandafewGermantheologianshavealreadybequeathedusfragments,oratleastgoodexamplesofapplication.Thefourthviewpointisthemostusefulandthemostappropriateforoureconomico-politicalage.Itis,withaslightmodification,thequestionofapatrioticsociety,“Howcanthetruthsetc.?”Howcanphilosophybereconciledwithhumanityandpoliticssothatitalsoreallyservesthelatter?Aquestionwhich[hashad]morethanonecareer-philosopherasanswerer,andwhichleastofallneedssuchapersontodecideit.ThequestionoverwhichPlato,Rousseau,Hume,andShaftesburyponderedverydeeplyandplungedintodoubt.Englandisfullofdeepobserversofnature,fullofnaturalphilosophers,politicians,mathematicians.Franceisfullofliterarytypes[Sch¨ongeister],fullofmen,expertsinstatecraft,fullofgeometers.Germany–hardwork-ingGermany–hasonlythenationalvirtueofbeingphilosophical[weltweisezusein].Theformercannotreachuptous,andsotheybelittleus.Oh,isitnotthereforeataskforeveryonewhohasGermanbloodinhisveinsandaGermanphilosophicalspirittodevelopthispatriotictheme,toshowhowphilosophystandsinrelationtopoliticalscience,mathematics,theliter-aryarts[densch¨onenWissenschaften],sothathecedesnothingbelongingtophilosophyandtoitsstanding?Readingistforsind.The“patrioticsociety”wasoneinBerne,Switzerlandwhichhadsettheprizequestion:“Howcanthetruthsofphilosophybecomemoreuniversalandusefulforthebenefitofthepeople?”AsGaierpointsout(G:),inadeletedpassageoftheintroductionHerderassociatesthesenameswiththatofPyrrhoaswell.Cf.Herder’sremarkinthefirstsectionbelow,“IamwritingforPyrrhonists.”Questionmarkadded.HenceforthIshallnotspecificallynotesuchrevisionsinpunctuation,whicharefrequent.\nHowPhilosophyCanBecomeMoreUniversalThepeople–asonesocietytakesthequestion–isthegreatest,themostvenerable,partofthepublic,incontrasttowhichphilosophyisatroglodyte-peoplelivingincaveswithMinerva’snight-owls!Ifthelatterhavetreasures,wellthen,theymustbecomecommonproperty.Iftheydonothavethem,iftheyarethemselvesuselesstothestate,thenlettheircavesbedestroyedandletthenight-owlsofMinervabetaughttolookatthesun.Itaketheword‘people’inthegeneralsenseofeachcitizenofthestateinsofarashemerelyobeysthelawsofhealthyreasonwithoutchoosinghigherphilosophyashisguide.Andalthoughitissodifficulttodetermineexactlythebordersbetweenwealth[Reichtum]andbeingcomfortablyoff[Wohlhabenheit],betweenrhetoricaleloquence[Beredsamkeit]andgoodstyle[Wohlredenheit],betweenhealthythoughtandlearnedthought,neverthelesswearesecurefromconfusionifwewilltakenoteofthemeaningoftheword‘philosophy’andunderstandby‘people’allthosewhoarenotsuchphilosophers.IfIwereapresidentofanacademycomprisingfourormoreacademictradeswhounfortunatelyfitsintononeofthese,thenthisproblemwouldrequireadifferentsolutionfromthetheologian,fromthegeometer,fromthenaturalscientistandthepoliticalscientist,andIwouldjudgethematterasahumanbeing,withoutpreferenceforphilosophy(whichisintheprocessofgettingcondemned),foroneofmyownpetinclinations,orforoneofmyacademiccategories.Andinthiswaythetruthwouldbecomeclear,ifonedidnotaimtorefute,toexpressnovelties,tobecomefamous,butwroteasahumanbeingwhoislearningandtryingtomakeuphismind.Ihavelaidoutallthesevariousviewpointsinadvanceinordertomakeclearthenecessitywhichproperlybelongstomyquestion,andtoshowallthevariousviewpointsandsidesfromwhichitcanbeconsidered.SoIamundertakingtowriteaboutthisquestion:[“Howcanthetruthsetc.?”],andhavehadtopresentjustificationsforthinkingthatonemustwriteaboutit.Ifthequestionwereoneofthosesettopicsoftheacademiesaboutwhichonehastoshrugone’sshoulders,thenitwouldeffectitsownpunishmentbyvirtueofthefactthatingeneralamiserableriddleattractsthecompanyI.e.the“patrioticsociety”mentionedabove.NotethatHerderishereemployingtherhetoricalfigureofchiasmus(i.e.invertingtheorder)betweenthefirsttwopairsofexamplesandthelast.Readingwollteinsteadofwill.\nGeneralPhilosophicalProgramofamiserableOedipus.ButIwishforthisquestionmoreattention,betterfortune,andmoreapplication.IamspeakingaboutaGermantheme,IamspeakingbeforeGermans,whoarethedeepestand,aftertheEnglish,theleastbiasedphilosophers[Weltweise]ofEurope.IamspeakingasaGerman.Insteadofsowingwords,Iamplantingthoughtsandprospects.Ileaveittootherstoraisetheseseeds,andtomakethemtrees,andperhapsalsotogatherfruit.AndIrequestformyselfonlytheattentionwhichoneappliesinordertofindaseedthatmayperhapsbenoble.Iwilldivideupmyquestion,andsayabouteachpartofphilosophywhatsortoffruitsitdoesnotbearandhowitcanbearfruitsforthestate.Iknowthatmythread,myviewpoint,andoftenalsomythoughtswillnotseemorthodox.ButIalsohopethatitwillintheendbecomeclearwhyIdidnotchoosetheviewpointwhichwasperhapseasiestandwhicheveryoneelsewouldhavechosen.[Firstsection:]TruthsinphilosophyIfIshowedthattherearetruthsinphilosophy,I[would]seemtobelikethatadvocatewho,inordertodefendtheinnocenceofavirgin,laidbarehermostprivatepartsmerelyinordertoshowthathewasnottalkingaboutamaleperson.(But,justasthiswouldnotexactlyhavebeenthestrictestproofofherinnocenceforthejudges,likewiseitmustmerelyconstitutethepossibilityofanadvocatethatphilosophyhavetruths,thattheycanbeapplied.)SinceIamwritingforPyrrhonists,itfollowsetc.[Logicinitsfirstpart,]sinceitisopposedtothenaturalorderofoursoul,merelycontainstheorderofverbalpresentation.Andhereisamatterofasmallthoughindispensabletrivialitytowhichonecannevergiveallthosemuch-promisingnames.ThesecondpartofLogicismerelyaword-registerwhichcanentertainadistractedattentionandsomewhatfilloutthoughts.Andthesedefini-tionsaremostlyquitesuperfluousinphilosophyasinstrumentalconcepts.Onelearnsthemmerelyforthelogicians.Andlearning?Yes,thatisarealcorruptionforthephilosophoumenos:ifintheartwhichteacheshimtousehissoulheisatmosttrainedtoretain,healsocomestothinkthatThereisagapinthemanuscriptatthispoint–probablyafairlysubstantialone.Thefirstlinesofthesectionuptothispointcontain,besidesagap,alsovariousotherproblemsinHerder’smanuscript.Mytranslationofthemisthereforesomewhatconjectural.philosophoumenos:philosophizer.\nHowPhilosophyCanBecomeMoreUniversalallphilosophicalthinkingisretaining.Helearnstodefine,heswearsbythewordsofhisteacher.Whydowehavesofewindependentthinkers?BecausealreadyinschooltheywerehemmedinwithLogic.Oyouhismachine-liketeacher,welldoyouneedtosuppresshishealthyunder-standingwithyourschoolLogic;otherwisehewouldtakeyourmeasure,repeatthegobbledygookyoutookanhourtotrotoutafterwardsnaturallybutwithoutschool-clevernessinthreewords.Hewoulddespiseyou!Butwoeuntoyou;fromathousandheadswhowouldhavebecomemenonlytenwillbeboldenoughtobewise;therestarechokedwithschool-dust–liketheEgyptianmidwife.SoourLogiccontainscomfortless,far-too-universalrules,besidestheseaphilosophicalregister,andthenascholasticmethodofancientdisputation.Consequently,itstruthscannotbemadeuniversalforthebenefitofthepeople.Evenforscholarsitisnoinstrumentalscience,eventhephilosophicaluseofthismethod,sincethisusemostlyturnsphilo-sophicalthinkingintodisputation,andsinceourtimesnolongerarmthemselveswithSoritesparadoxesandenthymemes.[Becauseofthis]itisjustasfruitlessatasktoconcernoneselfwiththetyinganduntyingofsuchknotsasitistotosslentilsthroughtheeyeofaneedle.Butcantheynotbecomemoreuseful?Iwillanswerthisquestiondifferentlyforscholarsandforthepeople,whichknowsnothingaboutthelawofaLogic.WhenIconsiderwhatisgoodinourLogicprecisely,ourLogicseemstometobemerelyaquitewronglyseparatedpartofpsychology[Psychologie]thatmustbetreatedasmetaphysicsandnotatallpresupposedasinstrumentalknowledge.OurLogicpresupposesthegreaterpartofpsychology,unlessonewantstoconsideritasmutilatedlimbsofoursoulandasafieldfullofcorpses.ForwhowillspeakoftheabilitiesofsomethingwhoseforcesIdonotyetknow?ButourLogicmustalsobeunitedwiththemarrowofthescienceofthesoul[Seelenlehre]ifitistobeuseful.Inshort,Ihaveattemptedtoplantitslimbsbackintothebody,andIhaveseenhowtheneverythinglives,aspiritentersthesebones,theyarefulloflife.Gaier(G:)conjecturesthatthereisanallusionheretothepracticeamongEgyptianpeasantwomenofgivingbirthwhilesquattingontheground,apracticepresumablyleadingtothenewborninfantsometimeschokinginthedust,andtorelatedproblemsforthemidwife.ThemidwifeispresumablythephilosophicalteacherwhomHerderisdiscussing–invirtueofanallusiontoSocrates’useofthemetaphorofthemidwifetodescribehimselfandhisphilosophicalactivityinPlato’sTheaetetus.Readingihnenforihr.\nGeneralPhilosophicalProgramButisthisnotatmostamistakeinordering[thedisciplines]?Itwouldbeabigenoughoneetc.Butitisalsoamistakeinthematteritself.IfLogicoughttobetreatedasmetaphysics,thenImustdissectthesubjectiveconceptofthoughtandtheobjectiveconceptoftruth,notexplainandnametheminanarbitraryfashion,butunfoldthem,andbymeansofanextensiveanalysisoftheconceptsotospeakseektheoriginofalltruthandscienceinmysoul.Inthiswaythispartofpsychologybecomesanartofinvention,anartofjudgmentandverbalpresentation,whenitshowsthesecapacitieswithinme,whenit,sotospeak,impressesonmeaphilosophicalhistoryofgoodandbaduse,whenitrevealsmysoultomeas,sotospeak,thespiritfromwhichasciencehasflowedwithallitsmistakes,riches,etc.Inthisway,itcannotfailtohappenthatifIhaveamotivewithinmeitwillherebybeawakened,thatIsotospeakmakemyselfintoGodandphilosopherinrespectofmyownsoul,likePeteretc.–Theproofliesintheinventions.ThismuchpresupposedinordertodeterminehowLogicinitself–butwithoutmygivingthisnametoanotherscience–canbecomeuseful.Andforthepeople’suse?IfthereexistedaLogicwhichwasarrayedinalltheidealperfectionsofouridol,whichbanishederrors,etc.,shoulditbecomemoreuniversalfortheuseofthepeople?Aslongasonepassesjudgmentontheperfectionorimperfectioninanidealscienceofthoughtwithoutshowingthisgoddessintheplainclothesofhumanity,oneacknowledgesmuchtobegoodwhichitselfshowsitsflawsinitsapplication.Certainlyphilosophicalthinkingisaperfection.Butwhetherthisperfectionisoneforhumanbeingslikeuswhosesloganwasspokenbynature,“Live,reproduce,anddie!”andwhetherthinkingphilosophicallyisforcitizenstowhomthestatespoketheslogan“Act!”isaquestionwhichisveryrelevantforourproblem.Allphilosophizing(inthestrictsense)towhichthebestLogiccanraiseusisdispensabletothestate.Letsomeoneasktheproject-manBeaumelleandnameformethatgreatestaction,thatfinestproject,whichgrewinthelapofabstractionandnotinthebosomofhealthyreason.Thegreatestdeedsofwar,thefinestestablishmentsofthestate[are]purefruitsoftheLogicwhichournursesimplantedinus,notoftheLogicwhichourschoolteacherswantedtostampuswith.AndifnophilosophymaybeOr:discovery.I.e.PetertheGreat.Or:discoveries.L.A.delaBeaumelle(–),anauthorwhowroteonhiscontemporaries’passionforprojects.\nHowPhilosophyCanBecomeMoreUniversalpermittedtoraiseitselfuptotheserungs,thenthepeopleisevenmorefreeoftheseordinances.Thehighestdegreeofphilosophicalabilitycannotatallcoexistwiththehighestlevelofthehealthyunderstanding;andsothedisseminationoftheformerbecomesharmfulforthepeople.Assoonasoursoultranscendstheboundsofneed,itisinsatiableinthedesireforexcess,andifphilosophydeterminesnothingessentialinwhatisnecessary,thenitisamongthosescienceswhichneverallowanendofcuriosity.Ifphilosophyraisedustothoughtwewouldunlearnaction;forifanyMuselovestranquillityitisthegoddessofphilosophy.Clingingtocreationsofourownreason–some-thingwhichwephilosopherslearnthoroughly–wegiveupthehabitoflivelyregardforthecreationsofnatureandsociety.Welosethehonorablenameofapatrioticpeopleifwewanttobescholars.Opinionsholdswayherejustasmuchasthere.Butdoesnotahigherthinkingaloneremoveathousandmistakes,prejudices,errorsofthehealthyunderstanding?Letsomeonenameformeinsteadofathousandjustone.Alltheshortcom-ingsofthehealthyunderstandingmustbecapableofbeingremovedbyitself.Thusdoesnatureeverywherecureitself.Anditisnotangelsthataresentasdoctorsforhumanbeings.Ourphilosophicalreasononly,likeDaedalus,createsforitselflabyrinths,inordertomakeitselfaguidingthread;ittiesknotsinordertobeabletountiethem;itthrowsitselfintobattleswhereswordsandarrowswoundinordertoplaythepartofaholyart.Odoctor,aidyourself.Luckyisthepeoplethatdoesnotneedyouraid.Soeither[do]nothingor,philosopher,youwhoteachmetothinktruths,improvemyabilitieswhichIneed,thehealthyunderstanding.Thisneedsanimprovement,butnotaguidance.OneseesquitenaturallythattheremustbeaLogicofintelligencewhichmeritsgeneraldisseminationbyourpeople,aLogicwhich,notyetinvented,mustinparthoweverbemoredifficultthanourrulesofreason,sinceitshouldordertheimaginationandsensation,aLogicwhichneverconsistsinrulesbutrequiresmuchphilosophicalspiritforitsapplication.Inshort,itisthemethodof“preservingforthehumanspirititsnaturalstrengthinfullvivacity,andofbeingabletoapplyittoeachcase.”Readingsollforsollen.Herderoften,ashere,usesquotationmarksnotforquotationbutinordertoemphasizeastatementofhisown.Thispracticetakesalittlegettingusedto,butIhaveretaineditinthesetranslations(ratherthansubstitutingitalics,forexample)forseveralreasons,including()thefactthatthispreservesapotentialfordoubleemphasis–italicswithinemphaticquotationmarks–which\nGeneralPhilosophicalProgramWhereelseisthisLogicthaninthewritingsofourpatrioticfriendofhumanityRousseau?Hisgreatthemeisalltoocloselyrelatedwithmine:hehasprovedtoeveryonewhohashumaneyeswhichhavenotbeenweakenedbythephilosophicaltelescope“thatforthebenefitofthehumanpeoplenodevelopmentofthehigherpowersofthesoulisdesirable,”andIhavehadtoprovethatforthebenefitofthepeopleinthestate,ofthesecreatureswhoarestillnearertonaturethanscholars,nodevelopmentofthephilosophicalpowersofthesoulisdesirable.However,heneededagreatphilosophicalspiritinorderto,sotospeak,showalltheseshortcomingsofhumanityandofthosemiserableconsolers,thephilosophers,andequallygreatphilosophersarerequiredinordertosetsuchanegativeLogicintooperation,todirectthepeoplebacktothehealthyunderstanding’swellafterlongexperimentsatlogicalspringswhich,itturnsout,arefullofholes,etc.Thenthetruthwillbecomeuniversalforthebenefitofthepeopleandourscienceofthoughtwillbecomeusefulforthepeople.Recapitulation:OurLogicdoesnotteachustothinkmoreorbetter(scholarlythoughtismerelyforthescholar,andeventhatLogiccannotaccomplishunlessitistreatedasapartofmetaphysics).Thepeopleoughtnottobecomeaphilosopher,forinthatcaseitceasestobethepeople.Itisharmfultothepeople,andthepeopleneedsguidance–throughphilosophy–inotherwords,theLogicofthehealthyunderstanding.Aretherephilosophicaltruthswhichshouldbemadeuniversalinordertodestroyprincipleswhicharepracticalprejudicesandtomakepeoplemorallygood?Ourmoraltheory[Moral]isascienceofourobligations.Itshowsusourdutiesinanewlight.Sinceitdepictsforusreasonsinclearcolors,itdestroys,though,prejudicesandbadprinciples.Iteducatesthephilo-sophicallyvirtuousman,thesublimewiseman,whoisnotclothedinfalseillusion,whoraiseshimselfabovethecrowd.–Oh,toomanypraisesforevenoneperhapstobetrue.Herderoftenexploits,and()thefactthatitmakespossibleafaithfulreproductionofhybridcasesinwhichquotationmarksbothemphasizeandquote(suchasoccurnearthestartoftheTreatiseontheOriginofLanguage,forexample).Rousseau’sideasplayanimportantroleinthisessay.Forhelpfuldetails,seeGaier’snotes.\nHowPhilosophyCanBecomeMoreUniversalHasthepeoplerealpracticalbadprinciplescontrarytomorality[Moralit´e]?Ithinknot.Forthemajorityofthemdoesnotinfactactinaccordancewithanyprinciplesinthestrictsense.Inaccordancewithwhat?Thebridlethatguideshim.Thankstonature,whichcreatedus,therearenotcognitionsbutsensations,andtheseareallgood.Theyarevoicesofconscience,ourleader,sentbyGod.Theycanbemadeweaker,butnotobscured.Idrawfurtherinferences.Everythingthattheprinciplesandmaximsofmoraltheory[Moral]sayeachpersonknows,implicitlyandobscurely.LetsomeoneshowmearuleofmoraltheorywhichIasahumanbeingdonotknow–thatisthebestindicationthatitdoesnotpertaintome.Butobscurely?Yestobesure,obscurely.Butthisob-scurityisashadowoftherule’sdignity,itisinseparablefromwhatismoving.Allthelightthatthephilosophergivestherulemakesathingdistinctthatwasalreadycertainformebeforehand.Heteachesittomyunderstanding.Andmyheart,nottheunderstanding,mustfeelit.Ifrulesmakepeoplevirtuous,thenclothesmakemen,thenthephiloso-phersaregods,theyarecreators.Whatonewillalsowanttoobjecttome:themostlearnedinmoraltheoryseesthetruthinthegreat-estlight,heknowsreasonandrule,heabsolutelyhastobethemostvirtuous.Letmywholeprecedingsectionbeapplied:moraltheorydoesnotteachnewrules,northeoldrulesbetter;thelightthatmoraltheorygivesthemisfortheunderstanding.(Butaretherenotprejudices?Howmuchinfluencehasnottheunderstandingontheheart?Butperhapsnotphilosophicalreason.)Butaretherethenonlypurelyvirtuouspeopleifconscienceissufficientformoralgoodness?No!Butignoranceisnotwhatiscapableofproducingvice.Otherwisenaturewouldhavebeenastep-motherwholeftsuchanimportantfunctiontotheverydeceptiveworkofthehumanbeinghimself.Ratheritisrulingprejudices,corrup-tions,baddispositions.“Good!Andthatiswhatphilosophyissupposedtoeliminate!”Oh,thisiswherephilosophyisfullydisgraced.Overthrowingidols,likefalsehonor,insinceremodesty,whicharedependentonothers’Orpossiblyjust:paragraph.ButpresumablyHerderinthemissingopeningpartoftheprecedingsectiononLogicmadepointsabouttherulesofLogicwhichwereparalleltothosewhichheheregoesontomakeaboutmoraltheory.HencenotethatheevidentlygoesonbelowtomaketheparallelismofhisprecedingtreatmentofLogicandhispresenttreatmentofmoraltheorycompletewiththewords“Andthereforethesecondpart[ofphilosophy]tooismerelyalexiconoftermsofartwhichturnmoraltheoryintoanartofdisputation.”\nGeneralPhilosophicalProgramjudgment,whichruletyrannicallyoverthepeoples,whichhavelodgedthemselvesinthefinestnerves,whichhavesotospeakmoldedthem-selvestogetherwiththestringsofourhearts,andwhichcausesuchinfiniteevil–canourmoralphilosophydothis?Oh,onthecontrary,itisanewimpediment.Assoonassensationturnsintoprincipleitceasestobesen-sation.Ithink,Iconsider,Igraspmoralduty–myviewpointisquitedifferent,Iunlearnitsopposite:toact,toapplytheprinciple.Eachskillisopposedtotheother.Thegreatestteacherofmoraltheoryinthedeepestdemonstrationmustasmuchavoideverypiousmoanasalistenertoasermonwhowantstobemovedmustavoidthedevelopmentofapropo-sitionhehears.Thescholarwholooksathisbeauty’scheekthroughamagnifyingglasswilldiscoverlumpsandholes,sheerproportions,buthewillnotbemovedbybeauty.Andwhatismoralphilosophy?Acollectionofruleswhicharemostlytoogeneraltobeappliedinindividualcases,andyetalwaysremaintooflaccidtoopposeawholestreamofbaddispositionsandformapeople’swholemannerofthought.Nothingismoreridiculousthanhearingathinphilosopher–exgregecommuni–goonaboutthesupremestrengthofmoraltheory.Unlessanothersciencehelpshim–beitmetaphysicsorpoliticsoroftenevenamiserableeconomics–heisameretalker.Ifyoutakeawayfromhimhisphilosophicalbarrelwhichhestandsin,ifyoutakeawayfromhimthevenerablebarbarismofhiswords,thenhegetsbooedoff.Andthereforethesecondpart[ofphilosophy]tooismerelyalexiconoftermsofartwhichturnmoraltheoryintoanartofdisputation.Andanyonewhoaskedateacherwhohaswrittentwelvedisputationsaboutthehighestgoodwhetherhepossesseditmorethanallthosewhomhewantedtoteachwouldearntheanswer:thisisasirrelevanttothematterasetc.ButIknowthatsometeachersofpracticalphilosophylayclaimtothegreatmeritofwantingtoedify.Idonotwanttoinvestigatewhetherthisdoesnotusuallyhappenattheexpenseofphilosophy,sinceitisfareasiertomoralizethantopenetrateintothefundamentalgroundsofmoraltheory.SoIonlypointoutthatinthisitisnolongerthephilosopherbutthehumanbeingwhospeaks–andthehumanbeingwillalsounderstanditandprofitfromit,butforeverythingelseIneedtobeaphilosopher.AndReadingbildetenforbildete.Fromthecommonherd.\nHowPhilosophyCanBecomeMoreUniversalhereoneseesthatthequestionresolvesitselfintoourpreviousposition:thepeoplemustbeaphilosopherinordertounderstandmoraltheory.Butatwhatcost!Itnolongerremainsthepeople;tantipoeniterenonemo!Inbrief,itturnsout:Moraltheory,inordertoremainphilosophy,mustremainnothingmorethanametaphysicsofthewillwhichscoutsoutmysensations,mystrength,mymoralfeelings,andmybasicdrives–theanimal,thespirit,greatdepthsofdivinity,andinfiniteelucidations,etc.Thenitmusterectourobligationsfromthesedrives,uptothehighestfirstconceptofmorality[Moralit¨at],ofalaw.Itmustbringthistothesharpnessofmetaphysicaldemonstration.Itmustnotonlycitethevicesbutexplainthemetc.AlthoughIcouldsaymuchaboutthis–theextenttowhichourmoraltheoryhasbecomedemonstrableornotetc.,towhatextentithasconfusedtheboundariesetc.–Imerelyindicatetheview-pointandleaveitatthatetc.Iamnotworkingonthequestion“Howcanphilosophybemadeusefulforthebenefitofphilosophers?”Thepeopleneedsphilosophyneitherinordertothinknorinordertohavebettersensations.Philosophyisthereforeverydispensableasameanstopurposes.Itspathistoolaborioustobemypath.So,youphilosopher,whowanttomakephilosophyuniversal,beholditsshortcomingsetc.Ifyoudonotseethem,allright,youarestillblindedbyitsfalseillusionetc.Stripit,seeitwiththehumanbeing’seyes,anditwillappeartoyouaVenus,butnotthatheavenlyVenus,thesisterofwisdometc.,buttheearthlyVenus,thesisteroflearningetc.,thedeformedoffspringofhumanbeingswhofornicateswithherfathers.Butifyouknowher,good!,IimploreyoubytheholiestthingthatIcanname,byyourself:beahumanbeingandhavesympathywithyourbrotherswhoarebet-terthanyou,whothinkhealthilyonthepathofnaturewithoutgettinglostinthelabyrinthofendlessdoubtsanderrors,whoarehonestwith-outhavingahundredreasonsandasmanydoubtsandamongthehun-dreddoubtsathousanderrors.Behold!,youarealreadyaphilosopher;oh,beahumanbeing,andthinkforhumanbeings,thattheymayactandbehappy.Inthiswayyousacrificeyourselfforaworld.Philosophyisnotuniversalbut,fortunately,narrower,andpreciselytherebymoreuseful.Idonotbuyatsuchgreatcostinordertorepent.Thethoughtbehindthisstringoftopicsanditsconnectiontothecontextareobscure.ForthetwoVenuses,cf.Plato’sSymposium,d.\nGeneralPhilosophicalProgramThetruthsofabstractphilosophyviewedaspurposes.Shouldtheybemadeuniversal?Fromthispointofviewtheymerelysatisfyourcuriosity,andstandinoppositiontoahappyignorance.Yetcuriosityisaveryeffectivedriveinthesoul,sinceitisthisthathaschangedthesphereofthehumanbeingintothebroadorbitofthescholar,theneedsoftheanimalintotheneedsofahumanbeing.Sincecuriosityhasbecomeamotherofphilosophy,hersonshabituallyshowhergreatfavorinreturn.Theycallherthefirst,simplest,mosteffec-tiveimpetus,indeedeventhebasisofallpleasure.Speakingloosely,theyareright,butinrealitysheisnotthefirstbasicdrive,buttheinstinctforself-preservationisherfather;sheisadrivecomposedfromself-preservationandself-defense,andwithintheboundsofnaturemerelydefensive,neveroffensive.TheHottentotisalsocuriouswhenitisamatterofinvestigatingterribleshipswhicharearriving,butdeadtoeveryfinercuriosity.Thelatterisanartificialdrivewhichaimsatpleasure,andhencethelastandmostsuperficialofallimpetusesofthesoul.Itrunsthroughnatureandcreatesforitself–whenoneallowsitfreerein–newworlds,realmsofideas.Hereitbecomesinsatiable,infinite.Ittranscendsourabilitiesandeitherdreamsupforitselfimaginarycloudsoferrorsandhypotheses,orifithasrunthroughthewholecourseofthingsbecomesdull,andwecryout“Allisvanity!”Sinceeveninthemidstofitspleasure’spassiononlycolorconstituteslightandshade[forit],[sinceit]staysclingingtothesurfacesofthingswithoutexca-vatingtheirviscera,sinceitsessenceisinconstancyanditsfetishchange,itisnotthemainpleasurebutthelastpleasure.Tobesure,itisfoundwhereveranythingdelights,butitisthelastthingthatmakesthemdelightful.Ourcuriosityisthereforenotatallunqualifiedlygood,andifoneacceptsasthefirstmainlawofasoulthedrivetoextendourideas,thenevenaperverseideastillhasaclaimonmycognition,andthepeople,inordertobecomehumanbeings,muststretchitselftotheverylimitoftheabstract.Asadfate,whichentanglesmeineternalerrorsandtearsmeawayfrommyself.Indeedthisisthefirstprincipleofthephilosopher,butiscuriosityyourhappiness?[Ifyoufollowit,]youareaninsatiabledropsy,andevenifyouweretodrinkpurenectar,youareunhappy.\nHowPhilosophyCanBecomeMoreUniversalSowhydowewanttowakentheearofthoseunphilosophicalpeopletoasirensongwhichdrawsthemfurtherandfurtherfromtheirwayandplungesthemintoruin?Whydowewanttomakethemthirstyinordertobeabletoslakethem?Whydowewanttotakethem,whoalreadytastethebitternessofcuriosity,awayfromtheirhappyignorance?Oyouwhowishtotearawaywithaboldhandtheveilthatnaturewovebeforethings,mayyourhandtrembleback.Youschoolteacher,whoforceyourpupilstoabstractphilosophy,youworkcontrarytonature–feverishlyandyetuselessly,indeedasadestroyerofnature.Inreality,itisalsothecasethatthewholeofmetaphysicshasnothingworthyofmention,sinceitmerelysayswhatthehealthyunderstandingthinks.Thesecondcircleisatissueofwords,thethirdhypotheses.Ourhistoryofphilosophyisfable:atmostIhearsomethingthatconcernsthehumanbeingandcouldbeallowedtopass;Ihearthefoolinapophthegmsanddeeds;orifIgettoseethephilosopher,thenitishisbust,mutilatedlikeDagon,andthehandsandheadhavebeenaddedbythecharityofmoderns,aswithmostRomanstatues.These[statues]deceivemany,butnotWinckelmann,whomtheformerdonotindeedknow,butthenwhatdoesthehealthyunderstandingthinkaboutthisetc.?Didthephilosophersnotalmostalwaysformasect,neverthesameone,nevertherightone–perhapsstillnownot,andperhapsalsostillnowmoretheworkofthreegreatmenwhomtherestpiouslyechoasthecauseofalllearnednaturethantheactualcauseofalllearnednature?Thesedayswepiouslyechothreemen,andeachofushashishead.Thefirstwasamathematician,everythingthatthehealthyunderstandingthinksnaturallyandhealthilyhefloodedwithetc.Anotherisatheologianetc.Thethirdisamysticandpoetetc.Whattruthofontologycanclaimetc.?Itisfittingthattheancientscalledit‘terminology’;itisstillnowaboxofwordstoo.Whoeverwill[enter]thefrayetc.?Isthewholeofcosmology,exceptforalittlewhichbelongstonaturaltheology,notaparticulartissueofwordswhichexplainschanceintermsoftheworldandtheworldintermsDagon,GodofthePhilistineswhowasknockeddownandmutilated(Samuel:–).Thetextismessyhere.IamreadingthewordsalsderSacheganzgelehrterNaturasaconflationoftwoconstructions:()alsdieSacheganz[er]gelehrterNatur(i.e.thesecondhalfofthecomparisonintroducedbymehr);()alsderSacheganz[er]gelehrterNatur(i.e.specifyinghowtherestnachbetenthethreegreatmen).GaierconjecturesthatthethreemeninquestionhereareDescartes,Leibniz,andShaftesbury,respectively.Thiswasascholasticnameforontology.\nGeneralPhilosophicalProgramofchancesetc.?WhowilldaretoentertheHumeanquarrelaboutthecommerceofbodies(naturaltheology)?Fewattractions[inthis]forthehumanunderstanding,unlessitisverydegenerated.Itisfortunatethatnaturegavehumanbeingsnoinclinationforit.Theyarehumanbeings,notphilosophers.Philosophyisingeneraluselessforhumanbeings,uselessforeachhumanbeing,butalsoharmfulforsociety.Thepeoplelosesitshonorablenameof‘people’whenitetc.Itunlearnsattentivenesstosmallthingswhenitconcernsitselfwithgroundsetc.WhichHumealso[says]aboutbusinessmenetc.Atleasttheyarenot[inattentive]whentheywork.Thesedayspoliticshasincorporatedhisopinionsanderrors.Eitherarevolutionmustproceed,whichisimpossiblegivenourpresentluxuriousweakness,ordiscordantetc.Itissomebenefittoremovetheopportunityforworse.[This]requiresapplicationtoourschools,femaleeducation.Thebenefitofthepeople.SecondsectionSopushforth,Opeople,intotheholyplacesofphilosophy.Teardownalltheidols,andconstructtherestatebuildings,assemblieswhereinsteadofphilosophicalnonsensethehealthyunderstandingcounselsthestate,humanity.TearfromthephilosopherstheirDiogenes-capesandteachthempillarsofthestate.No,Orepublic!,bymeansofthisdevastationyouplungeyourselfintothejawsofbarbarism;toavoidasmallharm,youdrownyourselfintheEuripus.Athousandotherslurkaroundyouwho,eveniftheyalwaysthinkthesamewayyoudo,wouldnowthinkinoppositiontoyou.Onlyphilosophycanbeanantidoteforalltheevilintowhichphilo-sophicalcuriosityhasplungedus.Certainlythetransplantationofastateintofinercircumstanceshas,likePandora’sbox,spreadmisfortune.ButitisalsothecasethatonlyGaierplausiblyinterpretsthisasanallusiontoHume’sconcernwiththeproblemoftheinteractionofbodieswithsouls–aproblemwhichwasalsocentraltoGermanphilosophyintheeighteenthcentury,e.g.inM.KnutzenandtheprecriticalKant,whereitinvolvedalargetheologicaldimension(hencethe“naturaltheology”whichherefollowsinparentheses).Orpossibly:its(i.e.thepeople’s).Themeaningofthiswholeparagraphisratherunclear.Notethatthissectiontakestheformofa(semi-explicit)dialoguebetween(initially)opposedviewpoints.Seetheeditor’sintroductionforsomediscussionofthisHerderiantechnique.Euripus,aGreeksea-strait.\nHowPhilosophyCanBecomeMoreUniversalphilosophyistheantidote.Philosophythinksforamillionotherssothattheseact;itdoesnotteachthemsothattheyshouldimprovethemselvesbutitselfimprovesthem–onthestreets,asitstrayed,itlearnedtogiveothersrightdirections;itforms[bildet]thehumanbeing,thecitizen,inaccordancewithbetterprinciples.Inthiswayitbecomesuseful,forthebenefitofthepeople.Thepatrioticphilosopherbecomesanhonorablebardamonghisbrothers;peopleslistentohiseveryword;heproclaimsphilosophy.Tobesureourphilosophymustdescendfromthestarstohumanbeings.Theabstractcomponentmustforitspartremainunattacked,un-mutilated.Butistherenotinadditiontoitaphilosophywhichisimme-diatelyusefulforthepeople:aphilosophyofthehealthyunderstanding?Imusttalktothepeopleinitslanguage,initsmannerofthought,initssphere.Itslanguageisthingsandnotwords;itsmannerofthoughtlively,notclear–certain,notproving;itssphererealadvantageindailyaffairs,foundationsforadvantage,orlivelypleasure.Behold!,thatiswhatphilosophymustdoinordertobeaphilosophyofthecommonpeople.Whorecognizesourphilosophyinthispicture?InsteadofLogicandmoraltheory,thisphilosophywithaphilosoph-icalspiritformsthehumanbeinginindependentthought,andinthefeelingofvirtue.Insteadofpolitics,itformsthepatriot,thecitizenwhoactuallyacts.Insteadofauselessscienceofmetaphysics,itpresentshimwithareallydelightfulone,whichimmediately...BeholdwhatIhavetoaccomplishinordertohavesaidwhatIwant!Andfortunatelymostofitisprospectswhichhavealreadyforalongtimebeenfavoriteplansofmine.No,Opeople,youremainhonorablewithoutputtingonfancyairsthroughphilosophy.Butthephilosophertooremainsmorehonorableforone,equippedwiththeunctionofthesciences.He,whoattainedperhapsthehighestleveltowhichthehumanspiritraisesitself,whoinordertodevelophissoulrenouncedsomuchpleasure,whoinordertoenjoyapleasureoftheunderstandingwithdrewfromtheenjoymentoflife,heishonorableforyou.However,notonly[as]aprodigyoftheunusualshouldhe[receive]admiration,butmakeprayertohisshadeasamartyrforthetruth.Sinceheransuchdifficultcoursesinordertoguideyouonaneasypath;sincehethoughtlearnedlyonthestreetswhichhefoundbeforehiminsuchabadstateinordertofreeyoufromthem;sincehemadeitmoredifficult\nGeneralPhilosophicalProgramforhisownhearttobemovedthroughawebofspeculationinordertojustifyyourcause;sinceheminedthefirstprinciplesofpoliticssothatyoucouldapplytheminedgoldforthedecorationofyourtownhalls;sincehestrayedthroughthefieldofmetaphysicsinordertomakemoreexactdistinctionsintheexperiencesofnaturalscience–kissthesweatfromhisbrow,heisforyouamartyr.Onedoesnotfellacedar;evenifitfalls,itneedsthespaceofcolossiandfellsmanysmallbushes.Whocandeterminetheborderbetweenphilosophyandtheothersciences?Assoonasphilosophyisbanished,barbarismcomesunavoid-ably.Thehumanunderstandingisdeprivedofitshighestlevel,itislimitedandletsitswingssink.Barbarismisaleaven.Inordertoseethetruthofmypoint,letthepresentconditionofthesciencesandthegoverningtoneofphilosophyinallthesciencesbeconsidered.Thetheologianasmuchasthejurist,thedoctorandthemathematician,allwanttomakeabstractphilosophytheirfoundation,butvirtuallyallhavemixedupitsborders.Nowalthoughmostofthisisbasedonafalseappearanceandonarem-nantofscholasticphilosophy,neverthelesssucharevolutionwouldhavetooccurfirstinorderthatnoteveryonewantedtobecomeaphilosopherwhenhehadnorighttobecomeone.Somethingthatwillbeenduring...CertainlyIconcedethatthetheologiansetc.canbuildtheirheaviestprinciplesonthehealthyunderstanding.Butwhentheirenemiesreceiveweaponsagainstthemfromahalf-understoodphilosophy,creepintothedark,[cover]themselveswithfig-leavesetc.,thenaphilosophermustknowtheirtricksofcombatinordertousetheseindefense.Theneveniftheyfoughtwithalltheirmight,hewouldalwaysdefeatthem.Youthephilosopherandyoutheplebeian,makeacommonallianceinordertobecomeuseful.Thatmuch[thisalliance]canexpectofeverycitizen,andlikewisefromyou[thephilosopher],whoaresupposedtobeagoodexample,whohaveeatenthemarrowofthestateforsolongandhavealwaysproducedambiguousbenefit.[Thirdsection]However,thebenefitofthephilosophersforthepeoplehassofaroverallbeensmall.Evenifthesephilosophershadtheminesetc.,theyareusuallyspectersinsocialintercourse,andcannotputalltheirfindsinafavorableOrpossibly:their.Orpossibly:theplebeian.\nHowPhilosophyCanBecomeMoreUniversallight.Schoolteacherstothecommonpartofthepeople,andacademicstothegalantshadow-spirits...Theirlanguage,method,mannerofthought,perhapsalsoreallytheiractivities,haveformedafence,anditisaprob-lemwhichmustconcerneveryphilosopher’sheadandeveryfriendofhumanity’sheart,HowcanI...?Thosesavagesdemandedoftheaca-demicwhohadclamberedontothecordillerastobetoldwherehiscowwas,andveryoftenthebenefitthatoneexpectsfromaphilosopherisjustasetc.Ifwearerightthatitbelongswithinaphilosopher’sdomain,thenwoetophilosophyifusabilityshoulddecideit.Inordertobecomeuseful,learntowriteandcalculate,tothinknothingandsaymuch.However,itisstillnotgoodthatthephilosophershouldexistmerelyforhimself.No!,thephilosopherhimselfmustdeterminehisbenefit(heishishighesttribunal).Lethimaskthehumanbeing,thepatriot,thephiloso-pherwithinhimself.Thepeopleisonlyahumanbeingandpatriot,noth-ingofphilosophybelongsunderitsjurisdiction.You[thephilosopher],andnotthepeople,knowwhetheryouhavebeenapoison.Beyou,andnotthepeople,anantidoteaswell.Iheredividethepeopleandthephilosophersintotwoparts:onepartphilosophymustmerelyformtobecomeactingmachines;fortheothersthephilosophercanindeedstrikeanotesothattheystartthoughtthem-selves,butwithouttakingthemupintohisguild.Theformerisaccom-plishedbyaphilosophyintheformofanart,thelatterbyaphilosophyintheformofatechnicalscience.Thehumanbeingwhomerelyactsknowsnoothercategoriesthanmanandwoman,andifphilosopherscanformsoulswhyshoulditnotbepossiblefortheretobeamongthemmen-philosophersandwomen-philosophers?Ifphilosophy[Philosophie]istobecomeusefulforhumanbeings,thenletitmakethehumanbeingitscenter.Philosophy,whichhasweakeneditselfbyfartoohugeoverextensions,willbecomestrongwhenitrestrictsitselftoitscenter.Letaphilosopher[Weltweiser]whoisahumanbeing,I.e.:HowcanImakethetruthsofphilosophymoreuniversalandusefulforthebenefitofthepeople?Herderfrequentlyusesthisdemonstrativeformofreferenceinordertointroduceafamiliarstoryorproverb.Mountainridges,especiallyinSouthAmerica.Orpossibly:its.“Men-philosophersandwomen-philosophers”preservesanambiguityinHerder’sGermanwhichwouldpermiteitheralessoramoreradicalinterpretation:arethe“women-philosophers”merely(male)philosophersforwomen,oraretheyphilosopherswho(also)arewomen?\nGeneralPhilosophicalProgramacitizen,andawiseman[Weiser]gothroughtheretailstoreofourphilosophicalspecialties–much-promisingtitleswhichwouldoftenbeuselesseveniftheyliveduptoalltheirpromises.Senecasaidaboutallfinery,“HowmuchIcandowithout!”–andletusthrowthree-quartersofourlearnednessoverboardinordertoreachtheharborsafelywiththatlittleamount.Theartofsquanderingisanecessarypartofthehouseholdregimeofarichmanwhodoesnotwishtobetoofullortoopoor.Ishallburyninety-ninepoundsandmakethemostofthehundredth.Andwhoshouldsaythismorethanthemanwhowantstomakehim-selfusefultothepeople,whichdoesnotknowwhat[is]rightetc.andalsodoesnotneedtoknowit?Happyifphilosophyshowedhimthepathonwhichheteachesthepeopletoactwithoutthinking,tobevirtuouswithoutknowingit,tobecitizenswithoutponderingaboutthefunda-mentalprinciplesofthestate,tobeChristianswithoutunderstandingatheologicalmetaphysics.[Logicaleducation[Bildung]]Aphilosophythatwantstobeusefulmustbeginbyremovingharm,andthisfirstofallinahumanbeing’seducation[Erziehung].Aslongasthechildisstillmerelyananimal,thephilosophermerelyleavesitinthehandsofhumanbeings,butofhumanbeingswhomhehasalreadyhimselfimprovedbymeansofhisprinciples–veryrarelythedoctorandnotatalltheteacherofreligion.Herehemoldsthechild’sbodywithoutcompulsion,anditssenseswithallthefreedomoftheanimal.Inordertoachievethisonemustmakethehigherfacultiesripenaslateaspossible,andinmorethanonerespectkeepinmindtheprinciple:donoteducate[bilde]thephilosopheruntilyouhaveeducated[gebildet]thehumanbeing.Whentheembryoisdevelopedthenphilosophygivesthesecondgreatcounselthroughathousandexperiences:lethimtastethemarrowofphi-losophywithouteverrecognizingit,andlethimmerelydigestitasnutri-tivejuice.Setbeforehiminsteadofwordsalargenumberofactions,lethimseeinsteadofreading,insteadofwishingtoeducate[bilden]hisheadlethimeducate[bilden]himselfandmerelyprotecthimfrommiseducatingThebasicmeaningoftheverbbildenistoform,tomold.Butitfrequentlyshadesoverintomeaningthingsmoreliketoeducate,tocultivate,ortocivilize.Ihavepreferredtheformertranslationswherevertheyarenottoomisleading–ashithertointhisessay–buthaveresortedtotranslationsfromthelattergroupwheretheywouldbe–ashere.\nHowPhilosophyCanBecomeMoreUniversal[mißbilden]himself.Allthegreatpreparationsofmethod,theprofession-allyphilosophicalaspectoftheunderstanding,merelyachievesillusion,itgivesthepeopleaquitemistakenconceptofthisholyname.Trytoimprintinhimaphilosophicalspirit,sothatheneverdesirestobecomeaprofessionalphilosopher.Mayyourmainlawbefreedomanddependenceononeself,uncompelledself-observation,andindependencefromothers’judgment.Everythingthatthephilosophersteachandcan-notdo,thosedowhoareclosesttonature,thesimplecountry-dwellers.Thesearethegreatestobserversofnature,intheirserfdomthefreestpeople,whodespisethetyranthonor,whoneverletothers’judgmenttakeprecedenceovertheirown.Inshort,Ophilosopher,gotothecoun-tryandlearnthewayofthefarmers,refinethispictureintoanideal,andoverthrowtheunphilosophicalmannerofliving,overthrowtheidolwhichshowsyouphilosophyascorruptionoftheworld,butnotthroughphilosophy.Hewhoinspectsthepeoplewithaphilosophicaleye,howmanyuncomprehendedconcepts...Whenitistaughtnothingforeignetc.Welearnmerelywhatwedonotneed.Letthisbesaidtotheprivatetutors,theycanimproveawholehouseiftheyarephilosophers;tothecountrypeople;totheteachersofreligion,fromwhomweunfortunatelyalsolearntothink;totheteachersofthehumblerpartofthepeople.[Moraleducation[Bildung]]Philosophybecomesusefulifitshowsthewaystomakehimvirtuouswithoutscience.Perhapstheyarethese:Ifonedoesnotmakehimvirtuoustooearly.Amongallconditionsofthesoulitismorality[Moralit´e]whichdevelopslatest.Ifeverabstractconceptsareatallnecessaryevenforthepeoplewhichshouldmerelyact,thentheyarethemoralones,andeventhese,Ishouldliketosay,becauseofthemisusewhichhasalreadybeenintroduced.Butgothroughalltheranksofthepeople:innosubjectarethereasmanyuncomprehendednamesReadingerforeres.AsentencefromHerder’sessayplanrelatingtothissectionisworthquoting:“Moraltheory:Letonenoteducate[bilde]throughspeculationbutthroughpublicforathefeelingforthenoble.”Theexactforceofthis“If...”sentenceandofthosethatfollowatthebeginningsofsubse-quentparagraphsisnotentirelyclear.Theforcecouldbesimplythatofaconditionalwithanaposiopesisimplying“thenphilosophybecomesuseful”(cf.amomentago“Philosophybecomesusefulif...”).Alternativelyitcouldbethatofatentativeproposal,modeledontheFrench“sion(+imperfect).”Orperhapsithoversbetweenthetwo.\nGeneralPhilosophicalProgramashere.Oh,andourholyreligionitselfbecomesinthepeople’smouthacollectionofbarbaricwordswhichtheydonotunderstand(wordswhichbelongintheOrient).Iamtoomodesttosaythattheirteacherhimselfdidnotunderstandthem,toomodesttosaythattheymeannothingforusexceptthroughaccommodations.Isayonly:perhapstheyweretaughttothemasprejudices.Therereallyisanagewithoutmorality[Moralit´e],andtowanttoimplantvirtueinitistoimpressontheheartanattitudewhichretainsitsquirksforever.Whatexplainsthefactthatvirtueisalmostanidealpicturewhicheachpaintsspeciallyforhimself,oftenaDulcineaofToboso?Whatexplainsthefactthatvirtuealmostsuffersthesamefortuneasoursensationsofbeautywhentheywereplantedonsensationsandnotonreason?Itsproutedtooearly.Ithink,Iembracevirtue,anditturnsouttobeanattitudeofstrictorsweetsensationadoptedinvitogeniomeo.Ifonedoesnotteachhimvirtuebutimprintsitinhim.Themoralconceptsare,amongallconcepts,verysubtle,andyettheyareperhapstheonlyabstractconceptswhichgiventhepresentconditionoftheworldareleastavoidable.Butgo[through]alltheranks...Evenourreligionetc.Ontheotherhand,ifImakeanenclosurearoundtheseabstractions,thenletmyphilosophymakeitselfasusefulaspossible.IfIdonotpreachvirtuetohisunderstanding,butpreachtohisconsciencethevirtuewhichheunderstands,thenImerelylendahandtonature.Onthegroundofhisconsciencethewholefieldalreadysleepsetc.Iwakeitupetc.Iimpressinhimanimagewhichneverdiesout,andwithoutanyhelpfromart.Nosophistrycanconfusehim,becausehelearnedthisimagewithoutsophistry.IfIonlyherehadvoiceenoughtoawakenourvenerableteachersofvirtuetobephilosophersaswellwhentheypreachvirtue,andtobesuchonesaslayasidephilosophy!WhenIherehearonewholeadsasimpleflockintoalabyrinthfullofdistinctions–eitherthesheepbecomeintimidatedandremainignorantortheygetlostinthethorns,theygetwounds.Oteachersofreligion!,howmanyyoungsoulsyouhavelaidwastethroughwordswhichtheydidnotunderstandandwhichdevelopedinthemintoprejudicesthatcanneverberootedout!Oh,layasidemethods,becomechildren.Otherwiseitwouldbebetterifyouhadkeptsilent.Themajorityarenotsufficientlyphilosophersinorderthattoothersthey...YouwhopreachtomeinhalfanhourapileofuncomprehendedAnapparentidealbeautyworshipedbyDonQuixotewhowasinrealitymerelyafarmmaid.Contrarytothewillofmynature.\nHowPhilosophyCanBecomeMoreUniversalmoralwordswhicharetornfromtheircontext,whichareforusOrientalnonsense,takeaday’stimeinordertoexplainyourself.Ibetyouwillextendthetimeatleasttoayear.Arenotallthesewordsetc.etc.?Ifonedoesnotpreachtohimdutieswhicharetoostrict,foreignobligationswhichhisheartdoesnotprescribetohim,butonepresentstohimtruedutiesinanativelight.Ourtimeisnotatimeofstrictnessbutofluxury,andwhatwasappropriateforothertimesisperhapscontrarytoourmannerofthought.Timesofroughsimplicityhavevirtuesandvicesofstrength,wehavevirtuesandvicesofweakness.TheyhadAlcibiadeses,andThemistocleses,andDavids,whereaswearetooweakevenfortheerrorsinmotivationofwhichtheywereguilty.IfInowattackthosecrudeexcesses,Iamattackingaforeigncastle,andonthesidethatmatterstheenemyremainssafeandhidden.Oh,letus,inordertobecomeuseful,learnmorals[Moral]fromhumanbeings’hearts,notfromforeigntimes.ButofcourseinsteadofphilosophersIamspeakingwithetc....Whoeverbecomesmyteacherofvirtueismyphilosopheretc.Andwherearetheregatheringsofthepeopleforvirtuebut[through]preachersetc.?Thesephilosophersonecannotescapeetc.Fromthemthemostbenefitetc.But[theymust]alsobephilosophers.Theypreachformenandwomenetc.Sowhydotheypreachlikemonkswhoknownowomenetc.?Theypreachforpeople,forsociety.Sowhylikemonksinanotherlanguageetc.?Whynotvirtueetc.?Oh,howmanygreatopportunitiesetc.Confessionalsetc.Gatheringsetc.Whydidyoubusyyourselveswithphilosophyetc.?ArmedwiththeprestigeofGod...Thatistheinterestofthepeople–usefulforever.[Politicaleducation[Bildung]:]HowphilosophycanbeusefulforthebenefitofthepeopleascitizensHerephilosophymustworkmiraclesetc.,thetimewhenphilosopherswerestatesmenmustcome,thestatemustbeimprovedfrombelow:Ifthephilosophereducates[bildet]citizens,iftheyarehumanbeings.–Eachhumanbeingisfreeandindependentfromothers.Allsocietiesarecontracts,andifthesearedestroyedononeside,thentheyalsoceasetoholdontheothersideetc.Imustindeedexistinsocietyetc.Butonemustkeepfaithetc.Shouldamonarch[subject]hisetc.,thenthepeoplemustforcehim.Doesthisnotleadtothediscontentmentofthepeopleetc.?No!Eventhefarmerwilllivecontentinthemannerallowedbyhis\nGeneralPhilosophicalProgramunrefinedtraitsetc.Ihavenotthebrilliantmiseryetc.Youhavewhatyouneed.Ifoneeducates[bildet]citizensasapatriot.–Thisfirespreads,repro-ducesitselfetc.Complaintthatthereisnoplaceforit.Butdevelopment.Inrepublicsitisetc.Andsociety.Education[Erziehung]tooearly.Books.Abbt.Alsosermons.Familyspiritetc.AssoonasIunderstandthatIamconnectedetc.Farmercoldetc.Somewhatmorerefinedfamilyspiritetc.Hencethenoblesetc.Inschoolsofwarwarrioretc.,inmercantilecitiesmerchantetc.,inrepublicscitizen.Theresocietyisnottoocold.Deedsignitedeedsetc.Herephilosophersarenotexcludedfromdeeds.Encouragementwhentheylendahand.Ifoneeducates[bildet]citizens,notrationalizers.–Preachersashusbandmen–philosophers.Thedifferencebetweenourrepublicsandancientrepublics.Disad-vantageswhenthecrowdthinksforus.ApeoplemorerefinedbybooksWomenare[partofthe]people.Aphilosopherreallyoughttothinkoftheirupbringing.Thisisimportant.Differencebetweenalearnedmanandwoman.Theyhavenomeans,notacademies,notschools,notsociety,notwritings.Theycanfirstbeimproved...Asthegreatest[task]oftheschools...Maytheynotbecomephilosophers.Notlearned.Somesciencesomitted.Maytheynotlearnbyheart.Maytheylearnnothingmasculine,foreign:wars,politics.Maytheylearntothinkbeautifully[sch¨ondenken].Planofwomen’sstudiesetc.Ofanaestheticetc.Maytheylearntofeelvirtue–veryeasy.Planofamorals[Moral]forthem.Maytheylearnsocietyandtaste.Meansforthat:betterhouseholdtutors;moresocializingbetweenboth[sexes];onemustgetmorebooksintowomen’shands;suitableorganizationofthebooks;ofwomen’soccupations;fromthesideofmothers;fromthesideofyoungmen;theninsociety.HerderactuallywroteAbthere,butmeans,Itakeit,torefertoThomasAbbt,theGermanpatrioticauthorwhowasagreatfavoriteofHerder’sandthesubjectofaeulogyexcerptedlaterinthisvolume.Ifthisisright,hehasslightlymisspelledthename.Ashespellstheworditwouldusuallymeanan“abbot.”AsentencefromthepartofHerder’sessayplanrelatingtothissectionisworthquoting:“Philosophyisreducedtoanthropology,modifiedaccordingtothe[different]typesofthepeople.”ThepartofHerder’sessayplanrelatingtothepresentsectioncontainsamoreradicalversionofthispoint:“[Women]arethepeopleparexcellence[ammeisten].”AkeyconceptinBaumgarten’saesthetics.\nHowPhilosophyCanBecomeMoreUniversalNoblermalesinschoolsandacademies.Thechangingofthem.Nothingshouldbelearnedbyheart.Thereshouldbenodisputation.Booksshouldbeorganizeddifferently.Socializingmoreopen.Theyaretheeasiesttoimprove,closesttothephilosopher.Herephilosophyisaverygoodpartofluxury.Boredom.Curiosity.[Fourthsection.]OverviewOurphilosophyhasforsolongstilllackedaplanofeducation[Bildung].Letthehumanbeingbetakenoutofphilosophy,andappliedtoeverythingelse.Historyofhumanity–notofhumanbeings(politics,history,fragments);notofhumanity’srules;notofhumanity’sworks;butnatureitself;thecoreispsychologyand...thegreatstageDiversityofbodies,andofminds[Gem¨uter]etc.,ofopinionsandoftastes,ofsensationsetc.Greatexceptions.Thentheworksofhumanity,andeverythingashumanbeing.Fruitsofthiswhichheenjoysasahumanbeing.Induties.Subjectiveethicaldoctrineetc.Varietyandunityineverythingetc.Lack...InreligionInthinking–historyofscholarshipfromthehumanbeing;corethehistoryofphilosophyInthepoliticalconstitution–suchabookasMontesquieu–restrictionofphilosophytoanthropology–luxuryshouldbeintroduced...[Listbreaksoff.]Forthisplan,greatgiftsareneededateachpointinordertohidetheteacher,andtomakealltheimpressionsintoanythingbutlabors.Forthisplan,equallyfavorablecircumstancesareneededonthesideoftheparentsandthepupils,equallyfavorableconnectionsinsocietyandoutsidesociety,muchexperienceandtasteandloveofhumankindonthepartoftheteacher.Inshort!,aphilosophywhichisthefinestbecauseitseekstobecomeusefultothefinestpartofthepeople.Andinordertosetupthisphilosophy,isnotanintroductionofthephilosopherintowomen’squartersandpartiesrequiredhere?Aconver-sationwiththisfairsexwhichdrawsfromthem,anddisplays,theirfinestideasandenrichesphilosophywithsuchavaluableportion,theknowledgeofthefair[partofthe]people,whichknowledgemustbethefoundation\nGeneralPhilosophicalProgramforitseducation[Bildung]:educationforthehumanbeing,theman,society,andchildren!Fifthsection:Howcanphilosophyrefinethepeople’stasteforthepeople’sbenefit?Thepeople,whichbesidesthegamesofthecircusneedsphilosopherstoentertainitselfaswell,hasweightyclaimsthattheirwritingsshouldaccordwithitstimeandmannerofthought.Assoonasitwererecognizedasabasicrulethatone’sbookmustbewrittennot[only]fortheinhabitantsofscholarshipbutalsoforone’sneighbors,itbecomesadutytopayattentiontoeveryentrywayintothetasteofthepeople.IntheoldesttimeoftheGreekandRomanrepublicsthelanguageofthewriterandofthecommonpeoplewasidentical.EventhedivineHomerspokewordswhichwereinhistimeprose,asBlackwellshows,orthepeopleofhistimespokepoetryjustaseachaoidossangit.Somethingwhichisparadoxicalforus,butwhichLonginusasserts,andBlackwelljustifies:poetryisolderincommonlifethanprose.Thisisalsowhythefirstwritersarepoets,thefirstnomoisongs,andtheoldestreligionsmythologies,allofwhichspeakthelanguageofthesensuouspeople,alanguagewhichisasunintelligibleforusasitwouldbedifficultforoureyetounderstandtheirhieroglyphics,orforoureartoputupwiththeirmusic.Intimesoffinerculture[Bildung]prosedevelopedoutofpoetry,andStrabohaspreservedforusthenamesofthosewhobecametheseinventorsofthestylewhichaccordedwiththenewplebeiantaste.Hereevergraduallystepbysteppoetryandproseseparatedoverthecourseofhistory,untiltheyfinallypartedwayscompletelyinthetimesofPtolemyPhiladelphusandhereinthetimesofAugustus,andprosealoneremainedtothepeoplealongwithafewminorgenresofpoetry.PerhapsthisisalsothereasonThetranslationagainherepreservessomeambiguitiesinHerder’sGermanwhichmakepossiblelessandmoreradicalinterpretations:Isthe“knowledgeofthefair[partofthe]people”merelyknowledgeaboutitorrather(also)knowledgebelongingtoit?Isthe“it”in“its”merely“thefair[partofthe]people”orrather“thepeople”toutcourt?Readingseinerforihrer.T.Blackwell(–),AnEnquiryintotheLifeandWritingsofHomer().aoidos:singer,bard.nomoi:laws,songs.Thisverbishereinthesingular,whereasthe“partedways”thatfollowsisintheplural.Thissingularverbwithtwonounsisanexampleoftherhetoricalfigureofhendiadys(“onethroughtwo”)–usedwithstrikingaptnessgiventhecontextofthoughtinvolvedhere.\nHowPhilosophyCanBecomeMoreUniversalwhythelaterGreeksandlaterRomansremainedinferiorinhightragediesandfinercomedies.Wehavealreadyforagespastcountinglostthepublic:thepeople[Volk]ofcitizensandthepeopleofscholarship.Aslongasourancestorswerewarriorstheirbardssangthehistoryofpasttimes;thesebecamelegislatorswhentheydevelopedthemselvesmoreintocities,andwhocancount,fromthismetamorphosison,alltheinvasionsandtransformationswhichhavetornfromustheword‘people’?Ithasbeentornfromthetheater-poets,andHolberg’scomedyonthebadsideandDiderot’sandGellert’sbycontrastonthegoodsideshowthecondescensiontowardsthecommonerpartofourtheateraudiencethathasbeenattempted.Stillmore,though,doesourbourgeoisandweepytragedybringhomehowverylittleweshareinthepathosoftheancientpeople.Theword‘people’hasdiedoutforthephilosopherssincethemomentthesehadtoconstructananthilloftheirown,andsincethemomentthedistinctioncameintoforcethattheintellectualworldisheaven,thepeople’srepublicearth–sotospeaktwosidesofoneandthesamecoin.Allphilosophywhichissupposedtobelongtothepeoplemustmakethepeopleitscentralfocus,andifphilosophy’sviewpointgetschangedinthemannerinwhichoutofthePtolemaicsystemtheCopernicansystemdeveloped,whatnewfruitfuldevelopmentsmustnotoccurhere,ifourwholephilosophybecomesanthropology.PerhapstherewillbesomepeoplewhoexpectedinanswertotheproblemIamwritingaboutmerelythingsthatIwanttoincludeinthissection,andsoImusttrytodojusticetothese.ThisisaratherstrikinganticipationofthecriticalKant’smetaphorofaCopernicanrevolutioninphilosophy.Presumably,Kantwasalreadyusingthemetaphorpriortothecriticalperiod–though,ofcourse,notyetwiththefullidealistmeaningthatitwouldeventuallyacquireforhim–andHerderishereborrowingitfromhim.\n\nPartIIPhilosophyofLanguage\n\nFragmentsonRecentGermanLiterature(–)[excerptsonlanguage]Itremainsgenerallytrue:“Theexactitudeofalanguagediminishesitsrichness.”aAndinordertomakethisobviouswemaycomparetheoldestlanguage,theHebraicorArabiclanguage,withourlanguageinrespecttorichness;therichnessisasdifferentasthedomesticeconomiesofthoseregionsandours.Theycollectedlivestockandslaves,wecollectgoldandhouseholdequipment;itisthesamewiththerichnessofthetwolanguages.Theirlanguageisrichinlivestock.Initnamesofnaturalthingsarefrequent.InthesmallbookoftheHebrews,whichisallthatwestillhaveremaining,therearealreadybotanicalwords,nameswhichourlanguagecanindeedexpressbutdoesnotknowhowtoexpress,bbecausethekaloik’agathoiofourbourgeoisworlddevotethemselvestoanythingratherthangatheringshepherds’knowledge,becauseournaturalphiloso-phersliveamongbooksandareagainturningtoLatinbooks.Ourbucolicpoetsandsingersofnaturethereforecannotplucktheflowersoftheseplants;evenifwehadGermannames,theywouldnotbefamiliarenough,theywouldnothaveenoughpoeticdignity,forourpoemsarenolongerwrittenforshepherdsbutforcity-dwellingMuses,ourlanguageislim-itedtothelanguageofbooks.–Ontheotherhand,Leibnizalreadynotedthatourlanguageisalanguageofhuntingandmining.IthinkthoughaLiteraturbriefe[i.e.BriefedieneuesteLiteraturbetreffend(Berlin,–)],vol.,p..bSeeMichaelis,R´eflexionssurl’influencedesopinionsetc.[I.e.J.D.Michaelis(–),Del’influencedesopinionssurlelangageetdulangagesurlesopinions().]Literally:fair/beautifulandgoodmen.Butbettertranslated:gentlemen.See,however,Herder’sownextendeddiscussionofthetermbelow.\nPhilosophyofLanguageinpartwas,becausemanyofthesewordsareeitherobsoleteorserveastermsofartandcraft,sinceourmanneroflifeisnolongerthehuntandmines.Wearethereforemoreconcernedwithhouseholdequipment.Termsofart,bourgeoisexpressions,socialsayingsarethecommonestsmallchangeinoralandwrittencommerce.Theancients,bycontrast,exchangedgoldpieces;theyspokethroughimages,whereasweatmostspeakwithim-ages,andtheimage-richlanguageofourdepictingpoetsrelatestotheoldestpoetslikeanexampletoanallegory,likeanallegorytoanimagedonewithonestroke.ReadHomerandthenreadKlopstock.Homerpaintswhenhespeaks,hepaintslivingnatureandthepoliticalworld;Klopstockspeaksinordertopaint,hedepicts–andinordertobenew–aquitedifferentworld,theworldofthesoulandofthoughts,whereasHomerbycontrastclothestheseinbodiesandsays“Letthemspeakforthemselves!”TheeconomyoftheEasternerswasrichinslaves;andtheirlanguageissotoo.Theinventorsoflanguages,whowerecertainlyanythingbutphilosophers,naturallyexpressedbymeansofanewwordwhattheywerenotyetabletoclassifyunderanotherconcept.Inthiswaytherearosesynonyms,whichwereasadvantageousforthepoetastheyarean-noyingforthegrammaticalphilosopher.TheArabpoetwhohaswordsforthelionwhichsignifydifferentconditionsofit,forexample,younglion,hungrylion,etc.,canpaintwithonewordandcanspeakmoremany-sidedlythroughtheseimagessketchedwithonestrokewhenhesetsthemintocontrastwithoneanotherthanwecanwhoonlymakethisdistinctionclearthroughaddeddeterminations.ThechorusesoftheEasternerscanalmostrepeatthemselvesintheirtwocontrastingphrases,buttheimageorthemoralreceivesnoveltythroughanex-pressionoraword.ThecoloringchangesandthischangepleasestheEasterners’ears,whereasourlanguagewhichischainedtothesealmost-synonymsmusteitherexpresstherepetitionswithoutthisnuance,andthentheyareforourearsirritatingtautologies,orexpressesthemwithasheerglancetothesideandstraysfromthemainideaofthepicture,asveryoftenhappensintheGermantranslationofthebible.Themis-takereallyliesinthedifferencebetweenourlanguagesandisdifficulttoavoid.This,Ibelieve,providestheexplanationoftheremarkofourphilo-logicalprophetintheOrientallanguages“thatthesetautologieswhich\nFragmentsonRecentGermanLiteraturepleasedtheearsoftheEasternersareintolerabletoourears.”cTheywerenottautologiesforthem,fortautologiesarealwaysrevoltingandcanatleastneverplease,butwhenonechorusexplainedordeterminedtheother,ormadethepresentedpicturenewwithnuances,thissatisfiedeyeandear.IbelievethatMichaeliswillfindthattheyareinthenativelanguagerarelycompleterepetitions.Buttobesure,intheGermantranslation,andaboveallinCramer’spsalms,therewedofindperpetuaetautologiae,Europaeinvisae,aureslaedentes,prudentioribusstomachaturis,dormi-taturisreliquis.Cramerseemsbothinhissermonsandinhisso-calledodes,inhiscan-tatasandinhisflowingprose,tohavegotsousedtotheserepetitionsandperiphrasesthatheforgetsthequestionwhethertheGermanear,whichdemandsbrevity,andtheGermanunderstanding,whichlovesemphasis,issatisfiedwiththem.Hisuncommonlyfortunateeaseinversificationleadshimsofarastraythatheforgetsthequestionwhetherhisrepeti-tionsarealsoappropriatefortheGermanlanguage.Hisodes–andbeforeKlopstockandRamlertheyweretheparadigmofGermanodes–areoften,itmustbesaid,ajingleofrhymes,andIdoubtwhetheraDavidorAssaphwouldinourtimeandinourlanguagehavewrittenpsalmsinCramer’smanner.“Butthendidn’theintendtotranslatethem,nottotransformthem?”Good,thenlethimtranslatethemasOrientalpsalmswithalltheirlightandshade.Onlyhemustnottransformanything,forinthatcaseitismuchmorenaturalforourgeniusandlanguagetoabbreviatethem.Ijudgefrankly,becauseIbelievethatIcanandmaysojudge:ifMichaelishadCramer’stalentforversification,orCramerhadMichaelis’ssenseoftheOrient,thenforthefirsttimewewouldbeabletopreservetheEasternpoemsinaccordancewiththegeniusofourlanguageasaGermantreasure;asthingsarenow,bothofthemlacksomething.Butmyremarkstraystoofarfromthethemethatgrammarandreason-ingaboutlanguagehasweakeneditsrichness.Thestewardlyphilosopherasked“Whyaretheresomanyuselessslaves?Theygetineachother’sway!”andhegotridofthem,butprescribedtotheotherstheirprecisecMichael.praef.inLowth.lectionesP.I.[I.e.J.D.Michaelis,prefacetoR.Lowth,Desacrapoesihebraeorumpraelectionesacademicae(originally,ed.Michaelis).]J.A.Cramer(–),PoetischeUbersetzungderPsalmen¨(–).Perpetualrepetitions,hatefulandjarringforEurope,makingthewiserirritatedandtherestfallasleep.(ThisisafreerenderingbyHerderofafreerenderingbyHamannofacommentinMichaelis’sprefacetoLowth.)\nPhilosophyofLanguagefunctionsoasnottobeidle.Ishallspeakwithoutmetaphors!Whenpeoplelearnedtoclassifyconceptsunderoneanothermore,thentheyexpressedwithadetermination(adjective,participle,adverb)thatforwhichtheyinitiallyintroducedanewword.Therestillremainedsyn-onyms,though!Butthephilosophersoughttobringfinedistinctionsintothem,andhencetousethemasnew,validwords.InproofIciteforGermanWolffandBaumgarten.ThroughWolff’sGermanwritingsthewordswhichstandunderphilosophicaljurisdictionhavebeengreatlyre-ducedinsynonyms,sinceheattemptedtodeterminethemprecisely.AndevenmoreBaumgarten;gothroughhismetaphysicsandtakenoteoftheGermanwordscitedbelow;philosophygivesmostidlesynonymsworkanddeterminateposts.Butthatisthelanguageofphilosophy.LetSulzer,thestilllivingBaumgarten,determinethewordsangenehm,sch¨on,lieblich,reizend,gef¨alliginhisaesthetics–theworldwillbeverygratefultohim.LetotherscontinueonBaumgarten’spathandaKantinhisObservationsontheBeautifulandtheSublimenotefinedistinctionsbetweenwordsthatarealmostthesame–theyworkforGermanphilosophyandGermanphilosophicallanguage,butnotforlanguagemasteryingeneral.Youcannotdeterminethemall,philologicalphilosopher!Youwillpre-sumablywanttothrowthoseonesaway?Butdoeseverydaylanguagealsothrowthemaway?No!Yourjurisdictiondoesnotyetextendthatfar,andstilllessintothelandofthepoets.Thepoetwillinevitablybecomefuriousifyourobhimofsynonyms;helivesfromsuperfluity.Andifyoudeter-minethem?Butasidefromthefactthatyoucannot,thenbeautifulproseandbeautifulpoetrydisappearscompletely,everythingbecomesarosaryofcounted-outtermsofart.Itiseverastrokeofluckforthepoetandastrokeofbadluckforthephilosopherthatthefirstinventorsoflanguagewerenotphilosophersanditsfirstdevelopersweremostlypoets.Soourlanguagehaslimitedsynonymsandstrivestocollect,insteadofslaves,goldandcoins.Letmebeallowedtocomparethewordsforabstractideaswiththese.Botharestruckbywilfuldecisionandentergeneralcirculationthroughavaluefixedbywilfuldecision.Themostvaluableamongbothofthemgethoardedupastreasures,whatismoreRoughly:pleasing,beautiful,lovely,charming,pleasant.Herderquiteoftenusesasingularverbforapluralsubjectinthisway.Thisisanancientrhetoricalfiguresometimesknownas“thePindaricconstruction”(andisdistinctfromhendiadys,inwhichthesubjectisonlyverballybutnotconceptuallyplural).“Withthese,”damit,isvagueinitsreference.Thesentenceswhichfollowshowthat,whileitrefersinthefirstinstanceto(goldand)coins,italsoreferstothelimitingofsynonyms.\nFragmentsonRecentGermanLiteraturetrivialbecomessmallchange.Onthissidetoothereislosstoourpoetry,inwhichtheimaginedvalueevaporatesandonlythenaturalvaluecounts,wherethereforeabstractwordsonlycountinsofarasonecanrepresentthemsensually.–Theartofpoetrycanhencegainnothingthroughourphilosophers,andhasgainednothing;justaslittleastheancientscouldtranslateourbook-andacademic-languageinallitsnuancescanwespeakliketheancients.Andnowwhatfollowsfromallthis?Perhapsmuch,butfornowonethingmaysuffice!GermancouldcertainlyuseaGirard,verymuchso,buthemustnotbecomealegislatorthroughout.TowanttodoawaywithallsynonymsinalanguagewhichisnotanidealphilosophicallanguageistheattitudeofasecondClaudiusorChilperich,whowantedtointroducenewlettersandmadegrammariansintoABC-martyrs.∗Ontheotherside,peoplehavetosuchanextentrecommendedtranslationsinordertodevelopourlanguagethatIquoteanoteworthypassagefromtheLiteraturbriefeonthissubject:“Thetruetranslatorhasahigherintentionthanthatofmakingforeignbooksintelligibletohisreaders,anintentionwhichraiseshimtotherankofanauthorandrefashionsthesmalltraderintoamerchantwhoreallyenrichesthestate.Nowthisintentionisnoneotherthanthatoffittingtohismother-languageexcellentthoughtsaccordingtotheexampleofamorecompleteandperfectlanguage.InthiswaydidApollocontrivethatAchilles’armorfittedHectoraswellasifithadbeenmadeforhisbody.Intheabsenceofexperimentswhichareconnectedwiththisintention,noprimitivelanguagecanbecomecompleteandperfect,noprosewriterinitcanbecomecompleteandperfect.Onlypublicspeakersreceiveenoughencouragementtomaketheirownexperimentsintheformationofthelanguage,andthegreatestpartoftheseexperimentsisinvain.Butletonedoitbymeansofexperimentsonthemodelofabetterlanguage.Suchalanguagealreadyrepresentstousinaclearwaymanyconceptsforwhichwehavetolookforwords,andG.Girard(–),FrenchphilologistwhowroteonFrenchsynonyms.ClaudiustheRomanemperorandChilperichthekingoftheFranksbothreportedlyhadprojectsoflinguisticreforminvolvingtheintroductionofnewletters.Iliad,bk.,ll.–.Actually,itwasZeuswhodidthis.\nPhilosophyofLanguagepresentstheseconceptsinsuchjuxtapositionsthatwedevelopaneedfornewconnections.Nottomentionheremusicalharmony,whichcanbebettermeasuredwhenevertheearhasimmediatelybeforehandbeenfilledbyasentenceverycorrectly.WhatgreatadvantageswouldnotinevitablyaccruetoourlanguageifitlearnedtomolditselftotheGreekandLatinlanguagesasfaraspossible,andshoweditsflexibilitytothepublic’seyes!Thesetranslationscouldbecomeourclassicalauthors.Therecouldbenoobjectiontothethoughts,becausethesealofexcellencehasalreadylongsincebeensetonthese;andcareinpreservingtheharmonyoftheirexpressionwouldalsotransferasmuchmusicalharmonyintoourlanguageasourlanguage’sgeniuspermitted.Ifourtranslatorsaddtotheseancientsalsosomemodernforeignerswhosegeniusisprovenandwhoselanguageisrelatedwithours,whatwouldwenothavetobegratefultoourtranslatorsfor!Andtheywouldalsobesatisfiedwithourgratitude,somethingthattheycanreceiveassuranceoffromEbert,whomasanexcellenttranslatorwerightlynumberamongourbestauthors.Arewe,then,lackinginthevirtuequaeseritarbores,utalteriseculoprosint?”dThusthetruetranslatorissupposedtofitwords,expressions,andconnectionstohismother-languagefromamoredevelopedlanguage,fromtheGreekandLatinlanguagesespecially,andthenalsofrommodernlanguages.Nowletustalkaboutthisinaccordancewithourpresupposedpremises:Allancientlanguageshave,liketheancientnationsandtheirworksingeneral,morethatisdistinctivethanwhatisnewer.Henceourlanguagecaninevitablylearnmorefromthemthanfromthoselanguageswithwhichitismorecloselyrelated;oratleastthedifferencebetweenthetwosidessuppliesphilosophersoflanguagewithamassofdataforobservations.Letustrysomethingofthelatter.Justasthebestdeedsofheroismwhichwedidasyouthsdisappearfromourmemories,likewisethebestpoetsarealwayslosttousfromtheyouth-ageoflanguage,becausetheyprecedewriting.InGreekwehavefromthistimeactuallyonlyHomeralone,whoserhapsodiesbyaluckychancesurvivedformanyOlympiadsafterhisdeathuntiltheydLiteraturbriefe,vol.,p..TheauthorofthiswholepassageisAbbt.ItslastsentenceisherereadasaquestionwithSuphanratherthanasanexclamationwithGaier.TheLatinmeans:whichplantstreessothattheymaybenefitthenextcentury.\nFragmentsonRecentGermanLiteraturewerecollected,whereasalltheotherpoetsbeforehimandmanyafterhimarelost.AeschylusandSophoclesandEuripidesconcludedthepoeticera;intheiragePherecydesinventedprose;Herodotusstillwrotehishistorywithoutrefinedsentences[Perioden];soonGorgiasgaveoratorytheformofascience,philosophybegantobetaughtpublicly,andgrammarwasdetermined.Whatarewesupposedtostealfromthistimethroughtranslationsforourlanguage?Onlyletitnotbemeters!Foritisimmediatelyapparentthatthesemustbedifficulttoimitate.Atthattime,whentheaoidoiandrapsˆodoistillsang,whenpeopleevenindailylifeexpressedwordsinsuchahighpitchthattheymadeclearlyheardnotonlylongandshortsyllablesbutalsohighandlowaccents,thateveryearcouldbethejudgeofprosody–atthattimetherhythmofthelanguagewasstillsoclearthatthecadenceinwhichtheverseswererecitedor,astheancientsexpressedit,sungcouldtoleratethepaceofahexameter.Andthiswasthereforethemostpreferredmeter,whichincorporatedthemostharmonyinitself,whichlayasexactlyintheirlan-guageasiambicsprovenaturalforoursong,andwhichwasmostsuitablefortheirearsandthroats,becausetheirmelodyinsongandintherecitationofcommonlifeascendedanddescendedahigherscaleofpitchesthanoursdoes.Butwespeakwithfeweraccentsmoremonotonously,whetheronecallsitflowingorcreeping;wearethereforenotusedtothemeasureofahexameter.Giveagoodhealthyunderstandingwithoutschool-wisdomiambics,dactylics,andtrochaicstoread,andiftheyaregoodhewillscanthemimmediately;butgivehimamixedhexameter,andhewillgetnowherewithit.Listentothecadencesinthesongsofchildrenandfools;Periodehereandinwhatfollowsgenerallysignifiesnotmerelyanyoldsentencebutasentenceconstructedinacareful,roundaboutway(cf.theoriginalGreekmeaningofperiodos),inordertomeetsubtleaesthetic-rhetoricalrequirements.Forfullerdiscussion,seeGaier,G:–.InthesecondeditionHerderaddshere:“HenceonlyHomerstandsontheshoreofthisgreat,darksea,likeaPharos,sothatitisatleastpossibletoseeaheadinone’svoyagebackintime[hinansehen]foralongdistance.AndthissingerofGreeceoccurs,Ibelieve,preciselyatthepoint,whichisasthinasahairandassharpasasword’ssharpness,wherenatureandartunitedinpoetry,orratherwherenaturesetthecompletedworkofherhandsontheborderofherrealmsothatfromhereonartmightbegin,butthattheworkitselfmightbeamonumenttohergreatnessandanembodimentofherperfections.WithHomereverythingisstillnature:songandethics,godsandheroes,vicesandvirtues,contentandlanguage.Songisroughandmagnificent,ethicsprimitiveandatthesummitofhumanstrength,thegodsmeanandsublime,theheroesvulgarandgreat,vicesandvirtuesbetweenmoralsandinhumanity,languagefullofpovertyandsuperfluity–everythingawitnesstothenaturethatsangthroughhim,butthatsethimupasamodelwhomallartshouldemulate,thoughwithouteversurpassinghim.”InthesecondeditionHerdermodifiestheprecedingtwosentencesasfollows:“Meterwithgreatdifficulty.AtleastmeterwillneverbecomeforuswhatitwasforHomer,singingnature.”\nPhilosophyofLanguagetheyareneverpolymetrical.Orifyoulaughatthat,thengoamongthefarmers,payattentiontotheoldesthymns;theirfallingpitchesareshorterandtheirrhythmuniform.Bycontrast,theGreekrhapsodessangtheirlongpoemsinperpetualhexameters–doubtlessbecausefortheirearsthehexameterwasnottoolong,evenforstreetsongs,andfortheirlanguagewasnottoopolymetric;andbecausetheirprosodyandmannerofsingingdeterminedeverysyllableandpitchproperly.Butnow!IfyouwanttoreadGreekhexameters,thenfirstlearnprosodyinordertobeabletobringthesyllablestotheircorrectpitches!YouwanttomakeGermanhexameters?Makethemaswellasyoucan,andthenneverthelesshavetheverseformprintedoverthem,asKlopstockwasadvisedtodo,orrequest,likeKleist,thatthismeterbereadasprose.Canyourecitehexameters?Good!Thenyouwillalsoknowthatthebestrecitationistheonethatmosthidesitsfeetandonlyletsthembeheardwhentheysupportthesubstance.See!Thehexameterandthepolymetricmetersaresolittlenaturaltoourlanguage;withtheGreekstheirsingingrecitation,theirearusedtosong,andtheirvariouslypacedlanguagedemandedit,butwithuslanguageandearandrecitationforbidit.Whatarewesupposedtoimitatefromthistimethen?Theguidingoftherefinedsentence[desPerioden]?Notthiseither!Homersangandwascollectedlate!ThetragediesofAeschylusandSophoclesweresungthroughoutonthestage,astheancientscollectivelybearwitness.Thelanguagethereforeinthosedaysrestedmightilyonarecitationwhichhascompletelydiedoutforusandwhichinthosedaysgaveitspiritandlife.Wethereforelosewiththisrecitationalsotheuseofmanyparticles,connectives,andexpletiveswhichbelongtotherecitationofthosedays.TheAll’hotanwithwhichtheoraclesalwaysbegan,thealla,de,andautarofHomerwithwhichheconnectsthelimbsofhissentences,would,sinceweareusedtoprosesentences,soundveryoddintranslation–justasridiculousasifthehonest,blindbardstooduptosinghistwenty-fourletterstous.Wecanthereforeimitatenothingofthis.Butitdoesbelongtoapoeticreadingoftheancientsofthisera.WhenIreadHomer,Iinmymind’seyestandinGreeceonanassembledmarket-placeandimaginehowtheI.e.thetwenty-fourbooksoftheIliadortheOdyssey,whichlaterGreeksdistinguishedbydes-ignatingthemwiththetwenty-fourlettersoftheGreekalphabet.InthesecondeditionHerderaddshere:“Hetearsapartanddismembershissentence,butwiththeholyrhythmwithwhich–inTheocritus’sphrase–theBacchantsdismemberedPentheus.”\nFragmentsonRecentGermanLiteraturesingerIoninPlatosingstometherhapsodiesofhisdivinepoet,howhe,“fullofdivineinspiration,amazeshisaudience;how,whenhe,besidehimself,tellsofUlyssesasherevealshimselftohisenemies,orofthetimethatAchillesattacksHector,hemakeseachtimidperson’shairstanduprightandheartpound;howhebringstearsintoeveryone’seyeswhenhesingsofthemisfortunesofAndromache,ofHecuba,ofPriam.JustastheCorybantes,delightedbythemelodyofthegodwhoinspiresthem,showtheirdrunkenjoyinwordsandgestures,solikewiseHomerinspireshimandmakeshimintothedivinemessengerofthegods.”Inthisdelight,myearandsoularefilledwiththewholeharmonyofthehexameterandthewholesplendorofHomer’ssentence;everyconnectionandeveryepithetcomesaliveandcontributestothepompofthewhole.AndwhenIfindmywaybacktomynativelandagain,thenIfeelsorryforthosewhowanttoreadHomerinatranslation,evenifitwereascorrectaspossible.YouarenolongerreadingHomer,butsomethingwhichapproximatelyrepeatswhatHomersaidinimitablyinhispoeticlanguage.Arewesupposedtoenrichourlanguagewiththeinversionswhichinthosedaysintheirflexiblelanguageyieldedtoeveryhintofpassionandemphasis?Tryit!Shacklesofgrammaticalconstructionhavebeenputonourlanguage,evenonthemostfreeandconfusedKlopstockianhexameter,whichwillgenerallydestroytheharmonyoftheGreeksentence.Orarewesupposedtotrainourlanguageinformingvividwords[Machtw¨orter]inimitationoftheGreek?Tryit!EvenifyouareaSwiss,youwilloftenenoughhavetoparaphrasetheepithetsinHomer,Aeschylus,andSophocles.IdonotconsiderthehymnsofOrpheussooldthattheywouldintheirpresentformreachbackasfarasOrpheus.Butjustasourchurchlanguageandchurchpoetryconstantlyremaincenturiesinthepast,thosehymnsdobestshow,inmyopinion,howtheoldestlanguageofpoetryinthetimeofthehighstylewas.Nowgood!TrytotransplantthesehymnsintoGermanthewaySkaligertranslatedthemintooldLatin.Despiteallthestrength,youwillnonethelessoftenmisstheoldGerman,whichmayIon,b–c,abbreviated.HeretranslatedfromtheGerman.InHerder’ssecondeditionthissentenceinsteadreads:“Andalmostthesamethinghappenstouswiththeinversionswhichinthosedaysinthatflexible,unlimitedlanguageyieldedtoeveryhintofpassionandemphasis.”Machtw¨orteraredefinedasfollowsbyBreitingerinhisKritischeDichtkunst():“ByMachtw¨orteronemeans...thosewhichsignifyaconceptwhichisbroadandinallaspectspreciselydetermined,whichhencemakeonethinkofmuch,andconveyathingwithspecialemphasis,”forexample,“tobreakoff[abreißen]theconversation...Iamonthethreshold[Antritt]ofmyjoys...Iwasashamedandcastdown[betreten]bythis”(pp.,).\nPhilosophyofLanguagehavesoundedOrphicwiththeoldDruidsintheirholyoakwoods!Mayayoung,spiritedgeniusmakesuchboldexperimentsforourlanguage,butlethimalsoallowold,unbiasedphilologiststopassjudgmentonthem.Homer,Aeschylus,Sophoclescreatedthebeautiesinalanguagewhichstillhadnodevelopedprose;maytheirtranslatortransplantthesebeautiesintoalanguagewhichremainsproseeveninmeterand–aswethinktohaveproved–eveninthehexameter,sothattheyloseaslittleaspossible.Thosepoetsclothedtheirthoughtsinwordsandtheirsensationsinimages;thetranslatormusthimselfbeacreativegeniusifhewantstodojus-ticetohisoriginalandtohislanguagehere.AGermanHomer,Aeschylus,SophocleswhoisasclassicalinGermanastheyintheirlanguageerectsamonumentwhichstrikestheeyeofneitherafopnoraschoolmasterbutwhichcaptivatestheeyeofthewisemanthroughitsstillgreatnessandsimplesplendoranddeservestheinscription:HOLYFORPOSTERITYANDETERNITY!Suchatranslatorisundoubtedlymanyheadstallerthananotherwhotranslates,fromanearerage,fromarelatedlanguage,fromapeoplewhichsharesthesamemannerofthoughtandgeniuswithus,aworkwhichiswrittenintheeasiestpoeticstyle,namelydidactically,andwhichdespitethatstilllosesitsbestcoloringinthetranslation–evenifthistranslatorshouldbeEberthimself.HisYoungcouldstillhavewrittenhisNightThoughtsinGerman,inourtime,inaccordancewithourethics[Sitten]andreligion.Butcouldthosepoetshavewrittentheirworksinourlanguage?Inourtime?Withourethics?Never!AslittleasweGermanswilleverreceiveaHomerwhoisinallrespectsforusthatwhichHomerwasfortheGreeks.∗IamhenceinsuchgreatdespairaboutthetranslationoftheoldestGreekpoets.ButletonetryallthemoretoexploitselectivelytheGreekproseofaPlatooraXenophon,aThucydidesoraPolybius,andtoexploitthelaterGreekpoets.Atthisperiodlivedthekaloik’agathoiofthesciences,whoaremorecloselyrelatedtothegeniusofourtime;therefinedsentence[Periode]wasinitshighestsplendor;andidiomswerebecomingmilder.IhaveusedethicsasthetranslationforSittenthroughoutthisvolume.ButitisimportanttostressthatHerdermeansbySittensomethingpre-theoretical(moralsormoralcustoms),notthetheoreticaldisciplineofethics.ForthetheoreticaldisciplineofethicsheinsteadusuallyusesthetermMoral,whichIhavenormallytranslatedmoraltheory.ItwasmainlythepresenceinthetextsofthiswordMoral,alongwiththatofanotherword,Moralit¨at,thatdissuadedmefromtranslatingSittenasmoralsormoralcustoms,asmightotherwisehavebeenmostapt.\nFragmentsonRecentGermanLiteratureFromtheseauthorstheGermanlanguagecanunquestionablylearnmuch,becauseitcanadaptitselfmorereadilyandmoreflexiblytotheGreeklanguagethantoLatin,becausetheGreeklanguagealsounquestionablydeservesitmore,andbecausefortheGermansadevelopedpoetryandproseofthegoodunderstandingisunquestionablythebestlanguage.Heilmann,thetranslatorofThucydides,whocertainlyknewhisauthorandtheartoftranslation,seemsnottohavehadtheflexibilityoftheGermanlanguagesufficientlyunderhiscontrolinordertomaketheGermanlanguagefittogetherwiththeGreeklanguage.However,itmustbeadmittedthatthisBaumgartianphilologiststillchosehisauthorprettyfelicitously,forhedoesgiveusthepithyThucydides,whosemannerofwritinghehasdepictedforuswithmasterfulstrokes:“Oneseeseverywheretheattitudeofthegreat,thenoble,manwhowritesasastatesmanbutwhoalsowishestowriteonlyforstatesmen,whohasinmindnothoughtatallofbecomingaclassicalauthorfromwhomatsomepointinthefutureoratorswouldgatherexamplesfortheirrules.Hethuseverywherelooksonlytothedignityinthethoughtsandthenobilityintheexpression.Hecomprehendsthethoughtsconcisely,andinexpressionheisconstantlyatpainstokeepawayfromwhatiscommon.Inhisyouthhehadunerringlygraspedthefundamentalprinciplesoforatory,butheretainedthemafterwardsinordertousethem,nottobindhimselftothem.Heisanauthorwhomakesthethoughtseverything,andtheexpressiononlyasmuchasisrequiredforthethoughts;whocom-prehendshisideaspreciselyandconcisely,andwantstoexpressthemthroughoutashehasgraspedthem–andexpression,sentences[S¨atze]andtheirconnections,refinedsentences[Perioden]andtheirrelations,andeverythingmusttailorthemselvestothis.Hismannerofwritingandthinkingisloftyinthehighestdegree.Hehasperfectknowledgeofhislanguage,sothatheisabletoachievethatblossomingwhichhecouldhaveachievedthroughtherichnessofexpressionwhichhequitelacksthroughthechoiceofthemostemphaticwordsandthroughtheirener-geticbendingandcombination.Andheisboldenoughtomakethissortofthingwhenhedoesnotfinditalreadyathand.Fromthesefeaturestakentogetherarisesamannerofwritingwhichisdifficult,dense,andcomplexinrespectofwholestatements,strangeandoftenirregularinrespectofsyntax,veryfruitfulbutalsonewandunusualinrespectofexpression.Heisthecreatorofhiswholemannerofwriting.Thisismadeclearaboveallbythefactthatwhatisspecialinhismannerofwritingnowhereshows\nPhilosophyofLanguageitselfmorethaninthoseplaceswhereheismerelythinkingforhimself,inhisspeechesandinterspersedobservations.Heretherefinedsentencesareoftenofunusuallength,forhedoesnotconcludeuntilhisseriesofthoughtshasreacheditsend.Herethesyntaxisveryobscureandinter-ruptedbyfrequentparentheses,forhewantstoexpresseveryconceptpreciselyatthatpoint,inthatrelation,whereitoccursinthecompositeimageofhisideas.Heretheindividualexpressionsaredistantfromtheirusualmeaningandusebecausetheusualwouldnotexactlyexpressthebalanceofhisconceptsandaparaphraseseemedtohimtooboring.”eThisishowHeilmanncharacterizesThucydides’mannerofwriting–andper-hapshisownaswell,ashehadformeditthroughthistranslationandthereadingofBaumgarten’swritings.HowsharplythisdepictioncontrastswiththatwhichGeddesgivesofThucydides–GeddesasaschoolmasterandHeilmannasamanoftaste.WhatashameforGermanliteraturethatitwasrobbedofHeilmannsoearly.OneseldomfindsGreek-translatorsofsuchgoodtaste,andyetoneshouldfindthem,becausetheGermanhistoricalstylecanmostbeformedthroughtheGreeks.Andthisstyleisespeciallyinneedofforming,“foralanguagewhichindicateslittledistinctionintimes,whichcandolittlewithoutauxiliarywords,whichcannoteasilyreplaceonemoodwithan-other,andwhichcanemploylittlechangeinwordorder–suchalanguageisnotespeciallysuitedforhistory,andonemustthereforeheregiveitthegreatestaid.”fAndthatishowtheGermanlanguageis.ButwhatwasHomerinregardtoreligion,totheartists,tothepoets,totheorators,tothewisemen,tothelanguage,toethics,toeducationforthekalousk’agathousoftheGreeks?ThisnastyGreekwordpersecutesme,asmuchasIfleefromit,andmyknotisnotuntieduntilitisdefined.Forthecriticposesthequestion:“IsittruethattheancientGreekstaughttheiryouthwisdomfromHomer?AndwasHomerevenunderstoodbyallthosewhoreceivedtheepithetkaloik’agathoi?”gHisquestionmeansNo!ButmyanswerisYes!AemiliusScaurusdeniesit,Valeriusaffirmsit–whichofthetwodoyouRomansbelieve?eSeeLiteraturbriefe,vol.,p..fLiteraturbriefe,vol.,p..gLiteraturbriefe,vol.,p..ThisfirstexcerptwasfromG:ff.ReadingwelchenwithSuphan.\nFragmentsonRecentGermanLiteratureBesidestheevidencethatIhavealreadycited,IcanvalidatemyinitialYeswiththefollowingpassagefromtheSymposiumofXenophon:“‘Myfather,’saysNiceratus,‘whowantedtomakemeaneffective,honestman(agathos)insistedthatIlearnallthepoemsofHomerbyheart,sothatIcanstillnowrecitethewholeoftheIliadandtheOdyssey.’”Herewasagood,fair[h¨ubscher]manwhoalsowantedtomakehissononeandthereforehadhimlearnHomer.SoHomerwastaughttotheyouthinthisway.Sohewascertainlyunderstoodbythosewhoweregood,fairpeople,fortheywereeducatedtobesothroughHomer.Butdoeskalosk’agathosmeanagood,fairmanorisitaSwissvirtuoso?Bothpartiescanpreservetheirclaimtoberight,iftheyarewillingtolistentoeachother–andiftheythrowdustineachother’seyes,hperhapsneitherofthemisright.Morethanagood,fairmanandfarlessthanaShaftesburianvirtuosointhehightasteofourtime.Irememberhavingseentheessayofagrammarianaboutthisword,andsinceIdonotliketodowhatanotherhasdonebeforeme,Idonotwanttomakearegisterofthepassageswherethiswordappears.Iwritefrommemory.Ineverylanguageallwordswhichexpressthedistinctivecharacteroftheagemustchange,andpreciselythisseemstometrueofkalosk’agathos.IdonotrecallhavingreaditintheoldestGreeks;itisawordfromtheageofbeautifulproseandfinepoliticalethics.Inthetimeswhenaretˆe,virtue,stillmeantonlybravenessofbodyandspirit,onlyabravemancountedasagathos.ThusinHomertheheroesknownobetterwordfortheirdignitythanwhenhisAgamemnonsays,oftenenough,agathosgareimi.Justaslittleasthewordagathosmeansamoralgoodnesshere,atatimewhenbraverycountedaboveeverythingelse,equallylittlewouldthisageputupwithkalousk’agathousinShaftesbury’srefinedsense.Thewordkaloshadthisoriginaswell,andwasappliedtotheandrasinagathoiswhofoughteuandkalˆos(bravely)inbattle.Butwithtimethespiritofethicsbecamemorerefined:thewordaretˆemeantutility;thewordsagathosandkalosmeantamaneffectiveinaffairs,andeventhenameofhonoranˆerlostsomethingofitsmanliness.BecauseinthatagewisdomhLiteraturbriefe,vol.,p..HeretranslatedfromtheGerman.Wieland,wholivedforatimeinSwitzerland,hadinterpretedtheGreekexpressionasmeaningavirtuoso,followingShaftesburyinthisinterpretation.ForIamagathos.andrasinagathois:agathoimen/heroes(dat.pl.).eu:well,mightily.anˆer:man,hero.\nPhilosophyofLanguagetoowasstillonlyaservantofthestate,thewisementhereforeundertooktoeducate[bilden]suchusefulmenwhowerehonesthumanbeingsandeffectivecitizens.HenceXenophonasksSocratesinDiogenesLaertius,“Tellme,howcanonebecomeakalosk’agathos?”andSocratesintroduceshimtohisownmodeofinstruction.HenceNiceratussaysinthecitedpassage:“Myfather,whowantedtomakemeaneffectiveman(agathos),mademelearnHomer.”HencetheAthenians,whowereforemostinstrivingforthispoliticalculture,wereconstantlyspeakingofit(kalosk’agathos),anditwasforthem,asascholiastsays,summaomnislaudationis!Andthereforecertainlyperforcemorethanagood,fairmanisforus.Thereviewersayshewantsevenjustasingleproofthatkalosk’agathosmeanssomethingmorethanthis?Fine!Letitbepreciselythepassageinwhichheclaimstofindnothingmorethanthegood,fairman;un-fortunatelyIfindmorethere,andpreciselythedescriptionofthekalouk’agathou.SocratesaskstheyoungTheagesinPlato:“tioun;oukedidaxatosehopatˆerkaiepaideusen,haperenthadehoialloipaideuontai,hoitˆonkalˆonk’agathˆonpaterˆonhuiees;hoiongrammatatekaikitharizeinkaipalaieinkaitˆenallˆenagˆonian.”Cankaloik’agathoihereappropriatelymeangood,fairpeople,asweusethisterm?No!Inordertomaketheirsonsintokaloisk’agathoisaswell,theymadethemlearnsciences(nottoreadandwritetheABC),music–whichintheGreekwayofthinkingwasfarmoreafineart[sch¨oneKunst]thanitisforus,andinseparablefromtheartofpoetry–andfine[sch¨one]physicaltraining.Thusthemanwhohaddevelopedhisunderstanding,hisfinetaste,andhisbodywasanAttickalosk’agathos.Hewasneitherawisemannorapoetnorafighter,buthehadthewherewithaltobecomeawiseman,apoet,andanOlympicvictor.WhoeverwantstoseeaGreekkalosk’agathosinallhisglory,lethimread–althoughtheworditselfdoesnotstandoverthemasaheading–someofPindar’sodesforhisGreekyouths,whowerecertainlymorethangood,fairboys.ButtobesurenotvirtuosiinWieland’sexaltedtasteeither!Orrather,directly,inthetasteofShaftesbury,fromwhomWielandborrowsnotonlytheconceptofthevirtuosobutalsotheanalogywithkalosk’agathos.Thisphilosopher,whodressesupPlatonismaccordingtothetastefashionableinhisday,andwhointheendfindsthisfavoredtasteinGreeceaswell,Theepitomeofallpraise.Theages,e:“What?Didyourfathernotteachandeducateyouinthatinwhichtheothersonsofkalloik’agathoifathersarehereeducated?Forexample,writingandlyre-playingandwrestlingandothercompetitivesport.”\nFragmentsonRecentGermanLiteraturedefineshisvirtuosiasfollows:“Therealfinegentlemen,theloversofartandingenuity;suchashaveseentheworld,andinformedthemselvesofthemannersandcustomsoftheseveralnationsofEurope,searchedintotheirantiquitiesandrecords;consideredtheirpolice,laws,andconstitutions,observedthesituation,strength,andornamentsoftheircities,theirprincipalarts,studies,andamusements;theirarchitecture,sculpture,painting,music,andtheirtasteinpoetry,learning,language,andconversation.”Heafterwardscompareswiththisconceptthehon-estum,pulcrum,kalonoftheancients,andphilosophizesoninhisendearingmannerforpages.NowalthoughtherewasadmittedlyalsoanageinAthenswhenloveofthearts,tasteinpoetryandliterature,refinedtoneinsociety,andthespiritofpassingjudgmentsonpoliceandanti-quitiesweretherulingfashion,Iamneverthelessquiteunabletopersuademyselfthatthekaloik’agathoibloomedinthosedaysinShaftesbury’sbroadsense.Thisphilosopherratherseemstodepicthimself,andtoraiseandrefinethetastewhichinhisdayheldswayatthecourtofCharlestheSecondintoacertainidealwhichcanindeedinmoderntimesbeamodelofauseful,skillful,pleasantman,butwhichmustalwaystrans-formtheconceptoftheGreekword,evenasitisusedbyPlutarchandthemorerecentGreeks.Admittedly,Shaftesburydemandsforhisvirtuoso,ifheexistedinGreece,thereadingofHomer,andthatindeedashisfirstABC.ButamoralreadingofHomer?Anenormousdifference!Why,though,somuchaboutaword?Aboutawordwhichwasevertheexpressionoftheircharacterandthesummitoftheirpraisesonecanneversaytoomuch.Theexplanationofsuchwordsunlocksforusmannerofthoughtandpolice,characterandethics,inshort,thesecretofthenation–withoutwhichwealwaysmakedistortedjudgmentsaboutapeople,learndistortedlyfromit,andimitateitintolerably.Iwouldrecommendittoamanofphilology,historicalknowledge,andtaste,asacontributiontothehistoryofGreekandRomanliterature,thathetrackpreciselythemetamorphosiswhichinGreekthewordsanˆer,anthrˆopos,agathos,kalos,philokalos,kalok’agathos,kakos,epicheirˆetˆes,andinLatinthewordsvir,homo,bonusandmeliorandoptimus,honestus,pulcher“Police”hereandinHerder’sremarksbelowintheoldbroadsenseofciviladministration.Roughly:honorable,beautiful,beautiful.Roughly:man,humanbeing,good,beautiful,tasteful,goodandfair,bad,enterprising.Thelastwordinthelist,epicheirˆetˆes,ismyconjectureinplaceofHerder’sepicheiragathos,awordwhichdoesnotexistinGreek.\nPhilosophyofLanguageandliberalis,strenuus,andsuchnationalnameshaveundergone,nameswhichwerethehonororshameoftheirageandwhichchangedwithit.Thatishowonebecomesacquaintedwithpeoples,andlearnstoprofitfromthem.PerhapsmanyreadersaresurprisedthatIhavesuchhighexpectationsofanemptylanguage-matter.ButIhavemorerighttobesurprisedthatpeoplehavestilldrawnsofewadvantagesfromthefactthattheycouldhaveregarded“languageasavehicleofhumanthoughtsandthecontentofallwisdomandcognitions.”∗Languageisevenmorethanthat:theformofthesciences,notonlyinwhich,butalsoinaccordancewithwhich,thoughtstakeshape;whereinallpartsofliteraturethoughtstickstotheexpression,andformsitselfac-cordingtothelatter.Isayinallpartsofliterature,becauseifonebelievesthatonlyinthecriticismofartisticliterature,inpoetryandoratory,muchdependsontheexpression,thenonedefinesthebordersofthisconnec-tiontoonarrowly.Ineducationwelearnthoughtsthroughwords,andthenurseswhoform[bilden]ourtonguesarethereforeourfirstteachersofLogic.Inthecaseofallsensuousconceptsinthewholelanguageofcommonlifethethoughtstickstotheexpression.Inthelanguageofthepoet,whetherhearticulatessensationsorimages,thethoughtenlivensthelanguage,asthesoulenlivensthebody.Allperceptualcognitioncon-nectsthethingwiththename.Allofphilosophy’sword-explanationssatisfythemselvesleastofall,andinallsciencesithashadgoodorbadconsequencesthatpeoplehavethoughtwithwordsandoftenaccordingtowords.SinceIgiveafragmentaryessayonthequestionofhowthethoughtstickstotheexpressioninthethirdpartofmybook,Icontinueheremerelyinageneralmanner.Roughly:man,humanbeing,goodandbetterandbest,honorable,beautifulandfree-minded,vigorous.ThissecondexcerptwasfromG:ff.Thisparagraphisveryimportantbutalsoabitconfused.Inordertounderstandit,ithelpstonotethat,havingstartedoutstressingthedependenceofthoughtonlanguage,theparagraphinitslastfoursentences–beginningat“Inthelanguageofthepoet,...”–switchestotwootherfavoritethemesofHerder’s:()theconversedependence,oflanguageonthought,and()thedependenceofbothonsensation.\nFragmentsonRecentGermanLiteratureIfitistruethatwecannotthinkwithoutthoughts,andlearntothinkthroughwords,thenlanguagesetslimitsandoutlineforthewholeofhumancognition.Therefore,evenmerelyconsideringthesymbolicas-pectofthemannerofthought,theremustbeagreatdifferencebetweenusandhigherbeings,ifonewishestouseofthetwosidesHomer’ssaying:“Thisiswhatitiscalledinthelanguageofhumanbeings,buttheblessedgodsnameitdifferently.”Thisgeneralconsiderationofhumancognition[asoccurring]throughandbymeansoflanguageinevitablyyieldsaneg-ativephilosophy[whichasks]howfarhumannatureshouldreallyascendinitsideassinceitcannotascendhigher,andtowhatextentoneshouldexpressandexplainoneselfsinceonecannotexpressandexplainoneselfanyfurther.Howmuchonewouldbeabletosweepawayherewhichwesaywithoutintheprocessthinkinganything,whichwethinkfalselybe-causewesaiditfalsely,whichwewanttosaywithoutbeingabletothinkit!Amanwhothoughtthisnegativephilosophyintoexistencewouldstandatthesphereofhumancognitionasthoughonaglobe,andifhecouldnotraisehisheadabovetheselimitsandlookaroundintoopenair,atleasthewoulddaretothrustforthhishandandwouldcry,“Hereisemptinessandnothing!”AndthismanwouldhaveinanovelsensethehighestSocraticscience:ofknowingnothing!IfIamnotmistaken,inthatcaseideaswouldcreepawayoutofourwholemetaphysics,fromontologytonaturaltheology,towhichmerelythewordshavegivenadmissionandafalsecitizenship–andtheyarepreciselytheideasaboutwhichtherehasbeenmostconflict.Nothingismorepronetobequarreledaboutthanwhatnoneofthepartiesunderstands,andunfortunatelythereisnothingthathumanityismoreinclinedtothanwantingtoexplain[toothers]whatitcannotexplaintoitself.Wethinkinlanguage,whetherweareexplainingwhatispresentorseekingwhatisnotyetpresent.Inthefirstcasewetransformperceptiblesoundsintointelligiblewordsandintelligiblewordsintoclearconcepts.Henceamattercanbedissectedforaslongastherearewordsforitscom-ponentconcepts,andanideacanbeexplainedforaslongasnewconnec-tionsofwordssetitinaclearerlight.Inthesecondcase,whichconcernsthediscoveryofnewtruths,thediscoveryisoftenasmuchanunexpectedconsequenceofvariouswordconnectionsascanbetheproductofvariouscombinationsofsignsinalgebra.Andsowhatremarkableimpressionscanlanguagenotburyevenintothedeepestgroundoftheabstractsciences!\nPhilosophyofLanguageIneverytypeofsensuousandbeautifulexpressiontheseimpressionsarecertainlymorevisibleandrecognizable.Andincommonlifeitisindeedobviousthatthinkingisalmostnothingbutspeaking.Henceeachnationspeaksinaccordancewithitsthoughtandthinksinaccordancewithitsspeech.Howeverdifferentwastheviewpointfromwhichthenationtookcognizanceofamatter,thenationnamedthemat-ter.AndsincethiswasnevertheviewpointoftheCreator–whonotonlysawthebecomingofthismatterinitsinnernaturebutalsocommandedit–butwasinsteadanexternal,one-sidedviewpoint,thisviewpointgotimportedintothelanguageatthesametimetoo.Preciselythankstothis,itwasthereforepossiblefortheeyesofalllaterpeopletobe,sotospeak,accustomed,tied,limited,oratleastbroughtclose,tothisviewpoint.Inthiswaytruthsanderrorswerepreservedandpassedon,asadvantageousordisadvantageousprejudices;advantageouslyordisadvantageously,sideideasattachedthemselveswhichoftenhaveastrongereffectthanthemainconcept;advantageouslyordisadvantageously,contingentideaswerecon-fusedwithessentialones;areasfilledorleftempty;fieldscultivatedorturnedintowastelands.Thethreegoddessesofhumancognition–truth,beauty,andvirtue–becameasnationalaslanguagewas.Iftheneachoriginallanguagewhichisthenativegrowthofacountrydevelopsinaccordancewithitsclimateandregion,ifeachnationallan-guageformsitselfinaccordancewiththeethicsandmannerofthoughtofitspeople,thenconversely,acountry’sliteraturewhichisoriginalandnationalmustformitselfinaccordancewithsuchanation’soriginalna-tivelanguageinsuchawaythatthetworuntogether.Theliteraturegrewupinthelanguage,andthelanguageintheliterature;unfortunateisthehandthatwantstotearthetwoapart,deceptivetheeyethatwantstoseetheonewithouttheother.HeisthegreatestphilologistoftheOrientwhounderstandsthenatureoftheEasternsciences,thecharacterofthenativelanguage,likeanEasterner.HeisanoriginalandnationalGreekwhosesenseandtonguehavebeen,sotospeak,formedundertheGreeksky;whoeverseeswithforeigneyesandwantstotalkaboutGreekholyplaceswithabarbariantongue,himPallasdoesnotregard,heisanunconsecratedpersoninthetempleofApollo.Theliteratureofforeignpeoplesandlanguagesisoftenimportedamongothernationsasaforeigncolony;andbecauseofthismixingto-getherofideas,ofethics,ofmannersofthinkingandseeing,oflanguages,andofsciences,everythinghasnecessarilyhadtotakeonsuchadifferent\nFragmentsonRecentGermanLiteratureformthatliteratureseemstobeatrueProteuswhenonepursuesitthroughpeoplesandtimesandlanguages.Borrowedviewpointsgotshiftedtoanewmanner[ofthinkingandseeing],inheritedtruthsgotrestrucktothepointofunrecognizability,half-understoodconceptsbecameghosts,in-correctlyperceivedobjectsbecamebizarreforms,andalanguagewhichhasreceiveditsliteraturefromvariousclimatesandregions,frommanysortsoflanguagesandpeoples,mustnaturallybeamixtureofequallymanyforeignmannersofrepresentationwhichhavewonaplaceinonescienceortheother.Totheextentthatthislanguagehastakencoloniesfromvariousdialectsforthecultivationofitslearning,tothesameextentitwillalsoapproximatetheBabylonianmixingoflanguages,andwilloftenbeaCerberuswhichbarksoutninedifferentsortsoflanguagefromninemouths,albeitinwordswhicharepureanditsown.Ifeverylanguageleavesbehindimpressionsinthosescienceswhichdwellinit,thenitmustunquestionablybepossibletoseeintheliteraturehowmanyhandsandformsithasbeenin,inhowmanydifferentsortsoflanguagespeoplehavethoughtaboutit.Eachheadwhothinksforhimselfwillalsospeakforhimself,andsohismannerofexpressiongetsformedinhisownwaytoo:hewillimpressonhislanguagecharacteristicfeaturesofhismannerofseeingandcharac-teristicfeaturesoftheweaknessesandvirtuesofhismannerofthought,orinshort,adistinctiveformofhisown,intowhichhisideashavecastthemselves.NowIhavenoticedfromexperiencesthatthoughtandex-pressiondonotseemtointerdependinanequallyfirmwaywitheveryonewhothinksandspeaks,thatnotmerelyisthemannerofexpressionlooserandmoreflexibleinoneperson’scasethaninanother’s(forthisistoofamiliarandeasytoexplain),butinthelatter’scasethethoughtitselfsticksmoretothewordandthewholemannerofthoughtis,sotospeak,moresymbolicandsign-interpretingthanintheformer’scase.Muchcouldbesaidaboutthispoint,andperhapsmuchthatisuseful–butthisdoesnotbelonghere.Forhereletitsufficethatevenifweonlypositafewauthorsofrankandrespectwhoaccommodatetheirthoughtstotheirlanguageortheirlanguagetotheirthoughtsinsuchadistinctivewayoftheirown,thennecessarilythereare,bothonthesmallandonthelargescale,phenomenaworthyofconsideration.ThematteraboutwhichIamwriting–thatlanguageisthetool,thecontent,and,sotospeak,thecut,ofthesciences–issoimmeasurable,eveninaplanthataimstodonomorethansketchviewpoints,thatit\nPhilosophyofLanguageseemstomethat,withallthatIhavesaid,IhavestillsaidnothingofwhatIwantedtosay.SoIshallbreakoff.Buttobeginwith,awordofrefreshmentforthisdarkwaytowardstheoriginoflanguage–formeandmyreaders.Itisalwaysoneofthemostpleasantfieldsthathumancuriositycanstrayontotophilosophizeabouttheoriginofthatwhichis.Ifwecanevenhalfflatterourselveswiththesweetdreamofknowingwhatsomethingis,unsatisfied,ouryearningforknowledgeimmediatelyclimbsuphigher:Wasitalwaysthatway?Howdiditbecome?Intheendthereforethisyearninghasstrayedinitsascentuptothatboldsummitonwhichitappearslikeacloud-creature:thatofwantingtoknowtheoriginitself,ofeitherexperiencingithistoricallyorexplainingitphilosophicallyorguessingitpoetically.Thelastoftheseisindeedonlysatisfyingfortheimagination;fortheunderstandingitisatmostatrackoffootstepstohelpitreachthecavewherethegianthimselfisasleep,thoughalsointhisrespectfullofappeal.Theoldestreportsofthechildhoodoftheworld–thebeginningsofnoteworthyconstitutions;earlydiscoveriesinsciencesandarts;thecosmogonieswhicheachpeopledreamedupforitself;thepoeticfictionsinwhichallwisdomandartclothedthemselvesattheirbirthlikeswaddlingclothes–allthesesurvivalsfromtheoriginofthingswould,ifcollectedasremainsofanancientaeon,constitutebuildingmaterialforatemplewhich,builtupfromruins,wouldbeimpressivetotheeye.Withwhatpleasurewedreamthroughpoeticnarrativesaboutthisorthatorigin:herethefirstsailor,therethefirstkiss,herethefirstgarden,therethefirstdeadman,herethefirstcamel,therethefirstwoman–poeticinventionsinwhichthepoetsofourlanguagearestillsosparing.Ovid’sMetamorphosesareontheonehandastastelessasfairytalescaneverbe;butontheotherhand,whentheyexplaintousfrommythologyhownowthis,nowthat,cametobe,theycanbereadasentertaininganecdotesfromthearchiveofdivineandhumandiscoverers,aspoeticinventionstowhicharichpoeticimaginationgavebirth.Homerstandsasavanguardbeforeallothersinthistoo,Homerwhoknowshowtoclotheawholestoryinanimageandthewholecreationofathinginamythologicaltale.InHomeronecanslumberaspleasantlyandenthusiasticallyoverthephilosophyoftheearliesttimeasinthetempleofpoeticApollowhosentdivinedreams.ThisthirdexcerptwasfromG:ff.\nFragmentsonRecentGermanLiteratureNowifonecouldcombinethepoetwiththephilosopherandturnwhattheybothsupplyintohistory–aplanwhichthemiserablePolydorusVergiliussoruined,aplanforwhichGoguetcollectedmaterialswithgreatindustry,aplanoverwhichIselinandothershaveworkedillus-triously–whatwouldbecomeofthisplaninthehandsofonewiseaboutthechildhoodoftheages?Certainlymorethanaconvolutedplayoftheimaginationandadiversionforidlereaders.Withtheoriginofathingweloseapartofitshistory–whichhistorymust,though,explainsomuchinthething–andusuallythemostimportantpart.Likethetreefromitsroot,art,language,andsciencegrowupfromtheirorigin.Intheseedliestheplantwithitsparts,inthespermatozoonthecreaturewithallitslimbs,andintheoriginofaphenomenonthewholetreasureofelucidationthroughwhichtheexplanationofthephenomenonbecomesgenetic.Whencehavesomanyconfusionsarisenasfromthefactthatonetookthelaterconditionofathing,alanguage,anartforitsfirstcondi-tion,andforgottheorigin?Whencesomanyerrorsasfromthefactthatasingleconditioninwhichoneconsideredeverythinginevitablyyieldednothingbutsingle-sidedobservations,dividedandincompletejudgments?Whencesomuchdisagreementasfromthefactthateachpersonconsid-eredthesehisconceptsandrules,one-sidedastheywere,theonlyones,madethemintopetthoughts,decidedeverythingaccordingtothem,anddeclaredeverythingbesidesthemtobenothing,tobedeviation?Whencelastlysomuchself-confusion,thatonecouldintheendmakenothingofathingwhichdidnotalwaysremainthesamebutalwaysappearedaltered–whenceallthis,butbecauseonedidnothavethefirstpointfromwhichthewebofconfusionunspunitself,didnothavethebeginningfromwhichthewholetanglecanafterwardsbesoeasilyunwound,anddidnotknowtheoriginonwhichthewholehistoryandexplanationrestsasonafoundation.Nowtobesurewearegropingindarkfieldswhenwecreepoffinpursuitofthevoicesoundingtousfromafar,“Howdidthisarise?”Andwithfewarisingsdoesasmuchnightsurroundusaswiththequestion,PolydorusVergilius(approx.–),Italianhistorian,authorofDeinventoribusrerum().A.Y.Goguet(–),Frenchscholar,authorofDel’originedeslois,desarts,etdessciences;etdeleursprogr`eschezlesancienspeuples().I.Iselin(–),Swisshistorian,authorofUberdieGeschichtederMenschheit¨().Herderchangeshisconstructioninthecourseofthislastsentence,therebyshiftinggroundfromtheweakerclaimthatignoranceoforiginsisthecausemostresponsibleforvariousbadconsequencestothestrongerclaimthatitissolelyresponsibleforthem.\nPhilosophyofLanguage“Howdidlanguagearise?”Thecauseswhichweavethisdarknesscanbemoreeasilyindicatedthandispelled.Ishallattempttoindicatethem,foracloudcanperhapsmoreeasilybedissolvedwhenoneknowswhenceitarose,andatleastmanyapersonwhosupposesthispathsoclearwilllearntoadvancemorecautiously.Thesecurestpathtoknowledgeaboutthechildhoodoflanguagewouldbehistoricalreports.Butinorderforthesereportstobepossible,tobesecure,toreachasfarasus–forthisoneofthemostdifficultandlatestinventionsisitselfrequired:theart...Idonotwanttosaytheartofthinking,otherwiseIwouldgetintothelabyrinth,“Towhatextenthastheartofthinkingformedanddevelopedtheartofspeaking,andviceversa?”SoIleaveitattheartofwriting–ofwritingwhatonewants,writingforeternity.Andhowmuchlateris[not]thisinventionthantheartofspeakingandofspeakingwhatonewants?Andhowmanyrevolutionshad[not]languagesurvivedbeforethispointwasreachedandbeforeawrittenreportwasthoughtof?Andforhowmanycenturiesdoes[not]thislatterart,intheformitthenhad,countfornothing?Eventradition,inthosedaysthesolepreserverofhistoricalreports,hadlongsinceshouteditselfhoarse,gotmixedupwithliesandfables,beforetheremainsofitslegendwererecordedinwriting.TraditionwasonlyeverablelikeEchotoawakenanotherEcho,topassontothelatteraweak,abbreviated,andwhisperedsound;thissoundbecamemoreandmoreabbreviated,dark,andweak;italmostfellsilent,andwasimperceptible,untilitfinallyfoundahumanearwhichwasabletospelllittleornothingfromit.TheGreeklanguagehadalreadyreacheditshighestpeakinHomer,beforeanyonehadheardoftheartofwritingbooks.Andsowhencereportsoftheoriginoflanguagewhichwerenotthemselvesguesses?Inaddition,nohumaninventionexistsimmediately,andleastofallthefirstandgreatestofallinventions,language!Itwasnotstraightawaywhatitbecameandis.Forbehold!thismajesticriver:itarose–fromasourcewhichwouldinitselfhaveremainedunknownhaditnotgivenbirthtothisson.Andthesourceitself?Thatismoredifficult!Itsprangforthfromhiddenness,arosebitbybit;noonewantedtotakenoteofitsorigin,anditisenoughofatasktoexplainhowitcouldhavearisen.ThesubjectofanessaybyMichaeliscitedinanearlierfootnote(noteb).TheprecedingthreesentencesareallexamplesofacommonHerderianidiom:therhetoricalquestion,equivalenttoapositivestatement,whichwouldnormallybeformulatednegativelybutwhichHerderformulateswithoutanynegation(heresuppliedinsquarebrackets).\nFragmentsonRecentGermanLiteratureThatishowitiswiththegreatestthings;theyweremiserableexperi-ments,theybecamegames–knacks–arts–institutedarts–andlateenoughascience.Likewisewithlanguagetoo:readthegreatHomer,theessenceofalllanguageofthegods,andpursuethisdivinelanguagebacktoitsorigin;youwillfinditinthehusksofhumanneed,inacradleofchildhood,inswaddlingclothes,ofwhichyouwouldhavetobeashamed.Andevenifwedonottakeonsuchatoweringheight,evenifwerathergobackinsearchofthebeginningwhenthecreatureisborn,whenitseesthelight,afteritisalreadycompletelyformed:itwasformedinhiddenness,andhowitwasbegottencannotbeseenfromit.Allhumanproductionsinthiswayhaveabegettingandabirth;fromthelatterbeginsform,seasonoflife,andchronology;buthowmuchnoteworthyalteration,indeedthewholeprocessofformationitself,isforgottenincontemplatingthis!Likewiseinthecaseoflanguage:Whocantakenoteofitbeforeitexists,howitcomesintobeing?Itmustexist,andfullyso,beforeitevenbecomescapableofbeingnoted,andtheinvestigatorwantstoknowthefirststep!Mostthingsintheworldarebroughtforth,further,high,andlowthroughchance,andnotthroughpurposefulefforts.AndsowhereamItogowithmyconjecturesinamagiclandoftheaccidental,wherenothinghappensaccordingtoprinciples,whereeverythingescapesthelawsofthewillandofthepurposiveinthemostabruptway,whereeverything,in-cludingwhatisgreatestandmostvaluable,fallsintothehandsofthegodofchance?Ifwehadahistoryofhumaninventions,howwewouldfindprod-uctswhicharoseinaccordancewiththecosmogonyofEpicurus,throughaconfluenceoftheatoms!Seriesofcausesworkedtogether,againsteachother,andaftereachother;cogcaughtcog;onemotiveagainsttheother;withoutplanorruleonethingharriedanother;hotandfastthethrowschanged;chancehadalmostexhausteditsbadlotsbeforebetteronesfell.Nowletsomeonesketchplansaccordingtoaphilosophicalheuristiccon-cerninghowathingcouldhavearisen,shouldhavearisen–heturnsoutwithallhisaprioriprinciplestobeafool!Nothowlanguageshouldhavearisenorcouldhavearisen,buthowitarose–thatisthequestion!∗Wellthen?Ifpeoplehadthoughtaboutsuchastateofaffairswhentheywantedtomakejudgmentsabouttheoriginandchildhoodoflanguage,\nPhilosophyofLanguagewhatwouldhavehappenedtomanyphilologicalhypotheseswhichweremerelytailoredaccordingtothemodernizedyardstickofourtimes?Whattomanyconfusedjudgmentswhichsaweverythingindistorted,halved,disfiguredshapesbecausetheytooktheirarmchairasaviewingpointanddidnotknowhowtotransposethemselvesintothetimesandcircumstancesinwhichlanguagecameintobeingandthenexisted?Whattothedictatorialstubbornnesswhichpresumedtocontradictreportsoftheancientswithoutrefutingthem,totwistthemtoitsownliking,andwhentheycouldnotbetwisted,tothrowthemaway,toridiculethem?Andwhattothewholehypothesisofthedivineoriginoflanguagedemonstratedfromitsverynature?Fromitsverynature?Ifthishadhappened,andhadhappenedrecentlythroughSu¨ßmilch,ithenhowcouldhehavetakenalate,acompleted,con-ditionoflanguagefortheorigin,andhowcouldhehavetakenacultivated[gebildete]language,onwhichevenwiththemostprimitivepeoplecen-turieshavelabored,towhichmillionsofhumanbeingshavecontributed,whichhassurvivedsomanyages,foralanguageinitsbecoming?Beholdthistreewithitsstrongstem,withitsmagnificentcrown,withbranchesandfoliage,bloomsandfruits,onitsrootsasonathrone–beholditasitis,andyouwilladmire,marvel,andcryout“Divine!Divine!”Butnowbeholdthissmallseed,beholdit,buriedintheearth,raiseitselfupinadelicateshoot,growbuds,winleaves,grow;youwillstillcryout“Divine!”butinamoredignifiedandreasonablemanner.Letmenotbeforcedtomaketheapplication;itistooobvious.Perfection,order,andbeautyareinlanguage.Buthowandwhendidtheyenterit?Thisisthecrucialquestion!Iftheformertreehadhadtorisefromtheearth,topressthroughthelapofitsbearingmother[theearth]withitsfairtop,tobreakitsmotherwithallitsthousandarms,andtoraiseitselfintothebreezeswithitsstrongstem,justasitis–ifithadhadtodothis–ifIhadseenit–thentobesureitsoriginwouldbeunintelligible,inexplicable,divine!Iflanguagehadappearedtotheeartharrayedinallitsperfection,order,andbeauty,likeaPallaswhosteppedforthfromtheheadofJupiter,thenIiS¨ußmilch,UberdenUrsprungderSprache.[I.e.J.P.S¨u¨ßmilch,VersucheinesBeweises,daßdieersteSpracheihrenUrsprungnichtvomMenschen,sondernalleinvomSch¨opfererhaltenhabe[AttemptataProofthattheFirstLanguageReceiveditsOriginnotfromManbutSolelyfromtheCreator]().NotethatHerderoftenitalicizesauthors’namesbothinmaintextandinfootnotes,inthelattercaseleavingthetitlesoftheirtextsunitalicizedforcontrast.Ireproducethisfootnotingpracticewhenitoccurs,ashere–otherwiseusingitalicsinthemoreconventional,oppositeway.]\nFragmentsonRecentGermanLiteraturewouldwithouthesitation,blindedbyitssplendor,stepback,covermyself,falldown,andpraytoitasadivineapparitionfromOlympus...Butisthisthecase?Andwhymustitbe?Aretherenotathousandindicationsinonelanguage,andmillionsoftracesinthevarietyoflan-guages,preciselythatpeopleshavelearnedgraduallytothinkthroughusinglanguage,andtouselanguagethroughthinking?Isitreallythecasethatthebeauty,order,andperfectionoflanguage–ofsomany,indeedofall,languages–isformedaccordingtooneplan?Whatamonstroushy-pothesistointroduceintothisgreatmassandvarietyasingleideal!Whatmonstrousimaginationtofindthisoneidealinallofthem,andevidentlytobeabletoseethatthespiritofidiomaticnessineverymainlanguage,ineverynationallanguage,isnothingbutanomaly,merelydeviationfromtherule,whichwehavechosenarbitrarily!Andthenevenifthismodelofonelanguageforallwereaccepted,whatclevernesstoseethatthismodelhastobeformedstraightaway,toseethatithastobeformedinthedivineunderstandingandinnoother,tosee,andbeabletosaywithprecision,thatitwaspossibleforthismuchperfection,beauty,andordertobeintroducedintothelanguageofhumanbeingsthroughthecombinedeffortsofwholeages,centuries,races,butthatthisorder,thatperfection,thatbeautysimplytranscendthepowerofthehumanunderstanding,evenifIregardthehumanunderstandingasacompositionofmillionsofheads,asaproductofwholemillennia,andasacreationtowhoseforma-tionanendlessconfluenceofaccidentsandtrivialities,aninterventionofcountlessmisstepsandsituations,hadtocontribute!Inshort,thewholehypothesisofthedivineoriginoflanguageiscontrarytotheanalogyofallhumaninventions,contrarytothehistoryofallworldevents,andcontrarytoallphilosophyoflanguage.Itpre-supposesalanguagewhichisdeveloped[ausgebildet]throughthinkingandthoughtout[ausgedacht]asanidealofperfection(apicturewhich,notwithstandingallitsinfirmity,westilloftenimaginebeautifulandhealthy)andclothesthischildofstubbornidiosyncrasy[desEigensinnes],whichwasobviouslyaratherlatecreationandaworkofwholecen-turies,withtheraysofOlympus,sothatitmaycoverupitsnakednessandshame.AndinthewaythatSu¨ßmilchinparticularhaspresentedthishypothesis,hehasachievednothing–exceptshownthathelacksIhaveaddedtheemphaticitalicsin“this...that...that...”inordertomakeHerder’smeaningclearer.\nPhilosophyofLanguagethephilosophicalspirittovaluethetrueidealofalanguage,thehis-toricalspirittoexamineitsvariouschronologicalphasesandseasonsoflife,andaboveallthephilosophicalgeniustobeabletoexplainitasadevelopment[Entwicklung]ofreasonandasaproductionofhumanmentalforces.Heimaginesforhimselfalanguageashewishesit,andcanhencealsoprovewhathewishes.Heisrightindetailsallovertheplace,andhasoverallsaidnothing!Imaythereforealwayspresupposeahumanorigin.Everyotheroriginisbeyondoursphere;itdoesnotallowustounraveltheknotofthein-vestigationbut,inthemannerofAlexander’sbrightideaintheGordiantemple,makesuscutitoff.Onecannotjudgeatallaboutdivinepro-ductions,andallphilosophizingaboutthemkat’anthrˆoponbecomesawkwardanduseless;forofcoursewealwayshavetoconsiderthemashumanproductions,topresupposesecretlyahumanoriginatorallthetime,onlyahumanoriginatorwhostandsonahigherlevelandoperateswithhigherpowers.Soletmebeallowedtopresupposeahumanori-ginoflanguage,evenifonlyformypoorphilosophy’ssake,andforthesakeofmybetterparticipation–inshort,outofconsiderationformydelicatestomach!Whatismoreworthyandimportantforhumanbeingsthantoinvestigateproductionsofhumanforces,thehistoryofhumanefforts,andthebirthsofourunderstanding?AndhowinterestingthephilosophyaboutthechildhoodoflanguagebecomeswhenIsimulta-neouslyseethehumansouldevelopinit,formlanguageaccordingtoitself,andformitselfaccordingtolanguage.Thegreatestworkofthehumanspirit!SoonthisoccasionIfollowtwoblindheathen,DiodorusofSicilyandVitruvius;twoCatholicChristians,theholyGregoryandtheformestillholierRichardSimon;andinmoderntimesanacademicThisparagraphhasnowgiventwoexamplesofHerder’suseofarhetoricalfigureespeciallyfavoredbyAeschylusintheancientworldandsometimesaptlycalled“re-etymologizing,”i.e.restoringorcreatingforawordameaningsuggestedbyitsetymologybutnotpreservedinitsnormalcurrentusage.ThusEigensinn,whichnormallymeans“stubbornness,”wasabovere-etymologizedtoincludethemeaning“ownsense,”or“idiosyncrasy.”AndhereEntwicklung,whichnormallymeans“development,”isbeingre-etymologizedtoincludethemeaning“untwining.”Notethatthetwogenitiveshere(“ofreason,”“ofhumanmentalforces”)couldbeeitherobjective(reasonandhumanmentalforcesarebeingdeveloped/producedbylanguage)orsubjective(theyaredoingthedeveloping/producingoflanguage).Theformermeaningseemsuppermost,butthelatterisprobablyintendedaswell–sincetheprocessisunderstoodbyHerdertobereciprocal.Literally:accordingtoman.I.e.byahumanmeasure.ThephrasedieGeburtenunseresVerstandescouldmeaneither()ourunderstanding’sstagesofbeingbornor()ourunderstanding’sgivings-of-birth(ormoreconcretely,offspring).TheformersenseseemsuppermostforHerder–but,againbecauseofhisconceptionthatlanguageandunderstandingdevelopinterdependently,thelattersenseisprobablyintendedaswell.\nFragmentsonRecentGermanLiteratureandaJewishmetaphysician,MaupertiusandMosesMendelssohn;andIpresuppose,ifnotformore,thenatleastforamusement:“Humanraces[Menschengeschlechter]havethemselvesformedtheirlanguageforthem-selves.”Andifnotformore,thenatleastforamusement,Icontinuewithmyparallel:ahumanrace[Menschengeschlecht]andahumanbeinginitschildhoodaresimilartoeachother.OnlyIamtalking,notaboutthecon-ception,norevenaboutthebirth,butmerelyaboutthechildhoodoftheirlanguage.∗Alanguageinitschildhood?Howeveronewantstocallthishistori-calage,itremainsaconditionofprimitivenature.Naturewasthenstilleverything–art,science,writers,philosophers,grammariansdidnotyetexist;everythingwasthepeoplewhichformeditslanguageforitself,fromnecessityandthengraduallyforcomfort.Thebeginningoflanguagewasinasimpleshape,asatoolforthesakeofuse;thenatureoftheusedic-tatedtheformofthetool.Hencerightdowntostubbornidiosyncrasy,ignorance,errors,andpovertytheoldestlanguagemustbeamirrorofthenationandofthehistoricalage;letoneinvestigatethenatureofthelatter,thenonehasthenatureoftheformer,ofthelanguageinitschildhood.NowwithoutfancifullymakingupaRousseauianconditionofnatureorexaggeratingthepictureofapeopleinaprocessofbecoming,Imusthoweverstillpayattentiontothevoicesofthewholeofantiquitysay-ingthatthefirstconditionofapeoplewasasituationofpovertyandstrength.Whoeverhasnotheardthesethousandvoicesinthehallsofantiquityhimself,lethimheartheirechointheusefulworkofGoguet,whohascollectedthepassagesaboutthis,lethimgoamongthesavagesinalltraveldescriptionsandlearntheirmanner.ThenhewillnolongerdoubtthataBritishobserveriscorrect:“Intheinfancyofstates,themen...areignorantandundesigning,governedbyfear,andsuperstitionitscompanion...Everynewobjectfindsthemunprepared;theygazeandstare,likeinfantstakingintheirfirstideasoflight.”Idonotwanttopaintoutindetailmycomparisonbetweenchildrenandtheseanimal-humans.Onemustdenyallthereportsoftheancientsandbequiteunabletotransplantoneselfoutofone’spresentconditionofacultivated[gebildeten]nature,ofacivilized,comfortable,andluxuriousOrjustpossibly:humangenerations.Orjustpossibly:humangeneration.T.Blackwell,AnEnquiryintotheLifeandWritingsofHomer,p..\nPhilosophyofLanguagelife,ifonefindsallthisunintelligible.Andifonedoesnot,thenhowcanonefindtheinfluenceonlanguageforeign?Asocietywhich,exposedtoathousanddangers,wandersaboutinunfamiliarregionsamidsttheteethandclawsoftheanimalsandtheanimal-humans,oftherobbersandthemurderers;inwhicheachpersonsecureshisownlifethroughafriend,asthroughaguardianangel,fromwhomheexpectshelpinamoment;whichstarestransfixedbeforeeverynewobjectoutoffear,isamazedbeforeeverythingnotyetseenasbeforeamiracle,andfallsdownbeforeitoutofignoranceandsuperstition;apeopleforwhomthereforehorror,fear,amazement,andmarvelingmustbethemostfrequentemotions,aswithchildren–suchapeoplewillalsocommunicatethisspirittoitslanguage,willannouncegreatpassionswithviolentgesturesandmightysounds,willregisterrapidneedsthroughshortandpowerfulaccentsofshouting.Unarticulatednoiseswilltransformthemselvesintoroughandmonosyllabicwords;strongandunpolishedorganswillutterforthinflexiblesounds;thebreathwillnottakeitstimetoexpandlungsandsentences,butwillcomeandcomeagaininshortandfrequentintervals.Thatwillbethelanguagewhich,accordingtoHorace,madehumanbeings,forhumanbeingswereanimalsuntiltheyfoundwords,quibusvocessensusquenotarent.Ihavehadtostretchthestringtaughtlyinordertogivethenoteclearlyanddistinctly.Thestringslackensbyitself,andhencethesharpnessofthesoundwillleavethenote.Thereisaslittleremembranceofthefirstperiodsofapeopleasofouryearsoftutelage.Therecollectionofourlastageofboyhoodwhenwereceiveddisciplineisthedawninourmemory;likewisethefirstreportsfromthehistoricalageoflanguagewhenitbegantoreceiveyouth’sdiscipline.Thislatenesswillofitselftonedownourtoohighlypitchednote.Theoldestlanguageshaveasortofsensuousformation,asisstillshownbythelanguagesofpeopleswholiveintheyouthoftheircultiva-tion[Bildung].Climateandregionarenotyetrelevant,forboththehotEasternersandthesavageAmericansconfirmwhatIsay.Everythingre-mindsusofthemorningoftheworld,whenanationformeditslanguageforitselfaccordingtotongue,ear,andeye,andspokeforearandeye.Justasitistheoldestmannerofwritingtopaintone’sobjectsinpictures,likewisethefirstlanguagepaintedtoo:thingswhichstruckthesensesWithwhichtomarksoundsandmeanings.I.e.nativeAmericans.\nFragmentsonRecentGermanLiteraturethroughmotion,fortheear;thingswhichbecameintelligiblethroughvisualobservation,fortheeye.OnecanthereforesayofthefirstlanguagewhatPlutarchsaidoftheDelphicApollo:outelegei,outekruptei,allasˆemainei.Theoldestlanguageshadmuchlivingexpression,astheremainsofancientandoriginallanguages,thougheachaccordingtoitscountry,bearwitness.Theselanguages,formedimmediatelyaccordingtolivingnature,andnotlikemoremodernlanguagesaccordingtoarbitrary,deadideas,notonlyhadanemphaticstridefortheear,butwerealsocapable,withtheeasiestapplication,ofrushingwiththewhirlwind,ofresoundinginthebattle,ofragingwiththesea,ofroaringwiththeriver,ofcrackingwiththecollapsingrock,andofspeakingwiththeanimals.Fromourcloseracquaintancewiththeanimalsatthattime,whichwenolongerhavethehonorofenjoying,stemsalsopresumablytheoldpoeticlegendthatmenandanimalsunderstoodeachotherintheGoldenAge.FormethistaleinPlatoandothershasmuchappealanddignity,anditcouldpossiblyalsoyieldsomeenlightenmentaboutthechildhoodoftheartofpoetry.HereIonlycitethefactthatifitisreportedofseveraloftheiroldestwisementotheirhonorthatthey–forexample,Melampus,Tiresias,andothers–wereabletoconversewithanimals,stillnowtheEasternershavenotentirelyleftbehindbirdlanguage.AnArablivinginthedesertcaneasilylearntodistinguishseveralkindsofanimalcry,andsinceapoetic,enthusiasticimaginationcanmakefromanyimpressionwhateveritwants,thisfirstanimallanguageseemstometocarrywithinittheseedformanypoeticfictions.Homer’sheroesmaythereforespeakwiththeirhorses,andAesopturnthewholeofnatureintoaction–Ihavenoobjection.Foralongtimewiththeancientssingingandspeaking(audaeinandtheimitatingwordcanere)wereonething:oraclessangandthevoiceswhichthegodsangwerecalledsayings(phata),thelawssangandwereThesayingwasoriginallyHeraclitus’s.Heneitherspeaks[Herdermeansinarationalway,awayinvolvinglogos]norconcealsbutindicates.Statesman,b–c.audaein(correctedfromHerder’smisspellingaudaiein):tospeak.ButHerdersupposesaconnec-tionwithaeidein/aoidiaein:tosing.Blackwellwasthesourceofthisidea,AnEnquiryintotheLifeandWritingsofHomer,p..canere:tosing.Butincertaincasesalso:toutter,tosignal.phata:thingssaid.Herderprobablymeantphˆemai:sayings,oracles,songs.Bothnounsarecognatewiththeverbphˆemi,tosay.\nPhilosophyofLanguagecalledsongs(nomoi),theprophetsandpoetssangandwhattheysangwerecalledspeeches(epea),Homer’sheroesspeakthroughoutwingedwords(epeapteroenta)andhisheraldsare“likecricketswhichsitonthetreesintheforestandmakeapleasantsound.”Incommonlife(andtherewasnotyetanyother)peoplespokewordsinahigherpitch,sothattheymademoreclearlyheardnotonlylongandshortaccentsbutalsohighandlowsyllables;therhythmoflanguagewasclearer;andinsuchrhythmicfallingpitchesthelanguagenaturallyfellintoarticulation;notboundinconnections,itacquireduniformcadences.Stillnowincommonlifethechainedstyleofbooksbecomesrepellentandanorator’srefinedsentenceunbearable.Andinthatage,whenpeoplehadnotyetthoughtofbooks,whatwaslanguagethen?Nothingbutsingingandspeakingnature.Flyingfragmentswouldillhelpthemselveswithaheavyarmorofschol-arship.Sothereaderissafefromterribletestimoniesandcitationsfromtheancients–whichVossius,Meibom,andDuBoshavepartlycol-lected.Onealwaysjudgeswronglyifoneinsistsontakingtheexpressiontosingasinauthenticallyasweuseit:onespeaksasthoughinadreamifonedemotesthetheater-singingoftheancientstoafashionablerecitationinthetasteoftheFrenchear,perhapsmerelyinordertopayacomplimenttothemusicandthestageofone’sowntime.Inthatcase,itisbetterif,likeVossius,onedoesnotundertaketoexplainthissingingoftheancientsatall,orthat,likemost,onespeaksindefinitelyandconfusedlyaboutit,orbestofall...letonesaywithDacierthatiftheGreekssangwherewespeakthentheywerefools,simplythat!Itiscompletelynecessarythatonebeabletoleaveone’sowntimeandone’sownpeopleinordertojudgeaboutremotetimesandpeoples.Thatnationwhichpreservesitsethicsandcustomswithoutalteration,ingoodEgyptianstyle,theChinese,haskept,alongwithitssign-writingandthing-language,alsoitssinging.Manysavagenationswitholdlanguagesandethicsstillsing,theyhaveevenintheirprosethehighandheavyaccentofwhichweknowsolittle.ThustheearoftheancientstookpleasureinThewordnomoscanmeaneitherlaworsong.Thebasicmeaningofeposis:word.Iliad,bk.,ll.–.ActuallyitwastheeldersofTroy.G.J.Vossius(–),Dutchtheologianandphilologist,authorofseveralworksonpoetry.M.Meibom(–),musichistorianandtheorist,authorofAntiquaemusicaeauctoresseptem().J.-B.DuBos(–),Frenchwriter,authorofR´eflexionscritiquessurlapo´esie,lapeinture,etlamusique().A.Dacier(–),Po´etiqued’Aristote().\nFragmentsonRecentGermanLiteraturesingingasourearinchildhoodcouldbequietedandputtosleepwithuniformcadences;songwasnaturaltothem.Andchiminginwiththissongfortheearthereinadditionspokewithahundredvoicesgesturesandsignsfortheeye,sothatinconsequencethisspeechistobecalledpaintinginanewsense.IfIwantedtobeginthematterabovoIcouldgoonhereatlengthaboutthefactthatsignsoccupiedtheplaceofwriting,thatsymbolicactionsmadeeverythingimpressive,venerable,andsolemn;thatpeoplechosesignlanguageinquestionandanswer–butallthisdoesnotbelonghere.Ionlypointoutthatthesavageandfreenations,whoremainmorehumanbeingsandlesscitizens,speakfarmorethroughbodilygesturesthanourimportedproperness,oursenseofdecency,allowsusto;justastheancientsspokeandrecitedspeechmuchmorewithgesturesthanwedo.IciteHomer,whoeveninhissmallestdescriptionsknowshowtodepicthowmightilypassionspeaksthroughasinglegestureandthefreesoulthroughafreebody.Howoftenonewillcryoutatsmallandmightytraits:“No,divineoldman,onlyyousawspiritsandcoulddepictpassionscorporeally;wenolongerseethem;wejuggleorstandlikestatues;nowthespiritnolongerspeaksasitspokebeforeyoureyes,ithasfledfrommightygesturesintoquietfacial-expressionsand-traits,whereinsteadofspeakinginfullnessitstammersandfallssilent.”Gesturingeverhadtohelpoutwhenthestillundevelopedlanguagewasunabletoadaptitself,andsincepassionanywaygaverisetogesturesofitself,howthislivelyinterpunctuationmusthavegivenincisiveness,modulation,andemphasistolanguage!Theparallelbetweenchildrenandanewlybornpeoplerunsstillmoreexactlywhenweinvestigatetheinnernatureoftheirlanguagesinbothcases.Namesarethevocabularyofachild,whetheronecallsthesenamesnounsorverbs;andlikewiseinlanguageaswellthesetwothingsarethefirst.IntheGreeklanguageevennounandverbwereonlydistinguishedlategrammatically,andtheremainingpartsofspeechbelongeithertothefamilyortotheaccompanimentofthispair,andthesimpleformsoftheEasternlanguagesshowsufficientlythatconjugationsanddeclensionswereanadditionoflatertimes.StillnowthelanguagesoftheHurons,theIroquois,andotheroriginalnationsconsistmostlyofverbs,andeveninourlanguagetoothelivingnoisewhichresoundsintheverbsshowsI.e.newinadditiontothesense,expressedmorethanonceearlierintheseexcerpts,thatprimitivelanguage“paints”aspectsofsensuousexperiencebecauseitisstillsensuousinnature.Literally:fromtheeggon.I.e.fromtheverybeginning.\nPhilosophyofLanguagethattheyaretheoldestpartofthelanguage–justaseverydoingandundergoing,everyactionandmotion,whichiscastinverbsmakesmoreofanimpressionthantheactiveorpassivebeingitselfwhichnounsexpress.Withtimesynonymsandpleonasmsnaturallyhadtoentertheoldestlanguages.Theworldofobjectswhichsurroundedpeoplewasthecontentoftheirlanguage.Andwherewasthephilosopherwhowouldhaveorderedwhathesawintoclassesandwashedawaytheexcess?Newsubjectmat-ters,newobjects,conditions,circumstances,yieldednewnames–andinthiswaylanguagebecameonlyalltoorich.Sensuousobjectswerereferredtosensuously–andfromhowmanysides,fromhowmanyview-pointstheycanbereferredto!Inthiswaylanguagebecamefullofcrazyanduntamedwordtransformations,fullofirregularityandstubbornidiosyncrasy.Imageswereintroducedasimagesasfaraspossible,andinthiswaytherearoseastockofmetaphors,ofidioms,ofsensuousnames.Roughstrengthinpassionsanddeeds,invirtuesandvices,wasthestampoftheage–andinevitablyofthelanguageaswell,whichwitheachpeopleinathousandcontingentcircumstanceswasjustasgoodandasbadasithadtobeinordertobealanguageofthesensuouspeople.∗Icollectmyscatteredfragmentstogetherandseewhatcanbemadeofthem.Anythingbutaphilosophicallanguage,andtheyouthoflanguageknowsofnophilosophicalgrammar–whichcomparedwiththatyouthisanoldmanwithgreyhair.Irepeatoncemore:letonecollecttheprecedingfragments,alanguagefullofimagesandpassions,idiomsandpleonasms,wordtransformationsandstubbornidiosyncrasy,whichsangandgestu-red,paintedforeyeandear.Whatisthislanguage,whenalittleartcomesontop?Nothingotherandnothingbetterthanapoeticlanguage.Languagedidnotproducepoetsalone,buttheagewhichproducedlanguagecreatedpoetswhowereatthattimeeverythingtotheage,whomitsupportedwitheverything,andamongthesesupportslanguagewas,ifnotmore,thenthefinalone.ThislongfinalexcerptisfromG:ff.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguage()Vocabulasuntnotaererum.CiceroFirstpart:Werehumanbeings,lefttotheirnaturalabilities,abletoinventlanguageforthemselves?FirstsectionAlreadyasananimal,thehumanbeinghaslanguage.Allviolentsensationsofhisbody,andthemostviolentoftheviolent,thepainfulones,andallstrongpassionsofhissoulimmediatelyexpressthemselvesincries,insounds,inwild,unarticulatednoises.Asufferinganimal,asmuchastheheroPhiloctetes,whenovercomewithpain,willwhine!,willgroan!,evenifitwereabandoned,onadesolateisland,withoutthesight,thetrace,orthehopeofahelpfulfellowcreature.Itisasthoughitbreathedmorefreelybygivingventtoitsburning,frightenedbreath;itisasthoughitmoanedawayapartofitspain,andatleastdrewintoitselffromtheemptyatmospherenewforcesforgettingoveritspain,byfillingthedeafwindswithgroaning.Thisishowlittlenaturehascreatedusasisolatedrocks,asegoisticmonads!Eventhefinestinstrumentstringsofanimalfeeling(IhavetousethismetaphorbecauseIknownobetterforthemechanismoffeelingbodies!)–eventhesestrings,whosesoundandstrainingdoesWordsaresignsofthings.ThequestionoftheBerlinAcademywhichHerderisansweringinthisessayaskedinthefirstofitstwoparts:“Supposingmenabandonedtotheirnaturalfaculties,aretheyinapositiontoinventlanguage?”InSophocles’playofthesamename.“Egoistic”mainlyinthesensesolipsistic,asfrequentlyinKant.\nPhilosophyofLanguagenotcomefromvolitionandslowdeliberationatall,indeedwhosenatureallofinvestigatingreasonhasnotyetbeenabletobringtolightthroughinvestigation,eventhesearedirectedintheirwholeplay,evenwithouttheconsciousnessofforeignsympathy,atanexpressiontoothercreatures.Thestruckstringperformsitsnaturalduty:itsounds!,itcallstoasimilarlyfeelingEcho–evenwhennoneisthere,evenwhenitdoesnothopeorexpecttobeansweredbyone.Ifphysiologyshouldevergettothepointwhereitdemonstratedthescienceofthesoul–whichIverymuchdoubtthatitwill,however–thenitwouldcastmanyarayoflightonthisphenomenonfromthedissectionofthenervestructure,butwouldperhapsalsodistributeitoverbondswhichwereindividual,toosmall,andtoocoarse.Letusacceptthephenomenonfornowinthewhole,asaclearlawofnature:“Hereisasensitivebeingwhichcanenclosenoneofitslivelysensationswithinitself,whichinthefirstmomentofsurprise,evenwithoutvolitionandintention,hastoexpresseachoftheminsound.”Thiswas,sotospeak,thefinal,maternalimprintofnature’sforminghand,thatshesentallintotheworldaccompaniedbythelaw:“Donothavesensationforyourselfalone,butmayyourfeelingresound!”Andsincethisfinalcreatingimprintwasofasinglesortonallbeingsofasinglespecies,thatlawbecameablessing:“Mayyoursensationresoundforyourspeciesinasingleway,andthereforebeperceivedbyall,asbyasingleone,withsympathy!”Nowletitnotbetouched,thisweak,sensitivebeing!Asaloneandindividualandexposedtoeveryhostilestormoftheuniverseasitseems,itisnotalone;itstandsalliedwiththewholeofnature!,delicatelystrung,butnaturehashiddeninthesestringssoundswhich,stimulatedandencouraged,awakenotherequallydelicatelybuiltcreaturesinturn,andcancommunicatesparkstoaremoteheart,asthoughthroughaninvisiblechain,sothatitfeelsforthisunseencreature.Thesegroans,thesesounds,arelanguage.Hencethereisalanguageofsensationwhichisanimmediatelawofnature.Thatthehumanbeingoriginallysharesthislanguageofsensationwiththeanimalsis,tobesure,evidencedmorenowbycertainremainsthanbyfulleruptions.Buteventheseremainsareirrefutable.Ourartificiallanguagemayhavedisplacedthelanguageofnature,ourcivilizedmanneroflifeandoursocialpolitebehaviorhavedammed,driedout,anddrainedoffthefloodandseaofthepassions,asmuchasonewants,butthemostBedition():parts.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageviolentmomentofsensation,whereverandhoweverseldomitoccurs,stillreassumesitsright,andimmediatelyresoundsinitsmothertonguethroughemphases.Theimpetuousstormofapassion,thesuddenacces-sionofjoyorhappiness,painandmiserywhentheydigdeepfurrowsintothesoul,anoverpoweringfeelingofrevenge,despair,fury,fright,horror,etc.–allannouncethemselves,andeachonedifferentlyaccordingtoitskind.Howevermanyspeciesoffeelingslumberinournature,justasmanykindsofsoundsslumbertheretoo.–SoInotethatthelesshumannatureisrelatedtoananimalkind,thelesssimilaritistothelatterinnervestructure,thenthelessthelatter’snaturallanguageisintelligibletous.Aslandcreaturesweunderstandthelandcreaturebetterthanthewatercreature,andonlandtheherdanimalbetterthantheforestcreature,andamongtheherdanimalsthosemostwhichareclosesttous.Onlyadmittedlywiththequalificationthateveninthelastcasesintercourseandfamiliaritydeterminesthedegree.ItisnaturalthattheArabwhoconstitutesjustasingleunitwithhishorseunderstandsitmorethanthemanwhositsastrideahorseforthefirsttime–almostaswellasHectorintheIliadcouldspeakwithhishorses.TheArabinthedesertwhohasaroundhimnothinglivingexcepthiscamelandperhapstheflightofwanderingbirdscanmoreeasilyunderstandthecamel’snatureandthinkthatheunderstandsthebirds’criesthanweinourabodes.Thesonoftheforest,thehunter,understandsthevoiceofthestag,andtheLaplanderthatofhisreindeer.–Butthisallfollowsorisanexception.Actually,thisnaturallanguageisalanguage-of-a-peopleforeachspeciesamongitself,andhencethehumanbeinghashisaswell.Now,tobesure,thesesoundsareverysimple;andwhentheygetarticu-latedandgetspelledoutonpaperasinterjections,thenthemostopposedsensationshavealmostasingleexpression.Thedull“Ah!”isbothasoundofmeltingloveandasoundofsinkingdespair;thefiery“Oh!”isbothaneruptionofsuddenjoyandaneruptionofimpetuousfury,bothofrisingadmirationandofwellinglamentation.Butdothesesoundsexistinordertobedepictedonpaperasinterjections,then?Thetearthatswimsinthisclouded,extinguishedeyepiningforconsolation–howtouchingitisinthewholepictureofthefaceofsadness.Buttakeitbyitselfanditisacolddropofwater!,bringitunderthemicroscopeand–IdonotwanttoB:arenecessaryforachievingtheoptimal.Iliad,bk.,ll.–.Cf.Achillesatbk.,ll.–.B:–hespeakswithitalmostaswellasHectorintheIliadcouldspeakwithhishorses.\nPhilosophyofLanguageknowwhatitmaybethere!Thistiringbreath,thesemi-groan,whichdiessomovinglyonthelipdistortedbypain–separateitfromallitslivinghelpersanditisanemptyblastofair.Canitbeotherwisewiththesoundsofsensation?Intheirlivingcontext,inthewholeimageofeffectivena-ture,accompaniedbysomanyothermanifestations,theyaremovingandself-sufficient.Butseparated,tornaway,fromthemall,robbedoftheirlife,theyare,tobesure,nothingbutciphers.Thevoiceofnatureis[then]apainted,voluntarizedletter.–Therearefewoftheselinguisticsounds,indeed.Butsensitivenature,asfarasitismerelymechanicallyaffected,alsohasfewermainkindsofsensationthanourpsychologiesascribeorfictivelyattributetothesoulaspassions.Only,eachfeelingis,insuchacondition,thelessthatitissplitupintothreads,athatmuchmoremight-ilyattractingbond;thesoundsdonotspeakmuch,buttheydosostrongly.Whetherthatmoaningsoundiswhiningoverwoundsofthesoulorofthebody,whetherthiscryisforcedforthbyfearorbypain,whetherthissoft“Ah”pressesitselftothebreastofthebelovedwomanwithakissorwithatear–thislanguagedidnotexistinordertodetermineallthesesortsofdistinctions.Itwassupposedtodrawattentiontothepicture;thispicturewillcertainlyalreadyspeakforitself!Itwassupposedtosound,butnottodepict!–Speakinggenerally,inaccordancewiththatSocraticfable,painandpleasureborderononeanother;naturehasjoinedtheirendstogetherinsensation.Andsohowcanthelanguageofsensationdootherwisethanshowsuchpointsofcontact?–NowImayapplythis.Inalloriginallanguagesremainsofthesenaturalsoundsstillresound–only,tobesure,theyarenotthemainthreadsofhumanlanguage.Theyarenottheactualroots,butthejuiceswhichenliventherootsoflanguage.Inarefined,late-inventedmetaphysicallanguage,whichisadegen-eration,perhapsatthefourthdegree,fromtheoriginalsavagemother[tongue]ofthehumanspecies,andwhichafterlongmillenniaofdegen-erationhasitselfinturnforcenturiesofitslifebeenrefined,civilized,andhumanized–suchalanguage,thechildofreasonandsociety,canknowlittleornothinganymoreaboutthechildhoodofitsfirstmother.Buttheold,thesavage,languages,thenearertheyaretotheorigin,themoreofittheycontain.IcannothereyetspeakoftheslightesthumanformationReadingwithSuphanwimmereforwimmern.Phaedo,c.ThissentenceisagoodexampleofHerder’s–frequent–useoftherhetoricalfigureofanacoluthon,orthedeliberatefailuretocarryagrammaticalconstructionthroughconsistentlytotheendofthesentence.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguage[Bildung]oflanguage,butcanonlyconsiderrawmaterials.Theredoesnotyetexistformeanyword,butonlysoundstowardsthewordforasensation.Butbehold!,howmanypreservedremainsofthesesoundsthereareinthelanguagesmentioned,intheirinterjections,intherootsoftheirnounsandverbs!TheoldestEasternlanguagesarefullofex-clamations,forwhichwelater-cultivated[-gebildeten]peoplesoftenhavenothingbutgapsordull,deafmisunderstanding.Intheirelegiesthereresound,aswiththesavagesattheirgraves,thosesoundsofhowlingandlamentation,acontinualinterjectionofthelanguageofnature;intheirpraisingpsalmsthecryofjoyandtherepeatedHallelujahswhichShawexplainsascomingfromthemouthsoffemalemournersandwhicharewithussooftensolemnnonsense.Inthepace,intherhythm,oftheirpoemsandofotherancientpeople’ssongsresoundsthesoundwhichstillenlivensthedancesofwarandreligion,thesongsofmourningandhap-piness,ofallsavages,whethertheyliveatthefootoftheCordillerasorinthesnowoftheIroquois,inBrazilorontheCaribbeanIslands.Finally,therootsoftheirsimplest,mosteffective,earliestverbsarethosefirstexclamationsofnature,whichonlylatergotmolded,andthelanguagesofallancientandsavagepeoplesarethereforeinthisinner,livingsoundeternallyunpronounceableforforeigners!Icanexplainmostofthesephenomenainconnectiononlylater.Letjustonethingbesaidhere.Oneofthedefendersofthedivineoriginoflanguageafindsdivineordertoadmireinthefact“thatthesoundsofalllanguagesknowntouscanbereducedtosometwentyletters.”Butthefactisfalse,andtheinferencestillmoreincorrect.Notasinglelivinglyresoundinglanguagecanbecompletelycapturedinletters,andstilllessintwentyletters.Eachandeverylanguagebearswitnesstothis.Thear-ticulationsofourlinguisticinstrumentsaresonumerous,eachsoundispronouncedinsuchadiversityofways,thatforexampleMr.LamberthasrightlybeenabletoshowinthesecondpartofhisOrganon“howmanyfewerletterswehavethansounds,”and“howinexactlythereforethelattercanbeexpressedbytheformer.”Andmindyou,thatismerelyaS¨ußmilch’sBeweis,daßderUrsprungdermenschlichenSprachegottlichsei[i.e.¨VersucheinesBeweises,daßdieersteSpracheihrenUrsprungnichtvomMenschen,sondernalleinvomSch¨opfererhaltenhabe](Berlin,),p..T.Shaw(?–),EnglishauthorofabookontravelsinNorthAfricaknowntoHerderintheGermantranslationReisenoderAnmerkungenverschiedeneTeilederBarbareyundderLevantebetreffend(tr.).J.H.Lambert(–),NeuesOrganon().\nPhilosophyofLanguageshownfromthecaseoftheGermanlanguage,whichhasnotyeteventakenupthemany-soundednessandthediversityofitsdialectsintoawrittenlanguage.Muchless[arethesoundsexpressedexactly]whenthewholelanguageisnothingbutsuchalivingdialect!Whencecomeallthepeculiaritiesandidiosyncrasiesoforthographybutfromtheawkward-nessofwritingasonespeaks?Whatlivinglanguagecanbelearned,initssounds,frombookletters?Andsowhatdeadlanguagebeawoken?–Nowthemorelivingalanguageis,thelesspeoplehavethoughtofcaptur-ingitinletters,themoreoriginallyitrisestothefullandnotselectivelyanalyzedsoundofnature,thenthelessitcanbewrittenaswell,thelesswrittenwithtwentyletters;indeed[themoreitis]oftenquiteunpro-nounceableforforeigners.FatherRasles,whostayedfortenyearsamongtheAbenakiinNorthAmerica,complainssomuchaboutthefactthatdespiteallhisattentivenesshestilloftenonlyrepeatedhalfofawordandmadehimselfridiculous.HowmuchmoreridiculouslyhewouldhavedonethecalculationwithhisFrenchletters!FatherChaumonot,whospentfiftyyearsamongtheHurons,andventuredtowriteagrammaroftheirlanguage,neverthelesscomplainsabouttheirgutterallettersandtheirunpronounceableaccents:“Oftentwowordswhichwouldconsistofcompletelyidenticalletterswouldhavethemostdifferentmeanings.”GarcilasodelaVegacomplainsabouttheSpaniardshowmuchtheydis-torted,mutilated,falsifiedthePeruvianlanguageinthesoundofitswordsandbecauseofmerefalsificationswronglyattributedtothePeruviansthemostawfulnonsense.DelaCondaminesaysaboutasmallnationontheAmazonriver:“Apartoftheirwordscouldnotbewritten,notevenveryincompletely.Onewouldhavetouseatleastnineortensyllablesforthiswheretheyseemintheirpronunciationtopronouncebarelythree.”LaLoubereconcerningtheSiameselanguage:“AmongtenwordswhichtheEuropeanpronouncesanativeSiameseunderstandsperhapsnotasingleone–howevermucheffortonemakestoexpresstheirlanguagewithourletters.”Andwhatneedhaveweofpeoplesfromsuchremoteendsoftheearth?OursmallresidueofsavagesinEurope,EstoniansandLappsetc.,oftenhavesoundsthatarejustashalf-articulatedandunwritableasHuronsandPeruvians.RussiansandPoles,longastheirlanguageshavebeenwrittenandformedbywriting,stillaspirateinsuchInmanuscriptaitis“suchanexpression”thatRasleswouldhavehadevenmoredifficultycalculatingwithFrenchletters;ineditionBitis“thelanguage.”CorrectedfromChaumont,followingIrmischer.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageawaythatthetruesoundoftheirlanguages’organizationscannotbedepictedbymeansofletters.HowmuchdoestheEnglishmantorturehimselftowritehissounds,andhowfarishewho[only]understandswrittenEnglishstillfrombeingaspeakingEnglishman!TheFrench-man,whodrawsbreathupfromhisthroattoalesserextent,andthathalf-Greek,theItalian,who,sotospeak,talksinahigherregionofthemouth,inafinerether,stillretainalivingsound.Theirtoneshavetoremainwithintheorganswheretheywereformed;howevercomfortableanddistinctivethelonguseofwritinghasmadethem,asdepictedletterstheyareforeveronlyshadows!Sothefactisfalse,andtheinferenceevenmorefalse;itdoesnotleadtoadivineoriginbut,quitetheopposite,toananimalorigin.Taketheso-calleddivinefirstlanguage,Hebrew,fromwhichthegreatestpartoftheworldhasinheriteditsletters:thatitwasinitsbeginningsolivinglysounding,sounwritable,thatitcouldonlybewrittenveryincompletely,thisisshownclearlybythewholestructureofitsgrammar,byitssocom-monconfusionsofsimilarletters,andofcoursemostofallbythecompleteabsenceofitsvowels.Whencecomestheidiosyncrasythatitslettersareonlyconsonants,andthatpreciselythoseelementsofwordsonwhicheverythingdepends,thevowels,wereoriginallynotwrittenatall?Thiswayofwriting,writingtheinessentialandomittingtheessential,issoopposedtothecourseofsoundreasonthatitwouldhavetobeunintelli-gibletogrammarians,ifgrammarianswereinthehabitofunderstanding.Withusthevowelsarethefirstandmostlivelythingandthedoorhingesoflanguage;withtheHebrewstheyarenotwritten.Why?Becausetheycouldnotbewritten.Theirpronunciationwassolivelyandfinelyorga-nized,theirbreathwassospiritualandethereal,thatitevaporatedandcouldnotbecapturedinletters.OnlyforthefirsttimewiththeGreeksweretheselivingaspirationsunraveledintopropervowels,which,how-ever,stillneededthehelpofbreathing[Spiritus],etc.–whereaswiththeEasternersspeechwas,sotosay,entirelybreathing,continuousbreath[Hauch]andspirit[Geist]ofthemouth,astheyalsosooftennameitintheirpaintingpoems.Itwasthelife-breath[Othem]ofGod,waftingair,B:oftheirutterances.Bomits“sounwritable.”SpiritusisbreathinginthetechnicalsenseinwhichthistermisusedinGreekgrammar,butitisalsoofcourseLatinforspirit.Othemisawordforbreathwhichhasstrongerreligious-biblicalovertonesthanthewordforbreathuseduptothispoint,Hauch.\nPhilosophyofLanguagewhichtheearsnatchedup,andthedeadletterswhichtheypainteddownweremerelythecorpsewhichinreadinghadtobeensouledwiththespiritoflife[Lebensgeist].Thisisnottheplacetosaywhatsortofmightyinfluencethathasontheunderstandingoftheirlanguage.Butthatthiswaftingsomethingrevealstheoriginoftheirlanguageisobvious.Whatislesswritablethantheunarticulatedsoundsofnature?Andiflanguageismoreunarticulatedthecloseritistoitsorigin–thenwhatfollowsbutthatitissurelynotthecasethatlanguagewasinventedbyahigherbeingforthetwenty-fourlettersandtheseletterswereinventedstraightawaywithlanguage,thattheseletterswereamuchlaterandonlyimperfectattempttosetupforoneselfafewmarkersformemory,andthatlanguagearosenotfromlettersofGod’sgrammarbutfromsavagesoundsbelongingtofreeorgans?bOtherwiseitwouldbeafinethingthatpreciselythoselettersfromandforwhichGodhadinventedlanguage,andwithwhosehelphehadtaughtlanguagetothefirsthumanbeings,shouldbeexactlythemostimperfectonesofallintheworld,whichsaidnothingatallaboutthespiritofthelanguageandclearlyconfessintheirwholemannerofconstructionthattheymeantosaynothingaboutit.Thisletter-hypothesisadmittedlymeritedonlyasinglehintaccordingtoitsworth.ButbecauseofitsuniversalityanditsmanifoldornamentationIneededtolaybareitsgroundlessness,andatthesametimetoexplainitinthisgroundlessness,as,tomeatleast,noexplanationis[yet]familiar.Backtoourcourse:Sinceournaturalsoundsaredestinedfortheexpressionofpassion,itisnaturalthattheyalsobecometheelementsofallmoving[ofanotherperson]!Whoistherewho,facedwithashaking,whiningtorturedperson,withamoaningdyingperson,andevenwithagroaningfarmanimalwhenitswholemachineissuffering,isnottouchedtohisheartbythis“Ah!”?Whoissuchafeelinglessbarbarian?Themoreharmoniouslythesensitivestring-playiswoveneveninthecaseofanimalswithotheranimals,themoreeventhesefeelwithoneanother;theirnervescometoasimilartension,theirsoulstoasimilarpitch,theyreallyshareeachother’spainmechanically.Andwhatasteelingofhisfibers!,whatapowertoblockupbThebesttextforthismaterial,whichhasinpartstillnotbeenworkedout,isWachter’sNaturaeetscripturaeconcordia[ConcordanceofNatureandScripture](Hafn.,[LeipzigandHalle,]),whichisasdifferentfromKircher’sandsomanyothers’dreamsasancienthistoryisfromfairystories.B:little.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagealltheentrywaysofhissensitivity,isrequiredforahumanbeingtobecomedeafandhardagainstthis!–Diderotcexpressestheopinionthatapersonbornblindshouldbelesssensitivethanasightedpersontothemoansofasufferinganimal.ButIbelievethatincertaincasestheoppositeistrue.Tobesure,thewholemovingvisualdramaofthismiserable,shakingcreatureismaskedfromhim.Butallexamplestestifythatpreciselythroughthismaskingthesenseofhearingbecomeslessdistracted,moreattentive,andgreatlymorepenetrating.Therehelistensindarkness,consequently,inthestillnessofhiseternalnight,andeachmoanpenetrateshisheartthatmuchmoredeeplyandsharply,likeanarrow!Nowlethiminadditiontakeinaidthetouching,slowlyembracingsenseoffeeling,lethimtouchtheshakings,feelthebreaking,ofthesufferingmachineforhimselfintheirentirety–horrorandpainshootsthroughhislimbs,hisinnernervestructurefeelsthebreakinganddestructioninsympathy;thedeathrattlesounds.Thatisthebondofthisnaturallanguage!EverywhereEuropeans–despitetheircultivation[Bildung],andmis-cultivation!–havebeenstronglymovedbytheprimitivemoansofsavages.LerirecountsfromBrazilhowmuchhispeopleweresoftenedtothepointoftearsbytheseAmericans’heartfelt,spontaneouscryofloveandso-ciability.Charlevoixandotherscannotsayenoughaboutthehorrifyingimpressionmadebythewar-andmagic-songsoftheNorthAmericans.Whenwehaveanopportunitylatertoremarkhowmuchancientpoetryandmusicwasenlivenedbythesenaturalsounds,thenwewillalsobeabletoexplainmorephilosophicallytheeffectthat,forexample,theold-estGreeksonganddance,theancientGreekstage,[madeontheGreeks,]andingeneralmusic,dance,andpoetrystillmakeonallsavages.Andeveninourcasetoo,where,tobesure,reasonoftenputsanendtotheroleoffeelingandtheartificiallanguageofsocietytothatofnaturalsounds,donottheloftiestthundersoforatory,themightieststrikesofpoetry,andthemagicalmomentsofaccompanyinggesturestilloftencomeclosetothislanguageofnature,throughimitation?Whatisitthatthereamongthegatheredpeopleworksmiracles,penetrateshearts,andbowlsoversouls?Spiritualtalkandmetaphysics?Metaphorsandrhetoricalfigures?Artandcoldpersuasion?Totheextentthattheraptureisnotblind,muchmusthappenthroughthesethings,buteverything?AndpreciselythishighestcLettresurlesaveugles`al’usagedeceuxquivoientetc.[LetterontheBlind,fortheUseofThosewhoSee()].\nPhilosophyofLanguageelementofblindrapture,whatbroughtthisabout?Aquitedifferentforce!Thesesounds,thesegestures,thosesimplecoursesofmelody,thissud-denturningpoint,thistwilightvoice–andwhoknowswhatelse.Withchildren,andthesensuouspeople,withwomen,withpeopleofdelicatesensibility,withsickpeople,lonelypeople,depressedpeople,theyareathousandtimesmoreeffectivethanthetruthitselfwouldbeifitssoft,finevoiceresoundedfromheaven.Thesewords,thissound,theturningpointofthishorrifyingballad,etc.penetratedoursoulsinourchildhoodwhenweheardthemforthefirsttimetogetherwithwhoknowswhatarmyofassociationsofhorror,offestivity,offright,offear,ofjoy.Thewordresounds,andlikeathrongofghoststheysuddenlyallrisefromthegraveofthesoulintheirobscuremajesty;theyobscurethepure,clearconceptofthewordwhichcouldonlybegraspedwithoutthem.Thewordisgoneandthesoundofsensationresounds.Obscurefeelingover-whelmsus;[even]thecarelesspersonishorrifiedandtrembles–notaboutthoughts,butaboutsyllables,aboutsoundsofchildhood,anditwasthemagicalpoweroftheorator,ofthepoet,tomakeuschildrenonceagain.Nocarefulthought,nopondering,butthismerelawofnaturewasthefundamentalcause:“Thepitchofsensationshouldtransposethesympatheticcreatureintothesamepitch!”Soifwewishtocalltheseimmediatesoundsofsensation‘language,’thenIcertainlydofindtheiroriginverynatural.Itisnotonlynotsuper-human,butclearlyanimal:thenaturallawofasensitivemachine.∗ButIcannotconcealmyastonishmentthatphilosophers,thatis,peoplewhoseekdistinctconcepts,wereeverabletoarriveattheideaofexplain-ingtheoriginofhumanlanguagefromthiscryofthesensations.Forishumanlanguagenotobviouslysomethingcompletelydifferent?Allan-imals,downasfarasthedumbfish,soundforththeirsensation.Butitstillisnotthecasethatjustbecauseofthatanyanimal,eventhemostperfect,hastheslightestrealbeginningtowardsahumanlanguage.Letoneformandrefineandorganizethiscryhoweveronewants,unlessanunderstandingisadded,soastousethissoundwithintention,thenIdo“Pitch”inthislastsentencetranslatesTon,thewordthathasbeentranslated“sound”uptothispointintheparagraph.ThereasonforswitchingthetranslationhereisthatinitstwooccurrencesinthislastsentenceTonhas–inthefirstoccurrencepartly,andinthesecondexclusively–ametaphoricalforcewhichtheword“sound”cannotwellexpressinEnglishbuttheword“pitch”can.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagenotseehowfromtheprecedingnaturallawhuman,voluntarylanguageevercomesabout.Childrenutternoisesofsensationliketheanimals,butisnotthelanguagethattheylearnfromhumanbeingsaquitedifferentlanguage?TheAbbe´Condillacdisamongthesepeople.Eitherhehasfromthefirstpageofhisbookpresupposedthewholething,language,asalreadyinvented,orIfindoneachpagethingsthatcouldnothavehappenedatallintheorderingofaformative[bildenden]language.Hepositsasthebasisofhishypothesis“twochildreninadesertbeforetheyknowtheuseofanysignwhatever.”Nowwhyhepositsallthis:“twochildren,”whohencemustdieorbecomeanimals,“inadesert,”wherethedifficultyoftheirlivelihoodandoftheirinventionincreasesstillfurther,“beforetheuseofanynaturalsign,andindeedbeforeanyknowledgeofone,”withoutwhich,however,noinfantstillexistsafewweeksafteritsbirth–why,Isay,inahypothesiswhichissupposedtotracethenaturalcourseofhumanknowledge,suchunnatural,self-contradictorydatahavetobeassumedasthebasis,itsauthormayknow,butthatnoexplanationoftheoriginoflanguageisbuiltuponthemIamconfidentofbeingabletoprove.Histwochildrencometogetherwithouttheknowledgeofanysign,and–behold!,inthefirstmoment“theyarealreadyinreciprocalintercourse”(#).Andyetmerelythroughthisreciprocalintercoursedotheyfirstlearn“toassociatewiththecriesofsensationsthethoughtswhosenaturalsignsthosecriesare.”Learnnaturalsignsofsensationthroughintercourse?Learnwhatsortsofthoughtsshouldbeassociatedwiththem?Andyetimmediatelyinthefirstmomentofcomingtogether,stillbeforeknowingwhatthemoststupidanimalknows,haveintercourse?Beabletolearnwhatsortsofthoughtsshouldbelinkedwithcertainsigns?Iunderstandnothingofthis.“Throughtherepetitionofsimilarcircumstances”(#)“theygetusedtoassociatingthoughtswiththesoundsofsensationsandthevarioussignsofthebody.Alreadytheirmemoryreceivestraining.Alreadytheycanhavecontrolovertheirimagination,andalready–theyhavereachedthepointofdoingwithreflectionwhattheypreviouslydidmerelythroughinstinct”(butwhich,aswejustsaw,theywereallegedlyunabletodobeforetheirintercourse).Iunderstandnothingofthis.“Theuseofthesesignsexpandstheeffectsofthesoul”(#)“andtheseeffectsperfectthesigns:itdEssaisurl’originedesconnaissanceshumaines[EssayontheOriginofHumanKnowledge()],vol..[ThetranslationsfromthisandotherworkswhichfollowarefromHerder’sGermanratherthanfromtheFrench.]\nPhilosophyofLanguagewashencethecryofsensations”(#)“whichdevelopedtheforcesofthesoul:cryofsensationswhichgavethemthehabitofassociatingideaswithvoluntarysigns,”(#)“cryofsensationswhichservedthemasamodeltomakeanewlanguageforthemselves,toarticulatenewsounds,togetusedtodesignatingthingswithnames.”Irepeatalltheserepetitionsandunderstandnothingofthem.Finally,aftertheauthorhasbuiltupthemeter,recitation,music,dance,andpoetryoftheancientlanguagesonthischildishoriginoflanguage,andhereandtherepresentedgoodobservations,which,however,areirrelevantforourpurpose,hethentakesupthethreadagain:“Inordertounderstand”(#)“howhumanbeingscametoagreeamongthemselvesaboutthemeaningofthefirstwordswhichtheywantedtouse,itsufficestonotethattheypronouncedthemincircumstancesinwhicheachpersonwasobligedtoassociatethemwiththesameideas,etc.”Inshort,wordsarosebecausewordsexistedbeforetheyexisted.Idonotthinkthatitisworthpursuingourexplainer’sthreadanyfurther,sinceitis–tiedtonothing.Condillac,itisknown,providedtheoccasionthroughhishollowex-planationoftheoriginationoflanguageforRousseaueinourcenturytoaffordcurrencytothequestioninhisownmanner,thatis,tocallitintodoubt.InordertocomeupwithdoubtsagainstCondillac’sexplanationtherewascertainlynoneedofaRousseau.Butimmediatelytodenyanypossibilityofahumaninventionoflanguagesimplybecauseofthat–forthissomeRousseauianelan´orleaping,howeveronewantstocallit,wasindeednecessary.JustbecauseCondillachadexplainedthematterbadly,doesitthereforefollowthatitcannotbeexplainedatall?Justbecauseahumanlanguagecanneverarisefromsoundsofsensation,doesitfollowfromthisthatitwasunabletoarisefromanyothersource?ThatitreallyisonlythisimplicitfallacythatleadsRousseauastrayisshownclearlybyhisownconceptionoff“how,ifontheotherhandbysomeremotechancelanguageshouldhavearisenfromahumansource,itwouldhavehadtoarise.”Likehispredecessor,hebeginswiththecryofnature,fromwhichhumanlanguageallegedlyarises.Ishallneverseehowitcouldhavearisenfromthatsource,andIamastonishedthattheintelligenceofaRousseauwasforamomentabletomakeitarisefromthatsource.eSurl’in´egalit´eparmileshommesetc.[i.e.Discourssurl’origineetlesfondementsdel’in´egalit´eparmileshommes[DiscourseontheOriginandFoundationsofInequalityamongMankind]()],part.fIbid.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageMaupertius’slittlebookisnotavailabletome;butifImaytrusttheepitomeofamangofwhomfaithfulnessandprecisionwasnotthesmall-estmerit,thenMaupertiustoofailedtoseparatetheoriginoflanguagesufficientlyfromtheseanimalsounds,andhencetakesthesamepathastheprecedingpeople.Finally,DiodorusandVitruvius,peoplewhomoreoverratherbe-lievedinthanderivedthehumanoriginoflanguage,corruptedmattersmostobviously,sincetheymakemenfirstofallroamforagesasanimalswithcriesinforests,andthenafterwards–GodknowswhenceandGodknowsforwhatpurpose!–inventlanguageforthemselves.Since,then,mostrepresentativesofthehumanoriginationoflanguagefoughttheircasefromsuchinsecureterritory,whichothers,forexampleS¨ußmilch,attackedwithsuchgoodreason,theAcademywantedtoseethisquestion,whichishencestillentirelyunanswered,andoverwhichevenseveraloftheAcademy’sformermembershavebeenatvariance,atlastsettled.Andsincethisgreatthemepromisessomanyprospectsintothepsy-chologyandnaturalorderofthehumanspecies,intothephilosophyoflanguagesandofallcognitionswhicharediscoveredwithlanguage–whowouldnotwanttomakeanattemptatit?Andsincehumanbeingsaretheonlylinguisticcreaturesthatweknow,andaredistinguishedfromalltheanimalspreciselybylanguage,wherewouldthepathofinvestigationbeginmoresecurelythanwithexperiencesconcerningthedifferencebetweenanimalsandhumanbeings?CondillacandRousseauinevitablyerredconcerningtheoriginoflanguagebecausetheyweresofamouslyandvariouslymistakenaboutthisdifference–sincetheformerhmadeanimalsintohumanbeings,andthelatterimadehumanbeingsintoanimals.Ithereforeneedtobeginfromratherfarback.∗Thatthehumanbeingisfarinferiortotheanimalsinstrengthandsurenessofinstinct,indeedthathequitelackswhatinthecaseofsomanyanimalgSu¨ßmilch,Beweisf¨urdieG¨ottlichkeit,etc.[i.e.VersucheinesBeweises...],appendix,p..hTrait´esurlesanimaux[TreatiseonAnimals()].iSurl’originedel’in´egalit´eetc.[i.e.Discourssur...].P.L.M.deMaupertius(–),R´eflexionsphilosophiquessurl’originedeslanguesetlasignifi-cationdesmots().DiodorusSicilus(firstcenturyBC),Greekhistorian.Vitruvius(firstcenturyBC),Romanarchitectandtheoristofarchitecture.\nPhilosophyofLanguagespecieswecallinnateabilitiesforanddrivestoart,iscertain.Only,justastheexplanationofthesedrivestoarthassofargonewrongformostphilosophers,andlastlyagainforathoroughphilosopherfromGermany,jlikewisethetruecauseofthelackofthesedrivestoartinhumannaturehasalsosofarresistedelucidation.Itseemstomethatacentralperspectivehasbeenmissedfromwhichonecangive,ifnotcompleteexplanations,thenatleastobservationsaboutthenatureofanimalswhich–asIhopetoshowinanotherplace–canthrowmuchlightonthedoctrineofthehumansoul.Thisperspectiveis“thesphere[Sphare]¨ofanimals.”Eachanimalhasitscircle[Kreis]towhichitbelongsfrombirth,intowhichitimmediatelyenters,inwhichitremainsallitslife,andinwhichitdies.Butnowitisstrange“thatthesharperanimals’sensesareandthemoremarveloustheproductsoftheirart,thenthesmallertheircircleis,themorelimitedinkindtheproductoftheirart.”IhavepursuedthisrelationshipandIfindeverywhereamarvelous,observed“inverseproportionbetweenthelesserextensionoftheirmovements,elements,nutrition,preservation,reproduction,upbringing,societyandtheirdrivesandarts.”ThebeeinitshivebuildswiththewisdomthatEgeriacouldnotteachherNuma;butbeyondthesecellsandbeyonditsdestinedoccupationinthesecellsthebeeisalsonothing.ThespiderweaveswiththeartofMinerva;butallitsartisalsowovenoutinthisnarrowspinning-space;thatisitsworld!Howmarvelousistheinsect,andhownarrowthecircleofitseffect!Ontheotherhand,“themorenumerousthefunctionsandthedestinyofanimalsare,themoredispersedtheirattentionisoverseveralobjects,thelessconstanttheirmanneroflifeis,inshort,thelargerandmorediversetheirsphereis,thenthemoreweseetheirsensuousnessdistributeitselfandweaken.”Itcannotbemyintentionheretosecurethisgreatrelationship,whichrunsthroughthechainoflivingbeings,withexamples.Ileavethetesttoeachpersonorreferhimtoanotheroccasionandcontinuemyinferences:jReimarus,UberdieKunsttriebederTiere[i.e.¨AllgemeineBetrachtungen¨uberdieTriebederTiere,haupts¨achlich¨uberihreKunsttriebe()].SeereflectionsonthisintheBriefe,dieneuesteLiteraturbetreffend,etc.[LettersconcerningtheMostRecentLiterature].NotethatthereisnoimplicationintheGermanofasocialcircle.Forthisreason“sphere”wouldinawaybeabetterEnglishtranslationhere,exceptthatthegeometricalmeaningisdifferentand“sphere”isneededtotranslateSph¨are.B:marvelouslyobserved.“Elements”isomittedinB.EgeriawasanymphwhowassaidtohavetaughtRomulus’ssuccessoraskingofRome,NumaPompilius,abouthowtoorganizesociety.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageAccordingtoallprobabilityandanalogy,then,itispossible“toexplainalldrivestoandabilitiesforartfromanimals’forcesofrepresentation,”withoutitbeingappropriatetoassumeblinddeterminations(asevenReimarusstillassumed,andwhichdestroyallphilosophy).Whenin-finitelyfinesensesareconfinedtoasmallcircle,touniformity,andthewholeremainingworldisnothingforthem,howtheymustpenetrate!Whenforcesofrepresentationareconfinedtoasmallcircleanden-dowedwithananalogoussensuality,whateffecttheymusthave!Andfinally,whensensesandrepresentationsaredirectedatasinglepoint,whatelsecanbecomeofthisbutinstinct?Hencetheseexplainthesensitivity,theabilities,andthedrivesoftheanimalsaccordingtotheirkindsandlevels.AndhenceImayassumetheproposition:“Thesensitivity,abilities,anddrivestoartoftheanimalsincreaseinstrengthandintensityininverseproportiontothesizeanddiversityoftheircircleofefficacy.”Butnow–Thehumanbeinghasnosuchuniformandnarrowspherewhereonlyasinglesortofworkawaitshim;aworldofoccupationsanddestiniessurroundshim.Hissensesandorganizationarenotsharpenedforasinglething;hehassensesforeverythingandhencenaturallyforeachparticularthingweakeranddullersenses.Hisforcesofsoularedistributedovertheworld;[thereis]nodirectionofhisrepresentationsonasinglething;hencenodrivetoart,noskillforart–and,onethingwhichismoreespeciallyrelevanthere,noanimallanguage.Butwhatisthatwhich,besidesthepreviouslycitedsoundingforthofthesensitivemachine,weinthecaseofseveralspeciescallanimallanguageotherthanaresultoftheremarked-onfeaturesthatIhavemar-shaledtogether–ananimalspecies’obscure,sensuouscommon-understanding[Einverstandnis]¨amongitsmembersaboutitsdestinyinthecircleofitsefficacy?Hencethesmallerthesphereofanimalsis,thelesstheyneedlanguage.Thesharpertheirsensesare,themoretheirrepresentationsaredirectedatasinglething,themorepulltheirdriveshave,thenthenarroweristhecommon-understandinginwhateversounds,signs,expressionstheymaymake.Itislivingmechanism,rulinginstinct,thatspeaksandhearsthere.Howlittleitmustspeakinordertobeheard!Orpossibly:may.\nPhilosophyofLanguageHenceanimalsofthenarrowestdomainareevenwithouthearing,theyarefortheirworldentirelyfeeling,orsmell,orsight–entirelyuniformimage,uniformimpulse,uniformoccupation.Hencetheyhavelittleornolanguage.Butthelargeranimals’circles,andthemoredifferentiatedtheirsenses...ButwhyshouldIrepeat?Forwiththehumanbeingthescenechangescompletely.Whatisthelanguageofeventhemosttalkative,mostdiverselysounding,animalsupposedtoachieveforthehumanbeing’scircleofefficacy,evenwhenheisinthemostneedycondition?Whatiseventheobscurelanguageofalltheanimalssupposedtoachieveforhisdisperseddesires,forhisdividedattention,forhismoredullydetectingsenses?Thatlanguageisforhimneitherrichnordistinct,sufficientnei-therinitsobjectsnorforhisorgans–hencethoroughlynothislanguage.Forwhat,whenwedeclinetoplaywithwords,isthepeculiarlanguageofacreaturebutthelanguagewhichisappropriateforitssphereofneedsandtypesofwork,fortheorganizationofitssenses,forthedirectionofitsrepresentations,andforthestrengthofitsdesires?Andwhatanimallanguageislikethisforthehumanbeing?However,wecanalsodispensewiththequestion,Whatlanguage(be-sidestheearliermechanicalone)doesthehumanbeingpossessasinstinctivelyaseachanimalspeciespossessesitslanguagein,andinaccordancewith,itsownsphere?Theanswerisshort:none!Andpreciselythisshortanswerisdecisive.Witheachanimal,aswehaveseen,itslanguageisanexpressionofsuchstrongsensuousrepresentationsthatthesebecomedrives.Hencelanguageis,alongwithsensesandrepresentationsanddrives,innateandimmediatelynaturalfortheanimal.Thebeehumsjustasitsucks,thebirdsingsjustasitmakesanest...Buthowdoesthehumanbeingspeakbynature?Notatall!–justashedoeslittleornothingthroughsheerinstinctasananimal.Imakeanexceptioninthecaseofanewbornchildofthecryofitssensitivemachine;otherwisethischildisdumb;itexpressesneitherrepresentationsnordrivesthroughsounds,asbycontrasteveryanimaldoesaccordingtoitskind;merelysetamonganimals,therefore,itisthemostorphanedchildofnature.Nakedandbare,weakandneedy,timidandunarmed–and,whatconstitutestheculminationofitsmiserablestate,deprivedofallnurturingguidesinlife.Bornwithsuchadispersed,weakenedsensuality,withsuchindeterminate,dormantabilities,withsuchdividedandweakeneddrives,obviouslydependentonanddirected\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagetoathousandneeds,destinedforalargesphere–andyetsoorphanedandabandonedthatitdoesnotevenenjoythegiftofalanguagewithwhichtoexpressitsshortcomings...No!Suchacontradictionisnotnature’swayoforganizingherhousehold.Theremust,insteadofinstincts,beotherhiddenpowerssleepinginthehumanchild!Borndumb,but...SecondsectionButIshallmakenoleap.Ishallnotstraightawaysuddenlygivethehumanbeingnewforces,“nolanguage-creatingability,”likeanarbitraryqualitasocculta.Ishallmerelysearchfurtheramongthepreviouslynotedgapsandshortcomings.Gapsandshortcomingscannot,however,bethecharacterofhisspecies–ornaturewasthehardeststep-mothertohim,whereasshewasthemostlovingmothertoeachinsect.Shegavetoeachinsectwhat,andasmuchas,itneeded:sensesforrepresentations,andrepresentationsdevelopedintodrives;organsforlanguage,asmanyaswerenecessary,andor-gansforunderstandingthislanguage.Withthehumanbeingeverythingstandsinthegreatestdisproportion–sensesandneeds,forcesandthecircleofefficacythatawaitshim,hisorgansandhislanguage.Wemusttherefore“lackacertainmiddletermforcalculatingthesodisparatetermsoftheequation.”Ifweweretofindthismiddleterm,thenbythewholeanalogyofnature“thiscompensationwouldbethehumanbeing’sdistinctivefeature,thecharacterofhisspecies,”andallreasonandjusticewoulddemandthatthisdiscoveredtraitbetreatedaswhatitis,asanaturalgift,asessentialtohimasinstinctistotheanimals.Werewe,moreover,tofind“preciselyinthischaracterthecauseofthoseshortcomings,andpreciselyinthemidstoftheseshortcomings,”inthehollowofthatgreatbereftnessofdrivestoart,thegermofasubstitute,thenthisattunementwouldbeageneticproofthat“thetrueorientationofhumanity”lieshere,andthatthehumanspeciesdoesnotstandabovetheanimalsinlevelsofmoreorless,butinkind.ThisisagoodexampleofHerder’s–fairlyfrequent–useoftherhetoricalfigureofaposiopesis.Inmanuscriptaheatfirstcompletedthesentence,inawaywhichhelpsonetointerprettheaposiopesis,asfollows:Borndumb,butitwillperhapsitselfcreatealanguageforitself!Hiddenquality.Cf.inthelastparagraphoftheprecedingsection:“[representations]becomedrives.”\nPhilosophyofLanguageAndifweweretofindinthisnewlydiscoveredcharacterofhumanityeven“thenecessarygeneticbasisforthearisingofalanguageforthisnewkindofcreatures,”aswefoundintheinstinctsoftheanimalstheimmediatebasisoflanguageforeachspecies,thenwehavequitereachedourgoal.Inthiscase“languagewouldbecomeasessentialtothehumanbeingas–heisahumanbeing.”YoucanseethatIdevelop[allthis]notfromvoluntaryorsocietalforces,butfromthegeneraleconomyofanimallife.∗Andnowitfollowsthatifthehumanbeinghassenseswhich,forasmallpatchoftheearth,fortheworkandtheenjoymentofastretchoftheworld,areinferiorinsharpnesstothesensesoftheanimalthatlivesinthisstretch,thenpreciselybecauseofthistheyreceiveanadvantageinfreedom;“preciselybecausetheyarenotforonepoint,theyaremoreuniversalsensesoftheworld.”Ifthehumanbeinghasforcesofrepresentationwhicharenotrestrictedtotheconstructionofahoneycellandacobweb,andhencealsoareinferiortotheabilitiesforartoftheanimalsinthiscircle,thenpreciselytherebytheseforcesreceive“alargerprospect.”Thehumanbeinghasnosinglework,inwhichhewouldthereforealsoactinamannersubjecttonoimprovement;buthehasfreespacetopracticeinmanythings,andhencetoimprovehimselfconstantly.Eachthoughtisnotanimmediateworkofnature,butpreciselybecauseofthisitcanbecomehisownwork.If,then,inthiswaytheinstinctwhichfollowedmerelyfromtheorga-nizationofthesensesandtherestrictedrealmoftherepresentationsandwhichwasnoblinddeterminationmustdisappear,thenpreciselytherebythehumanbeingreceives“moreclarity.”Sincehedoesnotfallblindlyononepointandremainlyingthereblindly,hebecomesfree-standing,canseekforhimselfasphereforself-mirroring,canmirrorhimselfwithinhimself.Nolongeraninfalliblemachineinthehandsofnature,hebecomeshisownendandgoalofrefinement.Letonenamethiswholedispositionofthehumanbeing’sforceshow-everonewishes:understanding,reason,taking-awareness[Besinnung],ItranslatethetwokeytermsBesinnungandBesonnenheitastaking-awarenessandawarenessrespec-tively.Onemainreasonforthistranslationisthat,aswillbecomeclearlaterinthepresentessay(seeespeciallythebeginningofthesecondpart),andrathercontrarytowhatonemighthaveinferredfromthenormallinguisticvalueoftheseterms,forHerderBesonnenheitisapreconditionofBesinnungbutnotconversely(pacenormalusage,whichwouldifanythinghavesuggestedtheconversedependence).\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageetc.Itisindifferenttome,aslongasonedoesnotassumethesenamestobeseparateforcesormerehigherlevelsoftheanimalforces.Itisthe“wholeorganizationofallhumanforces;thewholedomesticeconomyofhissensuousandcognizing,ofhiscognizingandwilling,nature.”Orrather,itis“thesinglepositiveforceofthought,which,boundupwithacertainorganizationofthebody,iscalledreasoninthecaseofhumanbeings,justasitbecomesabilityforartinthecaseofanimals,whichiscalledfreedominthecaseofthehumanbeing,andinthecaseofanimalsbecomesinstinct.”Thedifferenceisnotinlevelsortheadditionofforces,butinaquitedifferentsortoforientationandunfoldingofallforces.WhetheroneisLeibnizianorLockean,SearchorKnowall,kidealistormaterialist,onemustinaccor-dancewiththepreceding,ifoneisinagreementaboutthewords,concedethematter,“adistinctivecharacterofhumanity”whichconsistsinthisandnothingelse.Allthosewhohaveraiseddifficultiesagainstthisaredeludedbyfalserepresentationsandconfusedconcepts.Humanreasonhasbeenimag-inedasanew,quiteseparateforceaddedintothesoulwhichbecamethepropertyofthehumanbeinginpreferencetoallanimalsasanad-ditionalgift,andwhichmusthencealsobeconsideredalone,likethefourthrungofaladderafterthethreelowestones.Andthatisindeedphilosophicalnonsense,howevergreatthephilosophersmaybewhosayit.Alltheforcesofoursoulsandofanimals’soulsarenothingbutmeta-physicalabstractions,effects!Theygetseparatedoffbecauseourweakspiritwasunabletoconsiderthemallatonce.Theystandinchapters,notbecausetheytookeffectthuschapterbychapterinnature,butbe-causeapupilperhapsbestunfoldsthemforhimselfinthisway.Thefactthatwehavebroughtcertainoftheirfunctionsundercertainmaintitles,forexample,cleverness,intelligence,imagination,reason,doesnotmeanthatasingleactofspiritwouldeverbepossibleinwhichclever-nessorreasontakeseffectalone,butonlythatinthisactwediscoverapreponderanceoftheabstractionwhichwecallclevernessorreason,e.g.thecomparisonortherenderingdistinctofideas–thoughineverycasethewhole,undividedsoultakeseffect.Ifahumanbeingwaseverabletoperformasingleactinwhichhethoughtentirelylikeananimal,thenheisalsothroughandthroughnolongerahumanbeing,nolongerkAfavoritedichotomyinanewmetaphysicalwork:Search,LightofNaturePursued(London,).[ThiswasabookbyA.TuckerpublishedunderthepseudonymSearchinwhichSearchandKnowallwerefictiveinterlocutors.]\nPhilosophyofLanguagecapableofanyhumanactatall.Ifhewaswithoutreasonforasinglemo-ment,thenIcannotseehowhecouldeverinhislifethinkwithreason,or[inotherwords,]hiswholesoul,thewholeeconomyofhisnature,waschanged.Accordingtomorecorrectideas,therationalityofthehumanbeing,thecharacterofhisspecies,issomethingdifferent,namely,“thetotaldeterminationofhisthinkingforceinrelationtohissensualityanddrives.”Andtakingallthepreviousanalogiesinaid,itcouldnothavebeenotherwiseherethanthat:Ifthehumanbeinghadanimaldrives,hecouldnothavethatwhichwenowcallreasoninhim;forpreciselythesedriveswouldnaturallytearhisforcessoobscurelytowardsasinglepointthatnofreecircleoftaking-awarenessaroseforhim.Itwasinevitablythecasethat:Ifthehumanbeinghadanimalsenses,thenhewouldhavenoreason;forpreciselyhissenses’strongsusceptibilitytostimulation,preciselytherepresentationsmightilypressingonhimthroughthem,wouldinevitablychokeallcoldawareness[Besonnenheit].Butconversely,inaccordancewithpreciselytheselawsofcombinationbelongingtodomesticallymanagingnature,itwasalsoinevitablythecasethat:Ifanimalsensualityandrestrictiontoasinglepointfellaway,thenadifferentcreaturecameintobeing,whosepositiveforceexpresseditselfinalargerspace,inaccordancewithfinerorganization,moreclearly,andwhich,separatedandfree,notonlycognizes,wills,andeffects,butalsoknowsthatitcognizes,wills,andeffects.Thiscreatureisthehumanbeing,andwewish–inordertoescapetheconfusionswithspecificforcesofreason,etc.–tocallthiswholedispositionofhisnature“awareness.”Henceitfollowsfrompreciselytheserulesofcombination,sinceallthosewords–sensualityandinstinct,imaginationandreason–areafterallonlyThelasttwosentencesillustrateHerder’scommonpracticeofcombiningverbaltensesandmoodsinunusualways.Forexample,inthefirstsentence,afterthepasttense“waseverable”onewouldhaveexpectedthepasttenseagainbutinsteadgetsthepresenttense“heis...nolonger.”ItwouldbeabsurdtosupposethatthisisjusttheresultofineptnessonHerder’spart(oneneedonlylookatsamplesofhismoreconventionalproseinordertoseethat).Rather,heisdeliberatelyaimingatcertaineffectsbywritinginthisway.Mostobviously,hehasanaestheticgoalofbreakingthemonotonyofmoreconventionalprosethatusesverbsinmoreconventionalways(inamannerthatisinfactalreadycharacteristicofmuchoraldiscourse).Butalso,hehopestoachievefurthergoalsofvarioussorts–forexample,inthecaseofthefirstsentence,theswitchtothepresentconveys,bothbyitsownabruptnessandbyitscharacterasasortofhistoricpresent(whichistypicallyusedfordramaticnarration),theimmediacyoftheconsequencethatisbeingdescribed(i.e.theperson’snolongerbeingahumanbeing).\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagedeterminationsofasingleforceinwhichoppositionscanceleachother,that:Ifthehumanbeingwassupposedtobenoinstinctiveanimal,hehadtobeacreaturewithawarenessinvirtueofthefreelyeffectivepositiveforceofhissoul.–IfIdrawoutthechainoftheseinferencesyetafewstepsfurther,thenItherebygetaleapaheadoffutureobjectionswhichshortensthepathgreatly.If,thatistosay,reasonisnocompartmentalized,separatelyeffectiveforcebutanorientationofallforcesthatisdistinctivetohisspecies,thenthehumanbeingmusthaveitinthefirstconditioninwhichheisahumanbeing.Thisawarenessmustrevealitselfinthefirstthoughtofthechild,justasinthecaseoftheinsect[ithadtobeevident]thatitwasaninsect.–Nowthatissomethingthatmorethanoneauthorhasbeenunabletograsp,andhencethematerialaboutwhichIamwritingisfullofthemostprimitive,mostrevoltingobjections.Buttheywereunabletograspitbecausetheymisunderstoodit.Does,then,thinkingrationallymeanthinkingwithdevelopedreason?Doestheclaimthattheinfantthinkswithawarenessmeanthatherationalizeslikeasophistonhisrostrumorthestatesmaninhiscabinet?Itisfortunateandthricefortunatethatheshouldnotyetknowanythingofthisfatiguingjumbleofrationalizings!Butdotheynot,then,seethatthisobjectionmerelydeniesathusandnototherwise,amoreorlesscultivated[gebildeten]useoftheforcesofthesoul,andnotatallthepositivefactofaforceofthesoulitself?Andwhatfoolwillclaimthatthehumanbeinginthefirstmomentoflifethinksinthesamewayasaftermanyyears’practice–unlessonesimultaneouslydeniesthegrowthofallforcesofthesoulandpreciselytherebyconfessesoneselftobeachild-without-any-say[einenUnm¨undigen]?Butsince,onthecontrary,thisgrowthcanmeannothingatallbutaneasier,stronger,morediverseuse,mustnot,then,thatwhichistobeusedalreadyexist?Mustnotthatwhichistogrowalreadybeagerm?Andisnotthewholetreehencecontainedinthegerm?Aslittleasthechildhasclawslikeacondorandalion’smanecanitthinklikeacondororlion;butifitthinksinahumanway,thenawareness,thatis,theaccommodationofallitsforcesinthiscentraldirection,isalreadyinthefirstmomentitsfate,justasitwillbesointhelast.Reasonalreadyexpressesitselfamidthechild’ssensualitysoactuallythattheall-knowingonewhocreatedthissoulalreadysawinitsfirstconditionthewholenetworkoflife’sactions–as,forexample,the\nPhilosophyofLanguagegeometer,accordingtoagivenclass,fromonetermoftheprogressionfindstheprogression’swholecondition.“Butinthatcase,thisreasonwasafterallatthattimemoreanabilityforreason(r´eflexionenpuissance)thanarealforce?”Theexceptionmeansnothing.Mere,bareabilitywhichevenwithoutapresentobstacleisnoforce,nothingbutability,isasemptyasoundasplasticformswhichformbutarethemselvesnoforms.Ifnottheslightestpositivecontributiontoatendencyispresentwiththeability,thennothingispresent–thenthewordismerelyaschoolabstraction.TherecentFrenchphilosopherlwhomadethisr´eflexionenpuissance,thisspuriousconcept,sodeceptivelydaz-zlingstill,asweshallsee,onlymadedeceptivelydazzlingabubblewhichhedrivesalongbeforehimforatimebutwhichtohisownsurpriseburstsonhisway.Andifthereisnothingintheability,throughwhatmeansisitsupposedevertoenterthesoul?Ifinitsfirstconditionthesoulhasnoth-ingpositiveofreasoninit,howwillthisbecomerealeveninmillionsofsucceedingconditions?Itissophistrythattheusecantransformanabilityintoforce,somethingmerelypossibleintosomethingactual;ifforceisnotalreadypresent,thenofcourseitcannotbeusedandapplied.Inaddition,lastly,whatarethesetwothings,aseparateabilityforreasonandforceofreasoninthesoul?Oneisasunintelligibleastheother.Positthehumanbeingasthebeingthatheis,withthatdegreeofsensualityandthatorga-nization,intheuniverse:fromallsides,throughallsenses,thisuniversestreamsuponhiminsensations.[Not]throughhumansenses?[Not]inahumanway?Doesthisthinkingbeing[not],therefore,incomparisonwiththeanimals,getlessflooded?Thisbeinghasthespacetoexpressitsforcemorefreely,andthisstateofaffairsiscalledrationality.Whereisthemereabilityhere?Wheretheseparateforceofreason?Itisthepositive,singleforceofthesoulwhichiseffectiveinsuchadisposition–wheremoresensuously,thenlessrationally;wheremorerationally,theninalesslRousseau,OnInequalityetc.[i.e.Discourssurl’origine...].Herder’sthoughthereseemstoberoughlythis:Inmathematics,ifoneknowsafunctiondefiningaprogression(“agivenclass”)andalsothefirsttermoftheprogression(“onetermoftheprogression”),thenonecanworkoutthewholeprogression–e.g.ifoneknowsthefunction“+”andthefirsttermoftheprogressionofthepositiveintegerswhichitdefines,namely,thenonecanworkoutthewholeprogressionofthepositiveintegers.Similarly,ifoneknowsthataninfanthasawareness,andalsoknowstheinitialconditionofitssoul,thenonecanworkoutthewhole(subsequent)progressionofitssoul’sconditions.ThesethreequestionsarefurtherexamplesofaHerderianidiomnotedearlier:thenegativerhetoricalquestion–equivalenttoastrongaffirmation–expressedwithoutanegation(heresupplied).\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagelivelyway;wheremoreclearly,thenlessobscurely–thatisallobvious,isitnot!Butthemostsensuousconditionofthehumanbeingwasstillhuman,andhenceawarenesswasstilleffectiveinthatcondition,onlyinalessmarkeddegree;andtheleastsensuousconditionoftheanimalswasstillanimalistic,andhencedespiteanyamountofclarityoftheirthoughtsawarenessofahumanconceptwasneveroperative.Andletusnotplaywithwordsanyfurther!Iamsorrytohavelostsomuchtimemerelyinordertodefineandorderbareconcepts.Butthelosswasnecessarybecauseinmoderntimesthiswholepartofpsychologyliesbeforeussopatheticallydevastated,sinceFrenchphilosophershaveconfusedeverythingsomuchintheirpreoccupationwithafewapparentpeculiaritiesinanimalandhumannature,andGermanphilosophersordermostconceptsofthissortmorefortheirownsystemandaccordingtotheirownperspectivethanwithaviewtoavoidingconfusionsintheperspectiveoftheusualwayofthinking.Ihavealsointhisclearingupofconceptsmadenodigression,butwearesuddenlyatourgoal!Namely:∗Thehumanbeing,putintheconditionofawarenesswhichishisveryown,withthisawareness(reflection)operatingfreelyforthefirsttime,inventedlanguage.Forwhatisreflection?Whatislanguage?Thisawarenessischaracteristicallyhisown,andessentialtohisspecies.Likewiselanguageandhisowninventionoflanguage.Theinventionoflanguageishenceasnaturalforhimasishisbe-ingahumanbeing!Onlyletusunfoldbothconcepts!–reflectionandlanguage.Thehumanbeingdemonstratesreflectionwhentheforceofhissouloperatessofreelythatinthewholeoceanofsensationswhichfloodsthesoulthroughallthesensesitcan,sotospeak,separateoff,stop,andpayattentiontoasinglewave,andbeconsciousofitsownattentiveness.Thehumanbeingdemonstratesreflectionwhen,outofthewholehoveringdreamofimageswhichproceedbeforehissenses,hecancollecthimselfintoamomentofalertness,freelydwellonasingleimage,payitclear,moreleisurelyheed,andseparateoffcharacteristicmarksforthefactthatthisisthatobjectandnoother.Thushedemonstratesreflectionwhenhecannotonlyrecognizeallthepropertiesinavividorclearway,butcaninhisownmindacknowledgeoneorseveralasdistinguishingproperties.\nPhilosophyofLanguageThefirstactofthisacknowledgmentmprovidesadistinctconcept;itisthefirstjudgmentofthesoul–and...Whatbroughtaboutthisacknowledgment?Acharacteristicmarkwhichhehadtoseparateoffandwhichasacharacteristicmarkoftaking-aware-nessfelldistinctlywithinhim.Good!Letusshouttohimtheheurˆeka!Thisfirstcharacteristicmarkoftaking-awarenesswasawordofthesoul!Withithumanlanguageisinvented.Letthatlambpassbeforehiseyeasanimage–[somethingthathap-pens]tohimastonootheranimal.Notastothehungry,scentingwolf!,notastotheblood-lickinglion–theyalreadyscentandsavorintheirminds!,sensualityhasovercomethem!,instinctimpelsthemtoattackit!Notastothearousedram,whichfeelsthe[she-]lambonlyastheobjectofitspleasure,andwhichishenceagainovercomebysensualityandim-pelledbyinstincttoattackit.Notastoeveryotheranimaltowhichthesheepisindifferent,andwhichconsequentlyallowsittoproceedpastinlightandshadebecauseitsinstinctdirectsittosomethingelse.Notsotothehumanbeing!Assoonashedevelopsaneedtobecomeacquaintedwiththesheep,noinstinctdisturbshim,nosensetearshimtooclosetothesheeporawayfromit;itstandsthereexactlyasitexpressesitselftohissenses.White,soft,woolly–hissoul,operatingwithawareness,seeksacharacteristicmark–thesheepbleats!–hissoulhasfoundacharacter-isticmark.Theinnersensetakeseffect.Thisbleating,whichmakesthestrongestimpressiononthesoul,whichtoreitselfawayfromalltheotherpropertiesofviewingandfeeling,jumpedforth,penetratedmostdeeply,remainsforthesoul.Thesheepcomesagain.White,soft,woolly–thesoulsees,feels,takesawareness,seeksacharacteristicmark–itbleats,andnowthesoulrecognizesitagain!“Aha!Youarethebleatingone!”thesoulfeelsinwardly.Thesoulhasrecognizeditinahumanway,foritrecognizesandnamesitdistinctly,thatis,withacharacteristicmark.Moreobscurely?Inthatcasethesheepwouldnotbeperceivedatallforthesoulbecausenosensuality,noinstinctdirectedatthesheep,wouldcompensatethesoulforitslackofsomethingdistinctwithsomethingthatmOneofthefinestessaystothrowlightontheessenceofapperceptionfromphysicalexperiments–whichsorarelygettoclarifythemetaphysicsofthesoul!–istheessayinthepublicationsoftheBerlinAcademyof.[ThisreferstoJ.G.Sulzer,Surl’apperceptionetsoninfluencesurnosjugements[OnApperceptionandItsInfluenceonourJudgments].]B:remaineddistinctlywithinhim.Ihavefoundit.ReadingdaswithSuphan.Herder’sihnshouldstrictlybeanes,butgetsattractedintothegenderofthefollowingword,“humanbeing.”\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagewasclearinamorelivelyway.Distinctlyinanimmediateway,withoutacharacteristicmark?Nosensuouscreaturecanhaveoutersensationinthisway,sinceitmustalwayssuppress,sotospeakdestroy,otherfeelings,andmustalwaysrecognizethedifferencebetweentwothingsthroughathirdthing.Withacharacteristicmarktherefore?Andwhatelsewasthatbutaninwardcharacteristicword?“Thesoundofbleating,perceivedbyahumansoulasthedistinguishingsignofthesheep,became,thankstothisdeterminationtowhichitwasdestined,thenameofthesheep,evenifthehumanbeing’stonguehadnevertriedtostammerit.”Thehumanbeingrecognizedthesheepbyitsbleating;thiswasagraspedsignontheoccasionofwhichthesouldistinctlyrecalledtoawarenessanidea.Whatelseisthatbutaword?Andwhatisthewholeofhumanlanguagebutacollectionofsuchwords?Soevenifthehumanbeingneverreachedthesituationofconveyingthisideatoanothercreature,andhenceofwantingorbeingabletobleatforththischaracteristicmarkoftaking-awarenesstoitwithhislips,stillhissoulhas,sotospeak,bleatedinternallywhenitchosethissoundasasignforremembering,andbleatedagainwhenitrecognizedthesheepbyit.Languageisinvented!Inventedjustasnaturally,andasnecessarilyforthehumanbeing,asthehumanbeingwasahumanbeing.Mostpeoplewhohavewrittenabouttheoriginoflanguagehavenotsoughtitinthesoleplacewhereitcouldbefound,andconsequentlymanyhavehadnumerousobscuredoubtsfloatingbeforetheirmindsaboutwhetheritwastobefoundanywhereinthehumansoul.Peoplehavesoughtitinthebetterarticulationoftheinstrumentsoflanguage–asthoughanorangutanwithpreciselythoseinstrumentswouldeverhaveinventedlanguage!Peoplehavesoughtitinthesoundsofpassion–asthoughallanimalsdidnotpossessthesesounds,andanyanimalhadinventedlanguagefromthem!Peoplehaveassumedaprincipleoftheimitationofnatureandhencealsoofnature’ssounds–asthoughanythingcouldbemeantbysuchablindinclination,andasthoughtheapewithpreciselythisinclination,ortheblackbirdwhichissogoodatapingsounds,hadinventedalanguage!Finally,thegreatestnumberhaveassumedamereconvention,anagreement–andRousseauistheonewhohasspokenagainstthismoststrongly;forindeed,whatsortofobscure,tangledexpressionThephrase“determinationtowhichitwasdestined”translatesthesinglewordBestimmungwhichcouldheremeananyorallofthefollowing:()destiny,()determining(ofthesoundasa“distinguishingsign”),()determination/property.AsimplersolutionmightbetoreadBesinnungfromawithSuphan:“thankstothistaking-awareness.”Readingesforihn.\nPhilosophyofLanguageisthis,anaturalagreementconcerninglanguage?Thesesonumerous,unbearablefalsehoodswhichhavebeenstatedaboutthehumanoriginoflanguagehaveintheendmadetheoppositeopinionalmostuniversal.ButIhopethatitwillnotremainso.Hereitisnoorganizationofthemouthwhichproduceslanguage,foreventhepersonwhowasdumballhislife,ifhewasahumanbeing,ifhetookawareness,hadlanguageinhissoul!Hereitisnocryofsensation,fornobreathingmachinebutacreaturetakingawarenessinventedlanguage!Noprincipleofimitationinthesoul;theimitationofnature,ifitoccurs,ismerelyameanstotheoneandonlypurposewhichissupposedtobeexplainedhere.Leastofallisitcommon-understanding,arbitrarysocietalconvention;thesavage,thesolitaryintheforest,wouldnecessarilyhaveinventedlanguageforhimselfevenifhehadneverspokenit.Languagewasthecommon-understandingofhissoulwithitself,andacommon-understandingasnecessaryasthehumanbeingwashumanbeing.Ifothersfounditunintelligiblehowahumansoulwasabletoinventlanguage,thenitisunintelligibletomehowahumansoulwasabletobewhatitiswithoutpreciselythereby,alreadyevenintheabsenceofamouthandsociety,inevitablyinventinglanguageforitself.Nothingwillunfoldthisoriginmoredistinctlythantheobjectionsoftheopponents.Themostthorough,nthemostdetailed,defenderofthedivineoriginoflanguagebecomes,preciselybecausehepenetratedbeneaththesurfacewhichtheothersonlytouch,almostadefenderofthetruehumanorigin.Hestoppedimmediatelyattheedgeoftheproof,andhismainobjection,merelyexplainedabitmorecorrectly,becomesanobjectionagainsthimselfandaproofofhis[opinion’s]antithesis,thehumanpotentialforlanguage.Heclaimstohaveproved“thattheuseoflanguageisnecessaryfortheuseofreason!”Ifhehaddoneso,thenIdonotknowwhatelsewouldtherebybeproved“thanthatsincetheuseofreasonisnaturaltothehumanbeing,theuseoflanguagewouldhavetobesoequally!”Unfortunatelythough,hehasnotprovedhisproposition.Hehasmerelydemonstratedverylaboriouslythatsuchmanyfine,interwovenactionsasattention,reflection,abstraction,etc.cannotproperlyhappenwithoutsignsonwhichthesoulrelies;butthisnotproperly,noteasily,nSu¨ßmilch,op.cit.,sec..ThissentenceisanexampleofHerder’suseoftherhetoricalfigureofbrachylogy,or“shortening.”Withoutbrachylogythesentencewouldendsomethinglikethis:“asnecessaryasitwasnecessarythatthehumanbeingwasahumanbeing.”\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagenotprobablydoesnotyetexhaustanything.Justaswewithfewforcesofabstractioncanthinkonlyalittleabstractionwithoutsensuoussigns,sootherbeingscanthinkmorewithoutthem.Attheleastitdoesnotyetfollowatallthatinitselfnoabstractionispossiblewithoutasensuoussign.Ihaveprovedthattheuseofreasonisnotmerelynotproperlypossiblewithoutacharacteristicmark,butthatnottheleastuseofreason,notthesimplestdistinctacknowledgment,notthesimplestjudgmentofahumanawarenessispossiblewithoutacharacteristicmark;forthedifferencebetweentwothingscanonlyeverberecognizedthroughathirdthing.Preciselythisthirdthing,thischaracteristicmark,consequentlybecomesaninnercharacteristicword;hencelanguagefollowsquitenaturallyfromthefirstactofreason.–Mr.Su¨ßmilchclaimstodemonstrateothatthehigherapplicationsofreasoncouldnotoccurwithoutlanguage,andforthiscitesthewordsofWolff,who,though,evenofthiscaseonlyspeaksintermsofprobabilities.Thecaseisactuallyirrelevanttothequestion,forthehigherapplicationsofreason,astheytakeplaceinthespeculativesciences,wereofcoursenotnecessaryforthefirstfoundationstoneoflanguageconstruction.–AndyeteventhiseasilyprovedpropositionisonlyexplainedbyMr.S.,whereasIbelievethatIhaveprovedthateventhefirst,lowestapplicationofreasonwasnotabletooccurwithoutlanguage.Butwhenhenowinfersthatnohumanbeingcanhaveinventedlanguageforhimselfbecausereasonisalreadyrequiredfortheinventionoflanguage,sothatlanguagewouldhavealreadyhadtobepresentbeforeitwaspresent,thenIstoptheeternalcircle,consideritrightly,andnowitsayssomethingcompletelydifferent:ratioetoratio!Ifnoreasonwaspossibleforthehumanbeingwithoutlanguage,good!,thentheinventionofthelatterisasnatural,asold,asoriginal,ascharacteristicforthehumanbeingastheuseoftheformer.IhavecalledS¨ußmilch’smannerofinferenceaneternalcirclebecauseIcanofcoursejustaswellturnitagainsthimashecanagainstme–andthethingrevolvesonandon.Withoutlanguagethehumanbeinghasnoreason,andwithoutreasonnolanguage.Withoutlanguageandreasonheisincapableofanydivineinstruction,andyetwithoutdivineinstructionhehasnoreasonandlanguage–wheredoweevergettohere?HowcanthehumanbeinglearnlanguagethroughdivineinstructionifoIbid.,p..[Suphancorrectsthisto:p..]Reasonandspeech.\nPhilosophyofLanguagehehasnoreason?Andofcoursehehasnottheslightestuseofreasonwithoutlanguage.Soheissupposedtohavelanguagebeforehehasitandbeforeheisabletohaveit?Ortobecapableofbecomingratio-nalwithouttheslightestuseofreasononhisownpart?Inordertobecapableofthefirstsyllableinthedivineinstruction,heofcoursehad,asMr.Su¨ßmilchhimselfconcedes,tobeahumanbeing,thatis,tobeabletothinkdistinctly,andwiththefirstdistinctthoughtlanguagewasalreadypresentinhissoul;henceitwasinventedfromhisownmeansandnotthroughdivineinstruction.–Iknowofcoursewhatpeopleusuallyhaveinmindwiththisdivineinstruction,namely,parents’instructionoftheirchildreninlanguage.Butletitberecalledthatthisisnotthecasehereatall.Parentsneverteachtheirchildrenlanguagewithoutthechildrenconstantlythemselvesinventingitaswell;parentsonlydrawtheirchildren’sattentiontodistinctionsinthingsbymeansofcertainverbalsigns,andhencetheydonot,asmightbesupposed,substituteforthemlanguagefortheuseofreason,butonlyfacilitateandpromoteforthemtheuseofreasonbymeansoflanguage.Ifsomeonewantstoas-sumesuchasupernaturalfacilitationforotherreasons,thenthatisquiteirrelevanttomypurpose;onlyinthatcaseGodhasnotatallinventedlanguageforhumanbeings,butthesestillhadtofindtheirlanguageforthemselvesthroughtheeffectoftheirownforces,onlyunderahighermanagement.Inordertobeabletoreceivethefirstwordasaword,thatis,asacharacteristicsignofreason,evenfromGod’smouth,reasonwasnecessary;andthehumanbeinghadtoapplythesametaking-awarenessinordertounderstandthiswordasawordasifhehadoriginallythoughtitup.Soalltheweaponsofmyopponentfightagainsthimself;thehumanbeingneededtohavearealuseofreasoninordertolearndivinelanguage;thatissomethingalearningchildalwayshastoounlessitshould,likeaparrot,merelyutterwordswithoutthoughts.ButwhatsortofworthypupilsofGodwouldthosebewholearnedinsuchaway?Andiftheyhadalwayslearnedinsuchaway,whencewouldwehavegotourrationallanguage,then?Iflattermyselfthatifmyworthyopponentstilllivedhewouldunder-standthathisobjection,madesomewhatmoredeterminate,itselfbecomesthestrongestproofagainsthim,andthathehashenceinhisbookun-wittinglyhimselfgatheredtogethermaterialsforhisownrefutation.HeReadingimforinwithSuphan.B:andnotmechanicallythrough.Su¨ßmilchdiedin.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagewouldnothidebehindtheexpression“abilityforreason,which,though,isnotyetintheleastreason.”Forwhicheverwayonechoosestoturn,contradictionsarise!Arationalcreaturewithouttheleastuseofreason,orareason-usingcreaturewithoutlanguage!Areasonlesscreaturetowhichinstructioncangivereason,oracreaturecapableofbeinginstructedwhichishoweverwithoutreason!Abeingwhichiswithouttheslightestuseofreason–andyetahumanbeing!Abeingwhichcouldnotuseitsreasonfromnaturalforcesandyetlearnedtouseitnaturallythroughsupernatu-ralinstruction!Ahumanlanguagewhichwasnothumanatall,i.e.whichwasunabletoarisethroughanyhumanforce,andalanguagewhichisrathersohumanthatwithoutitnoneofthehumanbeing’sactualforcescanexpressitself!Athingwithoutwhichhewasnotahumanbeing,andyetaconditioninwhichhewasahumanbeinganddidnothavethething,whichthingwasthereforepresentbeforeitwaspresent,hadtoexpressitselfbeforeitcouldexpressitself,etc.Allthesecontradictionsareobvi-ouswhenhumanbeing,reason,andlanguagearetakenastherealthingsthattheyare,andtheghostofaword‘ability’(‘humanability,’‘abilityforreason,’‘linguisticability’)isunmaskedinitsnonsensicality.“Butthosesavagehumanchildrenamongthebears,didtheyhavelan-guage?Andweretheynothumanbeings?”pCertainly!Only,firstofall,humanbeingsinanunnaturalcondition!Humanbeingsindegenera-tion!Putthestoneonthisplant;willitnotgrowcrooked?Andisitnotneverthelessinitsnatureanupwards-growingplant?Anddidthisforceforstraightgrowthnotexpressitselfeveninthecasewheretheplantentwineditselfcrookedlyaroundthestone?Hence,second,eventhepos-sibilityofthisdegenerationrevealshumannature.Preciselybecausethehumanbeinghasnosuchcompellinginstinctsastheanimals,becauseheiscapableofsomanykindsofthingsandismoreweaklycapableofeverything–inshort,becauseheisahumanbeing,washeabletode-generate.Wouldhe,then,havelearnedtoroarinsuchabearlikeway,andtocreepinsuchabearlikewayifhehadnothadflexibleorgans,ifhehadnothadflexiblelimbs?Wouldanyotheranimal,anapeoradonkey,havegotsofar?Sodidhishumannaturenotreallycontributetothefactthathewasabletobecomesounnatural?Butthird,givensuchasituation,thishumannaturestillremainedhumannature.FordidpSu¨ßmilch,p..Thephrase“givensuchasituation”triestocapturetwosensesbetweenwhichdeswegenhovershere:()therefore,()despitethis.\nPhilosophyofLanguageheroar,creep,feed,scentcompletelylikeabear?Orwouldhenothaveeternallyremainedastumbling,stammeringhuman-bear,andhenceanimperfectdouble-creature?Actually,aslittleashisskinandhisface,hisfeetandhistongue,wereabletochangeandturnintoacompletebearform,justaslittle–letusneverdoubtit!–wasthenatureofhissoulabletodoso.Hisreasonlayburiedunderthepressureofsensuality,ofbearlikeinstincts,butitwasstillhumanreason,becausethoseinstinctswerenevercompletelybearish.Andthatthisishowthingswereisindeedshown,finally,bythedevelopmentofthewholescene.Whentheob-stacleswererolledaway,whenthesebear-humanshadreturnedtotheirspecies,didtheynotlearntowalkuprightandtospeakmorenaturallythantheyhad–everunnaturally–formerlylearnedtocreepandtoroar?Thelattertheywereonlyeverabletodoinabearlikeway;theformertheylearnedinlesstimequitehumanly.Whichoftheirformerfraternalcompanionsintheforestlearnedthiswiththem?Andbecausenobearwasabletolearnit,becausenonepossessedthedispositionofbodyandsoulforthis,mustitnothavebeenthecasethatthehuman-bearhadstillpreservedthisdispositionintheconditionofhisdegenerationintosav-agery?Ifmereinstructionandhabituationhadgiventhisdispositiontohim,whynottothebear?Andthenwhatwoulditmeantogivereasonandhumanitytosomeonethroughinstructionwhenhedoesnotalreadyhavethem?Presumablyinthatcasethisneedlehasgiventhepowerofsighttotheeyefromwhichitremovescataracts...Whatever,then,wouldwewanttoinferaboutnaturefromthemostunnaturalofcases?Butifweconfessthatitisanunnaturalcase–fine!,thenitconfirmsnature!ThewholeRousseauianhypothesisoftheinequalityofhumanbeingsis,famously,builtonsuchcasesofdegeneration,andhisdoubtsagainstthehumancharacteroflanguageconcerneitherfalsesortsoforiginsorthedifficultyearliertouchedonthattheinventionoflanguagewouldalreadyhaverequiredreason.Inthefirstcasehisdoubtsareright;inthesecondtheyarerefuted,andindeedcanberefutedoutofRousseau’sownmouth.Hisphantom,thenaturalhumanbeing–thisdegeneratecreaturewhichheontheonehandfobsoffwiththeabilityforreason,ontheotherhandgetsinvestedwithperfectibility,andindeedwithperfectibilityasadistinctivecharactertrait,andindeedwithperfectibilityinsuchahighBcontinuesthesentence:nature,andthroughitsdeviationpointstothehumanpossibilityoflanguageinabettercondition.B:henceconcern.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagedegreethatthankstoitthisnaturalhumanbeingcanlearnfromallthespeciesofanimals.AndnowwhathasRousseaunotconcededtothisnaturalhumanbeing![Hehasconceded]morethanwewantandneed!Thefirstthought–“Behold!Thatissomethingpeculiartotheanimal!Thewolfhowls!Thebearroars!”–thisisalready(thoughtinsuchalightthatitcouldcombinewiththesecondthought,“ThatissomethingIdonothave!”)actualreflection.Andnowthethirdandfourththoughts–“Fine!Thatwouldalsoaccordwithmynature!Icouldimitatethat!Iwanttoimitatethat!Therebymyspecieswillbecomemoreperfect!”–whatamassoffine,inferentiallyconnectedreflections!,sincethecreaturethatwasabletoconsideronlythefirstofthesenecessarilyalreadyhadalanguageofthesoul!,alreadypossessedtheartofthinkingwhichcreatedtheartofspeaking.Theapealwaysapes,butithasneverimitated:neversaidtoitselfwithawareness,“Iwanttoimitatethatinordertomakemyspeciesmoreperfect!”Forifithadeverdonethat,ifithadmadeasingleimitationitsown,madeiteternalinitsspeciesbychoiceandintention,ifithadbeenabletothinkevenjustasingletimeasinglesuchreflection...thenatthatverymomentitwasnolongeranape!Forallitsapeform,evenwithoutasoundofitstongue,itwasaninwardlyspeakinghumanbeing,whowasboundtoinventhisoutwardlanguageforhimselfsoonerorlater.Butwhatorangutanhasever,withallitshumanlanguageinstruments,spokenasinglehumanword?Tobesure,therearestillnegro-brothersinEuropewhosimplysay,“Perhapsso–ifonlytheorangutanwantedtospeak!–orfounditselfintherightcircumstances!–orcould!”Could!–thatwouldnodoubtbethebestformulation;forthetwoprecedingifsaresufficientlyrefutedbythehistoryofanimals,and,asmentioned,theabilityisnotimpededinthisanimal’scasebytheinstruments.Ithasaheadwhichislikeoursbothoutsideandinside,buthasiteverspoken?Parrotandstarlinghavelearnedenoughhumansounds,buthavetheyalsothoughtahumanword?Quitegenerally,theoutersoundsofwordsarenotyetofanyconcerntoushere;wearetalkingabouttheinner,necessarygenesisofaword,asthecharacteristicmarkofadistincttaking-awareness.ButwhenhasananimalB:nothereby.B:inthatitalready.B:inwardlyaspeakinghumanbeing.Bsubstitutes“human-like”for“human”bothtimesinthissentence.ReadingUmst¨andewithSuphan.FootnoteaddedbyHerderintheBeditionof:“ItisclearfromCamper’sdissectionoftheorangutan(seehistranslatedshortwritings[i.e.S¨ammtlichekleineSchriften,])thatthisclaimistoobold;however,formerly,whenIwrotethis,itwasthecommonopinionofanatomists.”\nPhilosophyofLanguagespeciesever,inwhateverway,expressedthat?Thisthreadofthoughts,thisdiscourseofthesoul,wouldstillhavetobecapableofbeingfollowed,howeveritmightexpressitself.Butwhohaseverdonethat?ThefoxhasactedathousandtimesinthewaythatAesopmakesitact,butithasneveractedwiththemeaningattributedtoitbyAesop,andthefirsttimethatitiscapableofdoingso,MasterFoxwillinventhisownlanguageforhimselfandbeabletomakeupfablesaboutAesopjustasAesopnowmakesthemupabouthim.Thedoghaslearnedtounderstandmanywordsandcommands,howevernotaswordsbutassignsassociatedwithgestures,withactions;ifitwereevertounderstandasinglewordinthehumansense,thenitnolongerserves,itcreatesforitselfartandrepublicandlanguage.Onecanseethatifoneoncemissestheexactpointofgenesis,thenthefieldforerroronbothsidesisimmeasurablylarge!–thenlanguagebecomesnowsosuperhumanthatGodhastoinventit,nowsoinhumanthatanyanimalcouldinventitifitgaveitselfthetrouble.Thegoaloftruthisonlyapoint!But,setdownonit,weseeonallsides:whynoanimalcaninventlanguage,whynoGodmustinventlanguage,andwhythehumanbeingasahumanbeingcanandmustinventlanguage.Idonotwanttopursuethehypothesisofthedivineoriginoflanguageanyfurtheronametaphysicalbasis,foritsgroundlessnessisclearpsycho-logicallyfromthefactthatinordertounderstandthelanguageofthegodsonOlympusthehumanbeingmustalreadyhavereasonandconsequentlymustalreadyhavelanguage.StilllesscanIindulgeinapleasantdetail-ingoftheanimallanguages,for,aswehaveseen,itturnsoutthattheyallstandcompletelyandincommensurablyapartfromhumanlanguage.WhatIrenounceleasthappilyherearethemanysortsofprospectswhichwouldleadfromthispointofthegenesisoflanguageinthehumansoulintothebroadfieldsofLogic,Aesthetics,andPsychology,especiallycon-cerningthequestion,Howfarcanonethinkwithoutlanguage,whatmustonethinkwithlanguage?,aquestionwhichsubsequentlyspreadsitselfinitsapplicationsoveralmostallthesciences.Letitsufficeheretonotethatlanguageistherealdifferentiaofourspeciesfromwithout,asreasonisfromwithin.Inmorethanonelanguagewordandreason,conceptandword,languageandoriginatingcause[Ursache],consequentlyalsoshareonename,andthissynonymycontainsitswholegeneticorigin.WiththeEasternersitOrpossibly:may.E.g.Greek,inwhichthewordlogoscanbearallthesemeanings.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagebecamethemosteverydayidiomtocalltheacknowledgmentofathingname-giving,forinthebottomofthesoulbothactionsareone.Theycallthehumanbeingthespeakinganimal,andthenonrationalanimalsthedumb–theexpressioncharacterizesthemsensuously,andtheGreekwordalogoscomprisesboththings.Inthiswaylanguagebecomesanaturalorganoftheunderstanding,asenseofthehumansoul,justastheforceofvisionofthatsensitivesouloftheancientsbuildsforitselftheeye,andtheinstinctofthebeebuildsforitselfitscell.[Itis]excellentthatthisnew,self-madesensebelongingtothemindisimmediatelyinitsoriginameansofconnectioninitsturn.Icannotthinkthefirsthumanthought,cannotsetupthefirstawarejudgmentinasequence,withoutengagingindialogue,orstrivingtoengageindialogue,inmysoul.Hencethefirsthumanthoughtbyitsverynaturepreparesonetobeabletoengageindialoguewithothers!ThefirstcharacteristicmarkthatIgraspisacharacteristicwordformeandacommunicationwordforothers!–Sicverba,quibusvocessensusquenotarentNominaqueinvenere–HoraceThirdsectionThefocalpointatwhichPrometheus’sheavenlysparkcatchesfireinthehumansoulhasbeendetermined.Withthefirstcharacteristicmarklanguagearose.Butwhichwerethefirstcharacteristicmarkstoserveaselementsoflanguage?I.SoundsCheselden’sblindmanqshowshowslowlysightdevelops;withwhatdif-ficultythesoularrivesattheconceptsofspace,shape,andcolor;howqPhilosophicalTransactions[oftheRoyalSocietyofLondon,no.,]–Abridgement.AlsoinCheselden’sAnatomy,inSmith-K¨astner’sOptics,inBuffon’sNaturalHistory,theEncyclopedia,andtensmallFrenchdictionariesunderaveugle.alogos:withoutspeech,withoutreason.Bsubstitutesfor“and...alogos...”“the...alogostoo...”B:isandmustbeinitsoriginameansofconnectioninitsturn!APlatonicdoctrine.SeeTheaetetus,eff.Thusdidtheyinventwordsandnameswithwhichtomarksoundsandmeanings.\nPhilosophyofLanguagemanyattemptsmustbemade,howmuchgeometrymustbeacquired,inordertousethesecharacteristicmarksdistinctly.Thiswasnotthereforethemostsuitablesenseforlanguage.Inaddition,itsphenomenaweresocoldanddumb,andthesensationsofthecrudersensesintheirturnsoindistinctandmixedup,thataccordingtoallnatureeithernothingortheearbecamethefirstteacheroflanguage.There,forexample,isthesheep.Asanimageithoversbeforetheeyewithallobjects,images,andcolorsonasinglegreatnaturepicture.Howmuchtodistinguish,andwithwhateffort!Allcharacteristicmarksarefinelyinterwoven,besideeachother–allstillinexpressible!Whocanspeakshapes?Whocansoundcolors?Hetakesthesheepunderhisgropinghand.Feelingissurerandfuller–butsofull,soobscurelymixedup.Whocansaywhathefeels?Butlisten!Thesheepbleats!Thereacharacteristicmarkofitselftearsitselffreefromthecanvasofthecolorpictureinwhichsolittlecouldbedistinguished–haspenetrateddeeplyanddistinctlyintothesoul.“Aha!”saysthelearningchild-without-any-say[Unm¨undige],likethatformerlyblindmanofCheselden’s,“NowIwillknowyouagain.Youbleat!”Theturtle-dovecoos!Thedogbarks!Therearethreewords,becausehetriedoutthreedistinctideas–theseideasforhislogic,thosewordsforhisvocabulary!Reasonandlanguagetookatimidsteptogether,andnaturecametomeetthemhalf-waythroughhearing.Naturesoundedthecharacteristicmarknotonlyforthbutdeepintothesoul!Itrangout!Thesoullaidhold–andthereithasaresoundingword!Thehumanbeingistherefore,asalistening,notingcreature,naturallyformedforlanguage,andevenablindanddumbman,onesees,wouldinevitablyinventlanguage,ifonlyheisnotwithoutfeelinganddeaf.Puthimcomfortablyandcontentedlyonalonelyisland;naturewillrevealitselftohimthroughhisear,athousandcreatureswhichhecannotseewillnonethelessseemtospeakwithhim,andevenifhismouthandhiseyeremainedforeverclosed,hissouldoesnotremainentirelywithoutlanguage.Whentheleavesofthetreerustledowncoolnessforthepoorlonelyone,whenthestreamthatmurmurspastrockshimtosleep,andthewestwindwhistlinginfanshischeeks–thebleatingsheepgiveshimmilk,thetricklingspringwater,therustlingtreefruit–interestenoughtoknowthesebeneficentbeings,urgentcauseenough,withouteyesandB:Thehumanbeing.ReadingwithSuphanm¨ußte.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagetongue,tonametheminhissoul.Thetreewillbecalledtherustler,thewestwindthewhistler,thespringthetrickler.Asmallvocabularyliesreadythere,andawaitsthespeechorgans’minting.Howimpoverishedandstrange,though,wouldhavetobetherepresentationswhichthismutilatedpersonassociateswithsuchsounds!rNowsetallofthehumanbeing’ssensesfree,lethimsimultaneouslyseeandtouchandfeelallthebeingswhichspeakintohisear.Heaven!Whataclassroomofideasandlanguage!BringnoMercuryorApollodownfromthecloudsasoperaticdeiexmachina;allofmany-sounded,divinenatureislanguagemistressandMuse!Theresheleadsallcreaturespasthim;eachbearsitsnameonitstongue,andnamesitselftothisenshrouded,visiblegod!ashisvassalandservant.Itdeliversuntohimitscharacteristicwordintothebookofhisgovernancelikeatribute,thathemayrememberitbythisname,callitinfuture,andenjoyit.Iaskwhetherthistruth–“Preciselytheunderstanding,throughwhichthehumanbeingrulesovernature,wasthefatherofalivinglanguage,whichitabstractedforitselffromthesoundsofresoundingbeingsascharacteristicmarksfordistinguishing!”–whetherthisdrytruthcaneverbeexpressedmorenoblyandbeautifullyinanEasternwaythan[inthewords]:“Godledtheanimalstohimthathemightseehowheshouldnamethem!Andhoweverhewouldnamethem,thusweretheytobecalled!”WherecanitbesaidmoredefinitelyinanEastern,poeticway:thehumanbeinginventedlanguageforhimself!–fromthesoundsoflivingnature!–tobecharacteristicmarksofhisgoverningunderstanding!AndthatiswhatIprove.Ifanangelorheavenlyspirithadinventedlanguage,howcoulditbeotherwisethanthatlanguage’swholestructurewouldhavetobeanoffprintofthisspirit’smannerofthought?ForbywhatelsecouldIrecognizeapicturethatanangelhadpaintedthanbytheangelicquality,thesupernaturalqualityofitstraits?Butwheredoesthathappeninthecaseofourlanguage?Structureandlayout,yes,eventhefirstfoundationstoneofthispalace,betrayshumanity!rDiderothardlycametothiscentralmaterialinhiswholeletterSurlessourdsetmuets[i.e.Lettresurlessourdsetmuets`al’usagedeceuxquientendentetquiparlent[LetterontheDeafandDumbfortheUseofThosewhoHearandSpeak],],sinceheonlystopstodiscussinversionsandahundredotherminormatters.[TheBeditionismorecomplimentaryhere:Diderot’sletteris“instructive”andinsteadof“minormatters”hediscusses“subtleties.”]“...whetherthistruth...whetherthis...truth”isanexampleoftherhetoricalfigureofanadiplo-sis,or“doubling,”whichHerderusesfairlyoften.Genesis:.\nPhilosophyofLanguageInwhatlanguageareheavenly,spiritualconceptsthefirstones?Thoseconceptswhichwouldalsohavetobethefirstaccordingtotheorderofourthinkingspirit–subjects,notionescommunes,theseedsofourcognition,thepointsaboutwhicheverythingturnsand[towhich]every-thingleadsback–aretheselivingpointsnotelementsoflanguage?Afterall,thesubjectswouldnaturallyhavetohavecomebeforethepredicate,andthesimplestsubjectsbeforethecompoundones,thatwhichdoesandactsbeforewhatitdoes,theessentialandcertainbeforetheuncer-taincontingent...Yes,whatallcouldonenotinfer,and–inouroriginallanguagestheclearoppositehappensthroughout.Ahearing,listeningcreatureisrecognizablebutnoheavenlyspirit,forresoundingverbsarethefirstrulingelements.Resoundingverbs?Actions,andstillnothingwhichactsthere?Predicates,andstillnosubject?Theheavenlygeniusmayneedtobeashamedofthat,butnotthesensuous,humancreature,forwhatmovedthelatter–aswehaveseen–moredeeplythantheseresoundingactions?Andhencewhatelseislanguage’swholemannerofconstructionthanamodeofdevelopmentofthiscreature’sspirit,ahis-toryofitsdiscoveries?Thedivineoriginexplainsnothingandletsnothingbeexplainedfromit;itis,asBaconsaysofanothersubject,aholyVestalVirgin–consecratedtoGodbutbarren,piousbutuseless!Thefirstvocabularywasthereforecollectedfromthesoundsofthewholeworld.Fromeachresoundingbeingitsnamerangout,thehumansoulimpresseditsimageonthem,thoughtofthemascharacteristicsigns.Howcoulditbeotherwisethanthattheseresoundinginterjectionsbecamethefirst?Andsoitisthat,forexample,theEasternlanguagesarefullofverbsasbasicrootsoflanguage.Thethoughtofthethingitselfstillhoveredbetweentheagentandtheaction.Thesoundhadtodesignatethething,justasthethinggavethesound.Hencefromtheverbsarosenouns,andnotfromthenounsverbs.Thechildnamesthesheepnotasasheepbutasableatingcreature,andhencemakestheinterjectionintoaverb.Thismatterbecomesexplicableinthecontextofthestepsofdevelopmentofhumansensuality,butnotinthecontextofthelogicofthehigherspirit.ReadingwithSuphanm¨ußten.Commonconcepts.ReadingwithSuphanm¨ußten.B:rulingelementsoftheoldestlanguages.Baddshere:Thehumanoriginexplainseverythingandhenceverymuch.B:thefirstvividwords[Machtworte]oflanguage.ReadingwithSuphanforundNominaausdenVerbisinsteadundnichtVerbaausdenNominibus.Suphangivesacompellingexplanationfromthemanuscriptsofhowthecorruptionarose.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageAllold,savagelanguagesarefullofthisorigin,andina“philosophicaldictionaryoftheEasterners”eachstem-wordwithitsfamily,properlypresentedandsoundlydeveloped,wouldbeamapofthecourseofthehumanspirit,ahistoryofitsdevelopment,andawholesuchdictionarywouldbethemostexcellentproofofthehumansoul’sartofinvention.ButalsoofGod’slinguisticandpedagogicalmethod?Idoubtit!Sincethewholeofnatureresounds,thereisnothingmorenaturalforasensuoushumanbeingthanthatitlives,itspeaks,itacts.Thatsavagesawthehightreewithitssplendidcrownandadmired.Thecrownrustled!Thatistheworkofdivinity!Thesavagefallsdownandpraystoit!Beholdtherethehistoryofthesensuoushumanbeing,theobscurelink,hownounsarisefromtheverbs–andtheeasieststeptoabstraction!WiththesavagesofNorthAmerica,forexample,everythingisstillalive:eachthinghasitsgenius,itsspirit.AndthatitwasjustthesamewiththeGreeksandtheEasternersisshownbytheiroldestvocabularyandgrammar–theyare,asthewholeofnaturewastotheinventor,apantheon!,arealmofliving,actingbeings!Butbecausethehumanbeingrelatedeverythingtohimself,becauseeverythingseemedtospeakwithhim,andreallyactedfororagainsthim,becauseheconsequentlytooksideswithoragainstit,lovedorhatedit,andimaginedeverythingtobehuman,allthesetracesofhumanityimpressedthemselvesintothefirstnamesaswell!Theytooexpressedloveorhate,curseorblessing,softnessoropposition,andespeciallytherearosefromthisfeelinginsomanylanguagesthearticles!Hereeverythingbecamehuman,personifiedintowomanorman–everywheregods;goddesses;acting,wickedorgood,beings!;theroaringstormandthesweetzephyr;theclearspringandthemightyocean–theirwholemythologyliesinthemines,theverbsandnouns,oftheancientlanguages,andtheoldestvocabularywasasmucharesoundingpantheon,ameetinghallofbothgenders,asnaturewastothesensesofthefirstinventor.Herethelanguageofthoseancientsavagesisastudyinthestrayingsofhumanimaginationandpassions,liketheirmythology.Eachfamilyofwordsisanovergrownbusharoundasensuousmainidea,aroundaholyoakonwhichtherearestilltracesoftheimpressionthattheinventorhadofthisDryad.Thefeelingsarewoventogetherforhim;whatmoveslives;whatresoundsB:admiredit.B:“That,”hesaid,“istheworkofdivinity!”Hefelldownandprayedtoit.B:andsimultaneously.Readingzeigtforzeugt.ReadingwithSuphandr¨uckten.\nPhilosophyofLanguagespeaks–andsinceitresoundsforyouoragainstyou,itisfriendorenemy;godorgoddess;itactsfrompassions,likeyou!Ahuman,sensuouscreatureiswhatIlovewhenIreflectonthismannerofthought:Iseeeverywheretheweakandtimidsensitivepersonwhomustloveorhate,trustorfear,andwouldliketospreadthesesensationsfromhisownbreastoverallbeings.Iseeeverywheretheweakandyetmightycreaturewhichneedsthewholeuniverseandentangleseverythingintowarorpeacewithitself,whichdependsoneverythingandyetrulesovereverything.–Thepoetryandthegender-creationoflanguagearehencehumanity’sinterest,andthegenitalsofspeech,sotospeak,themeansofitsreproduction.Butnow,ifahighergeniusbroughtlanguagedownoutofthestars,howisthis?Didthisgeniusoutofthestarsbecomeentangledonourearthunderthemooninsuchpassionsofloveandweakness,ofhateandfear,thathewoveeverythingintolikingandhate,thathemarkedallwordswithfearandjoy,thathe,finally,constructedeverythingonthebasisofgenderpairings?Didheseeandfeelasahumanbeingsees,sothatthenounshadtopairoffintogendersandarticlesforhim,sothatheputtheverbstogetherintheactiveandthepassive,accordedthemsomanylegitimateandillegitimatechildren–inshort,sothatheconstructedthewholelanguageonthebasisofthefeelingofhumanweaknesses?Didheseeandfeelinthisway?Toadefenderofthesupernaturalorigin[oflanguage]itisdivineorderingoflanguage“thatmoststem-wordshaveonesyllable,verbsaremostlyoftwosyllables,andhencelanguageisarrangedinaccordancewiththemeasureofmemory.”Thefactisinexactandtheinferenceunsure.Intheremainsofthelanguagewhichisacceptedasbeingmostancienttherootsareallverbsoftwosyllables,whichfact,now,IcanexplainverywellfromwhatIsaidabove,whereastheoppositehypothesisfindsnosupport.Theseverbs,namely,areimmediatelybuiltonthesoundsandinterjectionsofresoundingnature–whichoftenstillresoundinthem,andarehereandthereevenstillpreservedinthemasinterjections;butforthemostpart,assemi-unarticulatedsounds,theywereinevitablylostwhenthelanguagedeveloped.HenceintheEasternlanguagesthesefirstattemptsofthestammeringtongueareabsent;butthefactthattheyareabsent,andthatonlytheirregularremainsresoundintheverbs,preciselythistestifiestotheoriginalityand...thehumanityoflanguage.AretheseB:ofitsarising.Su¨ßmilch,VersucheinesBeweises,p..Breplaces“all”with“usually.”Readingzeugtvonforzeigtvon.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagestemstreasuresandabstractionsfromGod’sunderstanding,orratherthefirstsoundsofthelisteningear,thefirstnoisesofthestammeringtongue?Forofcoursethehumanspeciesinitschildhoodformedforitselfpreciselythelanguagewhichachild-without-any-saystammers;itisthebabblingvocabularyofthewet-nurse’squarters–butwheredoesthatremaininthemouthsofadults?Thethingthatsomanyancientssay,andsomanymodernshavere-peatedwithoutsense,winsfromthisitssensuouslife,namely,“thatpoetrywasolderthanprose!”Forwhatwasthisfirstlanguagebutacollectionofelementsofpoetry?Imitationofresounding,acting,stirringnature!Takenfromtheinterjectionsofallbeingsandenlivenedbytheinterjec-tionofhumansensation!Thenaturallanguageofallcreaturespoetizedbytheunderstandingintosounds,intoimagesofaction,ofpassion,andoflivingeffect!Avocabularyofthesoulwhichissimultaneouslyamythologyandawonderfulepicoftheactionsandspeakingsofallbeings!Henceaconstantpoeticcreationoffablewithpassionandinterest!Whatelseispoetry?Inaddition.Thetraditionofantiquitysays:thefirstlanguageofthehumanspecieswassong.Andmanygood,musicalpeoplehavebelievedthathumanbeingscouldwellhavelearnedthissongfromthebirds.Thatis,itmustbeadmitted,alottoswallow!Agreat,heavyclockwithallitssharpwheelsandnewlystretchedspringsandhundredweightweightscantobesureproduceacarillonoftones.Buttosetforththenewlycreatedhumanbeing,withhisdrivingmotives,withhisneeds,withhisstrongsensations,withhisalmostblindlypreoccupiedattention,andfinallywithhisprimitivethroat,sothathemightapethenightingale,andfromthenightingalesinghimselfalanguage,is–howevermanyhistoriesofmusicandpoetryitmaybeassertedin–unintelligibletome.Tobesure,alanguagethroughmusicaltoneswouldbepossible(howeverLeibnizsarrivedatthisidea!).Butforthefirstnaturalhumanbeingsthislanguagewasnotpossible,soartificialandfineisit.Inthechainofbeingseachthinghasitsvoiceandalanguageinaccordancewithitsvoice.Thelanguageofloveissweetsonginthenestofthenightingale,asitisroaringinthecaveofthelion;inthedeer’sforestitistroatinglust,andinthecat’sdenacaterwaul.Eachspeciesspeaksitsownlanguageoflove,notsOeuvresphilosophiques,publieesparRaspe[´PhilosophicalWorks,editedbyRaspe],p..B:personifiedinto.\nPhilosophyofLanguageforthehumanbeingbutforitself,andforitselfaspleasantlyasPetrarch’ssongtohisLaura!Henceaslittleasthenightingalesingsinordertosingasanexampleforhumanbeings,thewaypeopleimagine,justaslittlewillthehumanbeingeverwanttoinventlanguageforhimselfbytrillinginimitationofthenightingale.Andthenreally,whatsortofmonsteristhis:ahumannightingaleinacaveorinthegameforest?Soifthefirsthumanlanguagewassong,itwassongwhichwasasnaturaltothehumanbeing,asappropriatetohisorgansandnaturaldrives,asthenightingale’ssongwasnaturaltothenightingale,acreaturewhichis,sotospeak,ahoveringlung–andthatwas...preciselyourresoundinglanguage.Condillac,Rousseau,andotherswerehalfontherighttrackhereinthattheyderivethemeterandsongoftheoldestlanguagesfromthecryofsensation–andwithoutdoubtsensationdidindeedenliventhefirstsoundsandelevatethem.Butsincefromthemeresoundsofsensationhumanlanguagecouldneverhavearisen,thoughthissongcertainlywassuchalanguage,somethingmoreisstillneededinordertoproducethissong–andthatwaspreciselythenamingofeachcreatureinaccordancewithitsownlanguage.Sotheresangandresoundedthewholeofnatureasanexample,andthehumanbeing’ssongwasaconcertoofallthesevoices,totheextentthathisunderstandingneededthem,hissensationgraspedthem,hisorganswereabletoexpressthem.Songwasborn,butneitheranightingale’ssongnorLeibniz’smusicallanguagenoramereanimals’cryofsensation:anexpressionofthelanguageofallcreatureswithinthenaturalscaleofthehumanvoice!Evenwhenlanguagelaterbecamemoreregular,monotonous,andreg-imented[gereiht],itstillremainedaspeciesofsong,astheaccentsofsomanysavagesbearwitness;andthattheoldestpoetryandmusicarosefromthissong,subsequentlymadenoblerandfiner,hasnowalreadybeenprovedbymorethanoneperson.ThephilosophicalEnglishmantwhoinourcenturytackledthisoriginofpoetryandmusiccouldhavegotfurthestifhehadnotexcludedthespiritoflanguagefromhisinvestigationandhadaimedlessathissystemofconfiningpoetryandmusictoasinglepointofunification–inwhichneitherofthemcanshowitselfinitstruelight–thanattheoriginationofbothfromthewholenatureofthehumantBrown.[J.Brown(–),authorofADissertationontheRise,Union,Power,theProgressions,Separations,andCorruptions,ofPoetryandMusic().]B:verymuch.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagebeing.Ingeneral,becausethebestpiecesofancientpoetryareremainsfromtheselanguage-singingtimes,themisconceptions,misappropria-tions,andmisguidederrorsoftastethathavebeenspelledforthfromthecourseofthemostancientpoems,oftheGreektragedies,andoftheGreekorationsarequitecountless.Howmuchcouldstillbesaidherebyaphilosopherwhohadlearnedamongthesavages,wherethisagestilllives,thetoneinwhichtoreadthesepieces!Otherwise,andusually,peo-pleonlyeverseetheweaveofthebackofthecarpet!,disjectimembrapoetae!ButIwouldlosemyselfinanimmeasurablefieldifIweretogointoindividualobservationsaboutlanguage–sobacktothefirstpathoftheinventionoflanguage!∗Howwordsarosefromsoundsmintedintocharacteristicmarksbytheun-derstandingwasveryintelligible,butnotallobjectsmakesounds.Whence,then,characteristicwordsforthese[other]objectsforthesoultonamethemwith?Whencethehumanbeing’sartofturningsomethingthatisnotnoiseintonoise?Whatdoescolor,roundnesshaveincommonwiththenamewhicharisesfromitjustasthename‘bleating’arisesfromthesheep?Thedefendersofthesupernaturalorigin[oflanguage]immedi-atelyhaveasolutionhere:“[Thishappens]byarbitraryvolition!Whocancomprehend,andinvestigateinGod’sunderstanding,whygreeniscalled‘green’andnot‘blue’?Clearly,thatisthewayhewantedit!”Andthusthethread[ofinquiry]iscutoff!Allphilosophyabouttheartofinventinglanguagethushoversarbitrarily-voluntarilyintheclouds,andforuseachwordisaqualitasocculta,somethingarbitrarilywilled!OnlyitmaynotbetakenillthatinthiscaseIdonotunderstandtheterm‘arbitrarilywilled.’Toinventalanguageoutofone’sbrainbyarbitraryvolitionandwithoutanygroundofchoiceis,atleastforahumansoul,whichwantstohaveaground,evenifonlyasingleground,foreverything,asmuchatortureasitisforthebodytohaveitselftickledtodeath.Moreover,inthecaseofaprimitive,sensuousnaturalhumanbeingwhoseforcesarenotyetfineenoughtoplayaimingatwhatisuseless,who,inhislackofpracticeandhisstrength,doesnothingwithoutapressingcause,andwantstodonothinginvain,theinventionofalanguageoutofinsipid,emptyarbitraryvolitionisopposedtothewholeanalogyofhisnature.B:themisconceptionsthathavebeenspelledforthunderthenameoferrorsoftaste...Limbsofthemutilatedpoet.B:justasnaturallyas.Hiddenquality.\nPhilosophyofLanguageAndingeneral,itisopposedtothewholeanalogyofallhumanforcesofsoul,alanguagethoughtoutfrompurearbitraryvolition.So,tothematter.Howwasthehumanbeing,lefttohisownforces,alsoableeventoinventforhimselfII.alanguagewhennosoundresoundedforhimasanexample?Howaresightandhearing,colorandword,scentandsound,connected?Notamongthemselvesintheobjects.Butwhat,then,aretheseprop-ertiesintheobjects?Theyaremerelysensuoussensationsinus,andassuchdotheynotallflowintoone?Weareasinglethinkingsen-soriumcommune,onlytouchedfromvarioussides.Thereliestheexplanation.Feelingformsthebasisofallthesenses,andthisalreadygivestothemostdiversesensationssuchaninward,strong,inexpressiblebondthatthestrangestphenomenaarisefromthisconnection.Iamfamiliarwithmorethanoneexampleinwhichpeople,perhapsduetoanimpressionfromchildhood,bynaturecouldnotbutthroughasuddenonsetimme-diatelyassociatewiththissoundthatcolor,withthisphenomenonthatquitedifferent,obscurefeeling,whichinthelightofleisurelyreason’scomparisonhasnorelationwithitatall–forwhocancomparesoundandcolor,phenomenonandfeeling?Wearefullofsuchconnectionsofthemostdifferentsenses,onlywedonotnoticethemexceptinonsetswhichmakeusbesideourselves,insicknessesoftheimagination,oronoccasionswhentheybecomeunusuallynoticeable.Thenormalcourseofourthoughtsproceedssoquickly,thewavesofoursensationsrushsoobscurelyintoeachother,thereissomuchinoursoulatonce,thatinregardtomostideasweareasthoughasleepbyaspringwheretobesurewestillheartherushofeachwave,butsoobscurelythatintheendsleeptakesawayfromusallnoticeablefeeling.Ifitwerepossibleforustoarrestthechainofourthoughtsandlookateachlinkforitsconnec-tion,whatstrangephenomena!,whatforeignanalogiesamongthemostdifferentsenses–inaccordancewithwhich,however,thesoulhabituallyacts!Intheeyesofamerelyrationalbeing,wewouldallbesimilartothattypeofmadmenwhothinkcleverlybutcombineveryunintelligiblyandfoolishly!Collectiveorganofsensation(“innersense”).\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageInthecaseofsensuouscreatureswhohavesensationthroughmanydifferentsensessimultaneouslythiscollectingtogetherofideasisun-avoidable,forwhatareallthesensesbutmeremodesofrepresentationofasinglepositiveforceofthesoul?Wedistinguishthem,butonceagainonlythroughsenses;hencemodesofrepresentationthroughmodesofrepresentation.Withmucheffortwelearntoseparatetheminuse–butinacertainbasistheystillfunctiontogether.AlldissectionsofsensationinthecaseofBuffon’s,Condillac’s,andBonnet’ssensinghumanbeingareabstractions;thephilosopherhastoneglectonethreadofsensationinpursuingtheother,butinnatureallthesethreadsareasingleweb!Now,themoreobscurethesensesare,themoretheyflowintoeachother;andthemoreuntrainedtheyare,thelessapersonhasyetlearnedtouseonewithouttheother,touseitwithskillanddistinctness,thenthemoreobscuretheyare!–Letusapplythistothebeginningoflanguage!Thechildhoodandinexperienceofthehumanspeciesmadelanguageeasier!Thehumanbeingsteppedintotheworld.Whatanoceanimmedi-atelyfelluponhim!Withwhatdifficultydidhelearntodistinguish!,torecognizesenses!,touserecognizedsensesalone!Visionisthecoldestsense,andifithadalwaysbeenascold,asremote,asdistinctasithasbecomeforusthroughaneffortandtraininglastingmanyyears,thenindeedIwouldnotseehowonecanmakeaudiblewhatonesees.Butnaturehastakencareofthisandhasshortenedthepath,foreventhisvisionwas,aschildrenandformerlyblindpeopletestify,tobeginwithonlyfeeling.Mostvisiblethingsmove,manymakeasoundwhentheymove,andwherenot,thenthey,sotospeak,lieclosertotheeyeinitsinitialcondition,immediatelyuponit,andcanhencebefelt.Feelingliessoclosetohearing;itsdescriptiveterms,forexample,hart,rauh,weich,wollig,sammt,haarig,starr,glatt,schlicht,borstig,etc.,whichofcourseallconcernonlysurfacesanddonotevenpenetratedeeply,allmakeasoundasthoughonefeltthething.Thesoul,whichstoodinthethrongofsuchaconfluenceofsensations,andinneedofformingaword,reachedoutandgotholdperhapsofthewordofaneighboringsensewhosefeelingflowedtogetherwiththisone.Inthiswaywordsaroseforallthesenses,andevenforthecoldestofthem.Lightningdoesnotmakeanoise,butifitistobeexpressed,thismessengerofmidnight!,Readingseheass¨ahe.Hard,rough,soft,woolly,velvety,hairy,stiff,smooth,sleek,bristly.\nPhilosophyofLanguageThat,inaspleen,unfoldsbothheavenandearth,Andereamanhathpowertosay,“Behold!”Thejawsofdarknessdodevouritupthennaturallythiswillbedonebyawordwhichthroughthehelpofanintermediaryfeelinggivestheearthesensationofwhatismostsuddenlyquickwhichtheeyehad:Blitz!ThewordsDuft,Ton,s¨uß,bitter,sauer,etc.allmakeasoundasthoughonefelt–forwhatelseareallthesensesoriginallybutfeeling?Buthowfeelingcanexpressitselfinsound–thiswehavealreadyinthefirstsectionacceptedasanimmediatenaturallawofthesensingmachinewhichwemayexplainnofurther!Andhenceallthedifficultiesleadbacktothefollowingtwoproven,distinctpropositions:)Sinceallthesensesarenothingbutmodesofrepre-sentationbelongingtothesoul,letthesoulonlyhavedistinctrepresentation,andconsequentlyacharacteristicmark,andwiththecharacteristicmarkithasinnerlanguage.)Sinceallthesenses,especiallyintheconditionofhumanchildhood,arenothingbutwaysoffeelingbelongingtoasoul,butallfeelingaccordingtoalawofsensationpertainingtoanimalnatureimmediatelyhasitssound,letthisfeelingonlybeelevatedtothedistinctnessofacharacteristicmark,thenthewordforexternallanguageispresent.Herewecometoamassofspecialobservationsconcerning“hownature’swisdomhasthoroughlyorganizedthehumanbeingsothathemightinventlanguageforhimself.”Hereisthemainobservation:“Sincethehumanbeingonlyreceivesthelanguageofteachingnaturethroughthesenseofhearing,andwithoutthiscannotinventlanguage,hearinginacertainwaybecamethemiddleoneofhissenses,theactualdoortothesoul,andthebondconnectingtheothersenses.”Iwanttoexplainmyself!)Hearingisthemiddleoneofthehumansensesinregardtosphereofsensitivityfromoutside.Feelingsenseseverythingonlyinitselfandinitsorgan;visionthrowsusfaroutsideourselves;hearingstandsinitsdegreeofcommunicativityinthemiddle.Whatdoesthatdoforlan-guage?Supposeacreature,evenarationalcreature,forwhomfeelingwerethemainsense(ifthisispossible!).Howsmallitsworldis!AndShakespeare,AMidsummerNight’sDream,act,scene,ll.–.Lightning!Scent,sound,sweet,bitter,sour.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagesinceitdoesnotsensethisthroughhearing,itwillnodoubtperhapsliketheinsectconstructawebforitself,butitwillnotconstructforitselfalanguagethroughsounds!Again,acreaturethatisalleye.Howinex-haustibletheworldofitsvisualobservationsis!Howimmeasurablyfaritisthrownoutsideitself!Dispersedintowhatinfinitemanifoldness!Itsspokenlanguage(wehavenoideaofit!)wouldbecomeasortofinfinitelyfinepantomime,itswritinganalgebrabymeansofcolorsandstrokes–butresoundinglanguagenever!Wecreatureswhohearstandinthemiddle:wesee,wefeel,butseen,feltnatureresounds!Itbecomesateacheroflanguagethroughsounds!Webecome,sotospeak,hearingthroughalloursenses!Letusfeelthecomfortablenessofourposition–throughiteachsensebecomescapableoflanguage.Tobesure,onlyhearingactuallygivessounds,andthehumanbeingcannotinventbutonlyfind,onlyimitate.Butontheonesidefeelingliesnextdoor,andontheothersidevisionistheneighboringsense.Thesensationsunitetogetherandhenceallapproachtheregionwherecharacteristicmarksturnintosounds.Inthisway,whatonesees,whatonefeels,becomessoundableaswell.Thesenseforlanguagehasbecomeourmiddleandunifyingsense;wearelinguisticcreatures.)Hearingisthemiddleoneamongthesensesinrespectofdistinct-nessandclarity,andhenceagainthesenseforlanguage.Howobscureisfeeling!Itgetsstunned[ubert¨¨aubt]!Itsenseseverythingmixedup.Thereitisdifficulttoseparateoffacharacteristicmarkforacknowledgment;itprovesinexpressible!Again,visionissobrightandblinding[ubergl¨¨anzend],itsuppliessuchamassofcharacteristicmarks,thatthesoulsuccumbsunderthemani-foldness,andcanforexampleseparateoneofthemoffonlysoweaklythatrecognitionbymeansofitbecomesweak.Hearingisinthemiddle.Itleavesasideallfeeling’smixed-up,obscurecharacteristicmarks.Allvision’sexcessivelyfinecharacteristicmarksaswell!Butdoesasoundtearitselffreetherefromthefelt,observedobject?Intothissoundthecharacteristicmarksofthosetwosensesgatherthemselves–thisbecomesacharacteristicword!Sohearingreachesoutonbothsides;itmakesclearwhatwastooobscure,itmakespleasanterwhatwastoobright;itintro-ducesmoreunityintotheobscuremanifoldoffeeling,andalsointothea:becomesdifficult.\nPhilosophyofLanguageexcessivelybrightmanifoldofvision;andsincethisacknowledgmentofthemanifoldthroughone,throughacharacteristicmark,becomeslanguage,hearingislanguage.)Hearingisthemiddlesensewithrespecttolivelinessandhencethesenseforlanguage.Feelingoverpowers[uberw¨¨altigt];visionistoocoldandindifferent.Theformerpenetratestoodeeplyintoustobeabletobecomelanguage;thelatterremainstoomuchatrestbeforeus.Hearing’ssoundpenetratessointimatelyintooursoulsthatitinevitablybecomesacharacteristicmark,butstillnotsostunningly[ubert¨¨aubend]thatitcouldnotbecomeaclearcharacteristicmark.Thatisthesenseforlanguage.Howbrief,tiring,andunbearablethelanguageofanycrudersensewouldbeforus!Howconfusingandmind-emptyingthelanguageofexcessivelyfinevision!Whocanalwaystaste,feel,andsmellwithoutsoon,asPopesays,dyinganaromaticdeath?Andwhoalwaysattentivelygapeatacolor-pianowithoutsoongoingblind?Butwecanforlongerandalmostforeverhear,thinkwordswithhearing,sotospeak;hearingisforthesoulwhatgreen,themiddlecolor,isforsight.Thehumanbeingisformedtobealinguisticcreature.)Hearingisthemiddlesenseinrelationtothetimeinwhichitoperates,andhencethesenseforlanguage.Feelingcastseverythingintousatonce,itstirsourstringsstronglybutbrieflyandinjumps.Visionpresentseverythingtousatonce,andhenceintimidatesthepupilthroughtheimmeasurablecanvasofitsside-by-side.Beholdhow[nature]theteacheroflanguagesparesusthroughhearing!Shecountssoundsintooursoulsonlyoneafteranother,givesandnevertires,givesandalwayshasmoretogive.Shethuspracticesthewholeknackofmethod:sheteachesprogressively!Whointhesecircumstancescouldnotgrasplanguage,inventlanguageforhimself?)Hearingisthemiddlesenseinrelationtotheneedtoexpressoneself,andhencethesenseforlanguage.Feelingoperatestooobscurelytobeex-pressed;butsomuchthelessmayitbeexpressed–itconcernsourselfsomuch!,itissoselfishandself-engrossed!Visionisinexpressibleforthein-ventoroflanguage;butwhydoesitneedtobeexpressedimmediately?Theobjectsremain!Theycanbeshownbymeansofgestures!Buttheobjectsofhearingareboundupwithmovement;theyproceedpast;butpreciselytherebytheyalsoresound.Theybecomeexpressiblebecausetheymustbea:istheorganoflanguage.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageexpressed,andthroughthefactthattheymustbeexpressed,throughtheirmovement,dotheybecomeexpressible.Whatanabilityforlanguage!)Hearingisthemiddlesenseinrelationtoitsdevelopment,andhencethesenseforlanguage.Thehumanbeingisfeelingthroughandthrough:theembryoinitsfirstmomentoflifefeelsasdoestheinfant;thatisthenaturalstemoutofwhichthemoredelicatebranchesofsensualitygrow,andthetangledballoutofwhichallfinerforcesofthesoulunfold.Howdotheseunfold?Aswehaveseen,throughhearing,sincenatureawak-ensthesoultoitsfirstdistinctsensationthroughsounds.Hence,sotospeak,awakensitoutoftheobscuresleepoffeelingandripensittostillfinersensuality.If,forexample,visionwasalreadythereunfoldedbeforehearing,orifitwerepossiblethatitshouldbeawakenedoutoffeelingotherwisethanthroughthemiddlesenseofhearing–whatwisepoverty!,whatclairvoyantstupidity!Howdifficultitwouldbecomeforsuchacrea-ture–alleye!,whenitshouldinsteadbeahumanbeing–tonamewhatitsaw!,tounitecoldvisionwithwarmerfeeling,withthewholestemofhumanity!However,theverygoverningassumption[Instanz]turnsouttobeself-contradictory;thewaytotheunfoldingofhumannature–isbetterandsingle!Sinceallthesensesfunctioncooperatively,throughthesenseofhearingweare,sotospeak,alwaysinnature’sschool,learningtoabstractandsimultaneouslytospeak;visionrefinesitselfwithreason–reasonandthetalentofreferring.Andsowhenthehumanbeingcomestothemostsubtlecharacterizationofvisualphenomena–whatastoreoflanguageandlinguisticsimilaritiesalreadyliesready!Hetookthepathfromfeelingintothesenseofhisvisualimages[Phantasmen]nootherwisethanviathesenseoflanguage,andhashencelearnedtosoundforthwhatheseesasmuchaswhathefelt.IfIcouldnowbringalltheendstogetherhereandmakevisiblesimul-taneouslythatwebcalledhumannature:throughandthroughawebforlanguage.Forthis,wesaw,werespaceandspheregrantedtothispositiveforceofthought;forthiswereitscontentandmattermeasuredout;forthiswereshapeandformcreated;finally,forthiswerethesensesorganizedandordered–forlanguage!Thisiswhythehumanbeingdoesnotthinkmoreclearlyormoreobscurely;thisiswhyhedoesnotseeandfeelmoreHerder’sthoughthereisevidentlythathearing’sobjects(unlikefeeling’sorvision’s)becomeexpressiblebecause(a)thereisaneedforthemtobeso,and(b)theycanbeso.“Because”expressesneedorpurpose;“through”expressesenablingconditionormeans.B:reasonbecomesthetalentofreferring.\nPhilosophyofLanguagesharply,atgreaterlength,morevividly;thisiswhyhehasthesesenses,notmoreandnotdifferentones–everythingcounterbalances!,issparedandsubstitutedfor!,isdisposedanddistributedintentionally!–unityandconnection!,proportionandorder!,awhole!,asystem!,acreatureofawarenessandlanguage,oftaking-awarenessandcreatinglanguage!Ifsome-oneafterall[our]observationsstillwantedtodenythisdestiny[ofthehumanbeing]asalinguisticcreature,hewouldhavetobeginbyturningfrombeingnature’sobserverintobeingitsdestroyer!Hewouldhavetotearapartalltheindicatedharmoniesintodiscords,strikethewholemag-nificentstructureofhumanforcesintoruins,laywasteitssensuality,andinplaceofnature’smasterpiecefeelacreaturefullofshortcomingsandgaps,fullofweaknessesandconvulsions!Andifthennow,ontheotherhand,“languagealsopreciselyisasithadtobecomeaccordingtothebasicoutlineandmomentumoftheprecedingcreature?”Ishallproceedtotheproofofthislatterposition,althoughaverypleasantstrollwouldstillliebeforemeherecalculatinginaccordancewiththerulesofSulzer’stheoryofpleasure“whatsortsofadvantagesandcomfortsalanguagethroughhearingmighthaveforusoverthelanguageofothersenses.”Thatstrollwouldleadtoofar,though;andonemustforgoitwhenthemainroadstillstretchesfaraheadinneedofsecuringandrectifying.–So,firstofall:I.“Theolderandmoreoriginallanguagesare,themorenoticeablebe-comesthisanalogyofthesensesintheirroots!”Althoughinlaterlanguageswecharacterizeangerinitsrootsasaphe-nomenonofthevisiblefaceorasanabstraction–forexample,throughtheflashingoftheeyes,theglowingofthecheeks,etc.–andhenceonlyseeitorthinkit,theEasternerhearsit!Hehearsitsnort!,hearsitsprayburn-ingsmokeandstormingsparks!Thatbecamethestemoftheword;thenosetheseatofanger;thewholefamilyofangerwordsandangermetaphorssnorttheirorigin.Ifforuslifeexpressesitselfthroughthepulse,throughundulationandfinecharacteristicmarks,inlanguagetoo,itrevealeditselftotheEasternerrespiringaloud–thehumanbeinglivedwhenhebreathed,diedwhenJ.G.Sulzer(–),UberdenUrsprungderangenehmenundunangenehmenEmpfindungen¨().TheexampleswhichfollowareborrowedfromA.Schultens,Origineshebraeae(–).ReadingStammwithmanuscripta.EditionsAandBsay“name.”Reading,withSuphan,lautinsteadofLaut.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagehebreathedouthislast,andonehearstherootofthewordbreathelikethefirstlivingAdam.Ifwecharacterizegivingbirthinourway,theEasternerhearseveninthenamesforitthecryofthemother’sfear,orinthecaseofanimalstheshakingoutofanafterbirth.Thisisthecentralideaaroundwhichhisimagesrevolve!Ifweintheworddawn[Morgenr¨ote]obscurelyhearsuchthingsasthebeauty,theshining,thefreshness,theenduringnomadintheOrientfeelsevenintherootofthewordthefirst,rapid,delightfulrayoflightwhichoneofushasperhapsneverseen,oratleastneverfeltwiththesenseoffeeling.–Theexamplesfromancientandsavagelanguagesofhowheartilyandwithwhatstrongsensationtheycharacterizeonthebasisofhearingandfeelingbecomecountless,and“aworkofthissortthatreallysoughtoutthebasicfeelingofsuchideasinvariouspeoples”wouldbeacompletedemonstrationofmythesisandofthehumaninventionoflanguage.II.“Theolderandmoreoriginallanguagesare,themorefeelingsalsointersectintherootsofthewords.”LetoneopenanyavailableEasterndictionaryandonewillseetheimpetusofthedesiretoachieveself-expression!Howtheinventortoreideasoutofonetypeoffeelingandborrowedthemforanother!;howheborrowedmostinthecaseoftheheaviest,coldest,distinctestsenses!;howeverythinghadtobecomefeelingandsoundinordertobecomeexpression!Hencethestrong,boldmetaphorsintherootsofthewords!Hencethemetaphoricaltransferencesfromonetypeoffeelingtoanother,sothatthemeaningsofastem-word,andstillmorethoseofitsderivatives,setincontrastwithoneanother,turnintothemostmotleypicture.Thegeneticcauseliesinthepovertyofthehumansoulandintheconfluenceofthesensationsofaprimitivehumanbeing.Oneseeshisneedtoexpresshimselfsodistinctly;oneseesittoanevergreaterextentthefurtherawayinsensationtheidealayfromfeelingandsound–sothatonemaynolongerdoubtthehumancharacteroftheoriginoflanguage.Forhowdothechampionsofanotheroriginationclaimtoexplainthisinterweavingofideasintherootsofwords?WasGodsopoorinideasandwordsthathehadtoresorttosuchconfusingwordusage?OrwashesuchaloverB:withthemind.\nPhilosophyofLanguageofhyperboles,ofoutlandishmetaphors,thatheimprintedthisspiritintotheverybasic-rootsofhislanguage?Theso-calleddivinelanguage,theHebrewlanguage,isentirelyim-printedwiththeseexamplesofdaring,sothattheOrientevenhasthehonorofdesignatingthemwithitsname.Only,letthisspiritofmetaphorpleasenot,though,becalled‘Asiatic’asifitwerenottobefoundanywhereelse!Itlivesinallsavagelanguages–only,tobesure,ineachoneinproportiontothenation’slevelofcivilization[Bildung]andinaccordancewiththepeculiarcharacterofthenation’smannerofthought.Apeoplewhichdidnotdistinguishitsfeelingsmuchanddidnotdistinguishthemsharply,apeoplewhichdidnothaveenoughhearttoexpressitselfandtostealexpressionsmightily,willalsobelessatalossbecauseofnuancesinfeeling,orwillmakedowithslothfulsemi-expressions.Afierynationrevealsitscourageinsuchmetaphors,whetheritlivesintheOrientorinNorthAmerica.Butthenationwhichinitsdeepestgroundrevealsthemostsuchtransplantationshasthelanguagewhichwasthepoorest,theoldest,themostoriginalaheadofothers,andthisnationwascertainlyintheOrient.Oneseeshowdifficult“atrueetymologicaldictionary”mustbeinthecaseofsuchalanguage.Thesoverydiversemeaningsofarootwhicharesupposedtobededucedandtracedbacktotheirorigininagenealogicalchartareonlyrelatedthroughsuchobscurefeelings,throughfleetingsideideas,throughcoincidingsensations[Mitempfindungen],whichriseupfromthebottomofthesoulandcanbebutlittlegraspedinrules!Moreover,theirrelationshipsaresonational,somuchaccordingtothepeculiarmannerofthinkingandseeingofthatpeople,ofthatinventor,inthatland,inthattime,inthosecircumstances,thattheyareinfinitelydifficultforaNorthernerandWesternertogetright,andmustsufferinfinitelyinlong,coldparaphrases.Moreover,sincetheywereforcedintoexistencebynecessity,andwereinventedinaffect,infeeling,intheneedforexpression–whatastrokeoffortuneisnecessarytohitonthesamefeeling!Andfinally,sinceinadictionaryofthiskindthewordsandthemeaningsofawordaresupposedtobegatheredtogetherfromsuchdiversetimes,occasions,andmannersofthinking,andthesemomentarydeterminationshenceincreaseinnumberadinfinitum,howThereexistedinHerder’sdayatradition,reachingbackintoantiquity,ofdistinguishingbetweenanAtticandanAsiatictendencyinrhetoric,andseeingthelattertendencyascharacterizedespeciallybyitsbolduseofmetaphors.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagethelabormultiplieshere!,whatinsightfulness[isnecessary]topenetrateintothesecircumstancesandneeds,andwhatmoderationtokeepwithinreasonableboundsinthisinone’sinterpretationsofvarioustimes!,whatknowledgeandflexibilityofsoulisrequiredtogiveoneselfsocompletelythisprimitivewit,thisboldimagination,thisnationalfeelingofforeigntimes,andnottomodernizeitaccordingtoours!Butpreciselytherebytherewouldalso“beborneatorchnotmerelyintothehistory,mannerofthinking,andliteratureoftheland,butquitegenerallyintotheobscureregionofthehumansoul,whereconceptsintersectandgetentangled!,wherethemostdiversefeelingsproduceoneanother,whereapressingoccasionsummonsforthalltheforcesofthesoulandrevealsthewholeartofinventionofwhichthesouliscapable.”Everystepinsuchaworkwouldbediscovery!Andeverynewobservationwouldbethefullestproofofthehumancharacteroftheoriginoflanguage.SchultenshasearnedhimselfrenowninthedevelopmentofseveralsuchoriginsoftheHebrewlanguage.Eachofthesedevelopmentsisaproofofmyrule.ButformanyreasonsIdonotbelievethattheoriginsofthefirsthumanlanguage,evenifitweretheHebrewlanguage,caneverbedevelopedfully.Iinferafurtherremarkwhichistoouniversalandimportanttobeomitted.Thebasisoftheboldverbalmetaphorslayinthefirstinvention.Butwhatisgoingonwhenlateafterwards,whenallneedhasalreadydis-appeared,suchspeciesofwordsandimagesremainoutofmereaddictiontoimitationorloveforantiquity?Andevengetextendedandelevatedfurther?Then,ohthen,itturnsintothesublimenonsense,theturgidwordplaywhichinthebeginningitactuallywasnot.Inthebeginningitwasbold,manlywitwhichperhapsmeanttoplayleastatthetimeswhenitseemedtoplaymost!Itwasprimitivesublimityofimaginationthatworkedoutsuchafeelinginsuchaword.Butnowinthehandsofin-sipidimitators,withoutsuchafeeling,withoutsuchanoccasion...ah!,ampullaeofwordswithoutspirit!Andthathas“beenthefateinlatertimesofallthoselanguageswhosefirstformsweresobold.”ThelaterFrenchpoetscannotstrayinpeaksbecausethefirstinventorsoftheirlanguagedidnotstrayinpeaks;theirwholelanguageissoundreason’sproseandAddingnicht.Thisseemstoaccordbestwiththerestoftheparagraph,andwiththerestofthissectionIIasawhole(e.g.itsfinalparagraph).ReadingwithSuphanw¨urdeinsteadofwurde.A.Schultens,Origineshebraeae.B:thelate.\nPhilosophyofLanguageoriginallyhasvirtuallynopoeticwordthatmightbelongtothepoet.ButtheEasterners?TheGreeks?TheEnglish?AndweGermans?Fromthisitfollowsthattheolderalanguageis,themoresuchbitsofboldnessthereareinitsroots,ifithaslivedforalongtime,hasdevelopedforalongtime,thensomuchthelessmustoneautomaticallyheadforeveryoriginalbitofboldnessasthougheveryoneoftheseintersectingconceptshadalsooneveryoccasionineverylateusebeenthoughtofasacomponent.Theoriginalmetaphorwas[aresultof]theimpulsetospeak.Iflater,ineverycasewhenthewordhadalreadygainedcurrencyandhadworndownitssharpness,itistakentobefruitfulnessandenergytocombineallsuchpeculiarities–whatmiserableexamplesaboundbeforeusinwholeschoolsoftheEasternlanguages!Onemorething.If,pushingthingsfurther,certainfineconceptsofadogma,ofasystem,adhereto,orgetfixedto,oraresupposedtobeinvesti-gatedfrom,suchboldwordstruggles,suchtranspositionsoffeelingsintoanexpression,suchintersectionsofideaswithoutruleorplumb-line–heaven!,howlittlewerethesewordexperimentsofanemergingorearlyemergedlanguagethedefinitionsofasystem,andhowoftenpeopleendupcreatingwordidolsofwhichtheinventororlaterusagehadnothought!–Butsuchremarkswouldgoonforever.Iproceedtoanewcanon:III.“Themoreoriginalalanguageis,themorefrequentlysuchfeelingsintersectinit,thenthelessthesecanbeexactlyandlogicallysubordinatedtoeachother.Thelanguageisrichinsynonyms;forallitsessentialpoverty,ithasthegreatestunnecessaryexcess.”Thedefendersofthedivineorigin,whoknowhowtofinddivineorderineverything,canhardlyfindithere,anddenyuthesynonyms.Denythem?Finethen,letitbethecasethatamongthewordsthattheArabhasforthelion,amongthethathehasforthesnake,amongthethathehasforhoney,andamongthemorethan,thathehasfortheswordfinedistinctionsarepresent,orwouldhavebeenpresentbuthavebeenlost.Whyweretheythereiftheywereboundtobelost?WhydidGodinventanunnecessaryvocabularywhich,astheArabssay,onlyadivineprophetwasabletograspinitsentirescope?DidHeinventfortheemptinessofoblivion?Comparativelyspeaking,though,thesewordsarestillsynonyms,consideringthemanyotherideasforwhichwordsarequiteuSu¨ßmilch,#.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagelacking.Nowletsomeone,then,unfolddivineorderinthefactthatHewhoenjoyedoversightoftheplanoflanguageinventedwordsforthestone,andnoneforallthesoessentialideas,innerfeelings,andabstractions,thatHeintheformercasesmotheredwithunnecessaryexcess,butinthelattercaseabandonedinthegreatestpoverty,sothatpeoplehadtosteal,tousurpmetaphors,totalksemi-nonsense,etc.Humanly,thematterexplainsitself.Asimproperlyasdifficult,rareideashadtobeexpressedcouldtheavailableandeasyideasbeexpressedfrequently.Thelessfamiliaronewaswithnature,themoresidesonecouldlookatitfromandhardlyrecognizeitbecauseofinexperience,thelessoneinventedaprioributinaccordancewithsensuouscircumstances,thenthemoresynonyms!Themorepeopleinvented,themorenomadicandseparatedtheywerewhentheyinvented,andyetforthemostpartinventedonlyinasinglecircleforasinglekindofthings,then,whentheyafterwardscametogether,whentheirlanguagesflowedintoanoceanofvocabulary,themoresynonyms!Theycouldnotbethrownaway,allofthem.Forwhichshouldbethrownaway?Theywerecurrentwiththistribe,withthisfamily,withthispoet.Andsoitbecame,asthatArabdictionarywritersaidwhenhehadcountedupwordsformisery,thefourhundredthmiserytohavetocountupthewordsformisery.Suchalanguageisrichbecauseitispoor,becauseitsinventorsdidnotyethaveenoughofaplantobecomepoor.AndthatfutileinventorofpreciselythemostimperfectlanguagewouldbeGod?Theanalogiesofallsavagelanguagesconfirmmythesis:eachofthemisinitswayprodigalandneedy–onlyeachinitsownmanner.IftheArabhassomanywordsforstone,camel,sword,snake(thingsamongwhichhelives!),thenthelanguageofCeylonis,inaccordancewithitspeople’sinclinations,richinflatteries,titles,andverbalornamentation.Fortheword‘woman’ithastwelvesortsofnamesaccordingtoclassandrank,whereasweimpoliteGermans,forexample,havetoborrowinthisareafromourneighbors.Thouandyouarearticulatedineightsortsofwaysaccordingtoclassandrank,andthisasmuchbythedaylaborerasbythecourtier.Thisjumbleistheformofthelanguage.InSiamthereareeightwaysofsayingIandwe,dependingonwhetherthelordisspeakingwiththeslaveortheslavewiththelord.ThelanguageofthesavageCaribsisalmostdividedintotwolanguagesbelongingtothewomenandthemen,andthemostcommonthings–bed,moon,sun,bow–thetwosexesnamedifferently.Whatanexcessofsynonyms!AndyetpreciselytheseCaribs\nPhilosophyofLanguagehaveonlyfourwordsforthecolors,towhichtheymustreferallothers.Whatpoverty!TheHuronshaveineachcaseadoubleverbforsomethingthathasasoulandsomethingthatlacksasoul,sothatseeingin‘seeingastone’andseeingin‘seeingahumanbeing’arealwaystwodifferentexpressions.Letonepursuethatprinciplethroughthewholeofnature.Whatarichness!‘Touseone’sownproperty’or‘thepropertyofthepersonwithwhomoneisspeaking’alwayshastwodifferentwords.Whatarichness!InthemainlanguageofPeruthegendersarenamedinsuchapeculiarlydistinctwaythatthesisterofabrotherandthesisterofasister,thechildofafatherandthechildofamother,arecalledsomethingquitedifferent.Andyetpreciselythislanguagehasnorealplural!–Eachofthesecasesofsynonymyissointerconnectedwiththecustom,character,andoriginofthepeople–buteverywheretheinventinghumanspiritrevealsitsstamp.–Anewcanon:IV.“Justasthehumansoulcanrecollectnoabstractionfromtherealmofspiritsthatitdidnotarriveatthroughoccasionsandawakeningsofthesenses,likewisealsonolanguagehasanabstractumthatitdidnotarriveatthroughsoundandfeeling.Andthemoreoriginalthelanguage,thenthefewerabstractions,themorefeelings.”InthisimmeasurablefieldIcanagainonlypickflowers:ThewholeconstructionoftheEasternlanguagesbearswitnessthatalltheirabstractawerepreviouslysensualities:Spiritwaswind,breath,noc-turnalstorm!Holymeantseparate,alone.Soulmeantbreath.Angermeantthesnortingofthenose.Etc.Themoreuniversalconceptswerehenceonlyaccretedtolanguagelaterthroughabstraction,wit,imagination,simile,analogy,etc.–inthedeepestabyssoflanguagethereliesnotasingleoneofthem!Withallsavagesthesamethinghappens,accordingtotheleveloftheculture.InthelanguageofBarantolathewordholy,andwiththeHottentotsthewordspirit,couldnotbefound.AllmissionariesinallpartsoftheworldcomplainaboutthedifficultyofcommunicatingChristianconceptstosavagesintheirownlanguages,andyetofcoursethesecommunicationsareneversupposedtobeascholasticdogmaticsbutIleaveihr,“toit,”i.e.tolanguage,butitmaybeaslipforihnen,“tothem,”i.e.totheEasternlanguages.Thetexthaskeineeinzigewhere,strictly,onlykeineinzigerwouldbegrammaticallycorrect.HerderisprobablythinkingofAbstraktionen.Barantola,capitalofTibet.ReadingwithSuphanwußteinsteadofw¨ußte.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageonlythecommonconceptsofthecommonunderstanding.Ifonereadshereandtheresamplesofthispresentationamongthesavages,orevenonlyamongtheuncivilizedlanguagesofEurope,forexampletheLapp,Finnish,orEstonianlanguages,intranslationandlooksatthegrammarsanddictionariesofthesepeoples,thedifficultiesbecomeobvious.Ifoneisnotwillingtobelievethemissionaries,thenletonereadthephilosophers:delaCondamineinPeruandontheAmazonriver,Mauper-tiusinLapland,etc.Time,duration,space,essence,matter,body,virtue,justice,freedom,gratitudedonotexistinthetongueofthePeruvians,eventhoughtheyoftenshowwiththeirreasonthattheyinferinaccordancewiththeseconcepts,andshowwiththeirdeedsthattheyhavethesevirtues.Aslongastheyhavenotmadetheideacleartothemselvesasacharacteristicmark,theyhavenowordforit.“Where,therefore,suchwordshaveenteredthelanguage,oneclearlyrecognizesinthemtheirorigin.”ThechurchlanguageoftheRussiannationisforthemostpartGreek.TheChristianconceptsoftheLatviansareGermanwordsorGermanconceptstransposedintoLatvian.TheMexicanwhowantstoexpresshispoorsinnerpaintshimassomeonekneelingwhoismakingauricularconfession,andhistriunityasthreefaceswithhalos.Itisknownbywhatroutesmostabstractionshaveentered“intoourscientificlanguage,”intotheologyandlaw,intophilosophyandothersubjects.Itisknownhowoftenscholasticsandpolemicistscouldnotevenfightwithwordsoftheirownlanguageandhencehadtoimportarms(hypostasisandsubstance,homoousiosandhomoiousios)fromthoselanguagesinwhichtheconceptswereabstracted,inwhichthearmswerewhetted!Ourwholepsychology,asrefinedandpreciseasitis,hasnowordofitsown.Thisissotruethatitisnotevenpossibleformysticfanaticsandtheenrapturedtocharacterizetheirnewsecretsfromnature,fromheavenandhell,otherwisethanthroughimagesandsensuousrepresentations.Swedenborgcouldnotdootherwisethanintuit-togetherhisangelsandspiritsoutofallthesenses,andthesublimeKlopstock–thegreatestantithesistohim!–couldnotdootherwisethanconstructhisheavenandhellfromsensuousmaterials.TheNegrointuitshisgodsdownfromthetreetopsforhimself,andtheChinghailesehearshisdevilintoexistenceforhimselffromthenoiseoftheforests.IhavecreptinpursuitofseveralTheseGreekwordsmean“identicalinessence”and“similarinessence”respectively.NativeinhabitantsonariverneartheAmazon.\nPhilosophyofLanguageoftheseabstractionsamongvariouspeoples,invariouslanguages,andhaveperceived“thestrangesttricksofinventionofthehumanspirit.”Thesubjectismuchtoolarge,butthebasisisalwaysthesame.“Whenthesavagethinksthatthisthinghasaspirit,thentheremustbeasensuousthingpresentfromwhichheabstractsthespiritforhimself.”Onlytheabstractionhasitsverydiversespecies,levels,andmethods.–Theeasiestexampleofthefactthatnonationhasinitslanguagemoreorotherwordsthanithaslearnedtoabstractisthosedoubtlessveryeasyabstractions,thenumbers.Howfewdomostsavageshave,howeverrich,excellent,anddevelopedtheirlanguagesmaybe!Nevermorethantheyneeded.ThetradingPhoenicianwasthefirsttoinventarithmetic;theshepherdwhocountshisflockalsolearnstocount;thehuntingnations,whichneverhaveworkinvolvinglargenumbers,onlyknowtodescribeanarmyaslikehairsonahead!Whocancountthem?Who,ifhehasnevercountedupsohigh,haswordsforthis?Isitpossibletodisregardallthesetracesofthechanging,language-creatingmind,andtoseekanoriginintheclouds?Whatsortofproofdoesanyonehaveofa“singlewordwhichonlyGodcouldhaveinvented?”Doesthereexistinanylanguageevenasinglepureuniversalconceptwhichcametomanfromheaven?Whereisitevenmerelypossible?v–“Andwhat,groundsandanalogiesandproofsthereareofthegenesisoflanguageinthehumansoulinaccordancewiththehumansensesandmannersofseeing!Whatproofsthereareoftheprogressoflanguagewithreason,andofitsdevelopmentoutofreason,amongallpeoples,latitudes,andcircumstances!”Whatearistherethatdoesnothearthisuniversalvoiceofthenations?AndyetIseewithastonishmentthatMr.S¨ußmilchagainconfrontsmeandonthepathwhereIdiscoverthemosthumanorderimaginablefindsdivineorder.w“Thatnolanguagehasatpresentyetbeendiscoveredwhichwasentirelyunsuitedtoartsandsciences”–whatelsedoesthatshow,then,thanthatnolanguageisbrutish,thattheyareallhuman?Where,then,hasanyonediscoveredahumanbeingwhowasentirelyunsuitedtoartsandsciences?Andwasthatamiracle?OrnotpreciselyvThebesttreatiseonthismatterthatIknowisbyanEnglishman:ThingsDivineandSupernaturalConceivedbyAnalogywithThingsNaturalandHuman(London,),bytheauthorofTheProcedure,Extent,andLimitsofHumanUnderstanding[i.e.P.Browne].wSu¨ßmilch,#.Reading,withaandB,zeigtforzeugt.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagethemostcommonthing,becausehewasahumanbeing?“Allmissionarieshavebeenabletotalkwiththemostsavagepeoplesandtoconvincethem.Thatcouldnothavehappenedwithoutinferencesandgrounds.Theirlanguagesthereforemusthavecontainedabstractterms,etc.”Andifthatwasso,wasitdivineorder?Orwasitnotpreciselythemosthumanthing,toabstractwordsforoneselfwhereoneneededthem?Andwhatpeoplehaseverhadevenasingleabstractioninitslanguagewhichitdidnotacquireforitself?Andthen,werethereanequalnumberinthecaseofallpeoples?Werethemissionariesabletoexpressthemselvesequallyeasilyeverywhere,orhasonenotreadtheoppositefromallpartsoftheworld?Andhow,then,didtheyexpressthemselvesbutbymoldingtheirnewconceptsontothelanguageaccordingtoanalogywithit?Anddidthiseverywherehappeninthesamemanner?Aboutthefactsomuch,somuchcouldbesaid!Theinferencesaysentirelytheopposite:“Preciselybecausehumanreasoncannotexistwithoutabstraction,andeachabstractiondoesnotcometobewithoutlanguage,itmustalsobethecasethatineverypeoplelanguagecontainsabstractions,thatis,isanoffprintofreason,ofwhichitwasatool.”“Butaseachlanguagecontainsonlyasmanyabstractionsasthepeoplewasabletomake,andnotasingleonethatwasmadewithoutthesenses,asisshownbyitsoriginallysensuousexpression,itfollowsthatdivineorderisnowheretobeseenexceptinsofaraslanguageisthroughandthroughhuman.”V.Finally,“sinceeverygrammarisonlyaphilosophyaboutlanguageandamethodforlanguage’suse,themoreoriginalthelanguage,thelessgrammartheremustbeinit,andtheoldestlanguageisjustthepreviouslyindicatedvocabularyofnature!”Ishallsketchafewamplifications.)Declensionsandconjugationsarenothingbutabbreviationsandde-terminationsoftheuseofnounsandverbsaccordingtonumber,tenseandmood,andperson.Hence,themoreprimitivealanguageis,themoreirregularitisinthesedeterminations,anditshowsineachstepforwardthecourseofhumanreason.Initially,intheabsenceofartinuse,languageismerevocabulary.)Justastheverbsofalanguageareearlierthanthenounsroundlyabstractedfromthem,likewisealsoatthebeginning,thelesspeoplehaveThisisanotherexampleofHerderusingtherhetoricalfigureofanadiplosis,“doubling.”Thereferenceof“its”isambiguousintheGerman–Herdercouldeithermeanthelanguage’soranabstraction’s.\nPhilosophyofLanguagelearnedtosubordinateconceptstooneanother,themoreconjugationsthereare.HowmanytheEasternershave!Andyettherearereallynone–forwhattransplantationsandviolenttranspositionsofverbsfromconjugationintoconjugationstilloccur!Thematterisquitenatural.Sincenothingconcernsthehumanbeingasmuch,oratleasttoucheshimasmuchlinguistically,aswhatheissupposedtonarrate,deeds,actions,events,itisinevitablethatsuchamassofdeedsandeventsaccumulatesoriginallythattherecomestobeanewverbforalmosteverycondition.“IntheHuronlanguageeverythinggetsconjugated.Anartthatcannotbeexplainedallowsthenouns,pronouns,andadverbstobedistinguishedinitfromtheverbs.Thesimpleverbshaveadoubleconjugation,oneforthemselvesandonewhichreferstootherthings.Theformsofthethirdpersonhavebothgenders.Concerningtenses,onefindsthefinedistinctionswhichoneobserves,forexample,inGreek;indeed,ifonewantstogivetheaccountofajourney,oneexpressesoneselfdifferentlydependingonwhetheronehasmadeitbylandorbywater.Theactiveformsmultiplyasmanytimesastherearethingsthatfallundertheaction;theword‘eat’changeswitheveryediblething.Theactionofanensouledthingisexpresseddifferentlyfromthatofathingwithoutasoul.Touseone’sownpropertyandthatofthepersonwithwhomoneisspeakinghastwoformsofexpression.Etc.”Letoneimagineallthismultiplicityofverbs,moods,tenses,persons,conditions,genders,etc.–whateffortandart[itwouldtake]tosetthisinhierarchicalordertosomeextent!Toturnwhatwasentirelyvocabularyintogrammartosomeextent!FatherLeri’sgrammaroftheTopinambuansinBrazilshowsexactlythesamething!For“justasthefirstvocabularyofthehumansoulwasalivingepicofresounding,actingnature,sothefirstgrammarwasvirtuallynothingbutaphilosophicalattempttoturnthisepicintomoreregularhistory.”Itthereforeworksitselftoexhaustionwithveryverbs,andworksinachaoswhichisinexhaustiblefortheartofpoetry,whenmoreorderedveryrichforthedeterminingofhistory,butlastofallusableforaxiomsanddemonstrations.)Thewordwhichimmediatelyfollowedthesoundofnature,imitatingit,alreadyfollowedsomethingpast:“pasttensesarehencetherootsofverbs,butpasttenseswhichstillalmostholdforthepresent.”ApriorithefactThisinformationabouttheHuronlanguageseemstoderivefromP.G.M.Chaumonot,aJesuitmissionaryinQuebecwhowroteagrammaroftheHuronlanguage.Theclosing(emphatic)quotationmarkisomittedinGaier’stext.Itslocationhereisthereforeconjectural.Ditto.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageisstrangeandinexplicable,sincethepresenttimeoughttobethefirst,asindeedithascometobeinalllanguageswhichwereformedlater.Butaccordingtothehistoryoftheinventionoflanguageitcouldnothavebeenotherwise.“Oneshowsthepresent,butonehastonarratewhatispast.”Andsinceonecouldnarratewhatwaspastinsomanyways,andtobeginwith,intheneedtofindwords,hadtodothissodiversely,therearose“inallancientlanguagesmanypasttensesbutonlyoneornopresenttense.”Inmorecivilized[gebildeteren]ages,now,theartofpoetryandhistoryinevitablyfoundmuchtorejoiceatinthis,butphilosophyverylittle,becausephilosophydoesnotlikeaconfusingstock.–HereHurons,Brazilians,Easterners,andGreeksareagainalike:everywheretracesofthecourseofthehumanspirit!)Allmodernphilosophicallanguageshavemodifiedthenounmorefinely,theverblessbutmoreregularly.Forlanguagegrewmore“forcoldobservationofwhatexistsandwhatexistedratherthanstillremaininganirregularlystammeringmixtureofwhatperhapsexisted.”Peoplegotusedtoexpressingtheformeronethingafteranother,andhencetodeterminingitthroughnumbersandarticlesandcases,etc.“Theancientinventorswantedtosayeverythingatonce,xnotmerelywhathadbeendonebutwhohaddoneit,when,how,andwhereithadhappened.Sotheyimmediat-elyintroducedintonounsthecondition;intoeachpersonoftheverbthegender;theyimmediatelydistinguishedthroughpreformativesandadformatives,throughaffixesandsuffixes;verbandadverb,verbandnoun,andeverythingflowedtogether.”Thelater,themoredistinguish-ingandcountingouttookplace;breathsturnedintoarticles,wordend-ings[Ans¨atzen]turnedintopersons,wordbeginnings[Vors¨atzen]turnedintomoodsoradverbs;thepartsofspeechflowedapart;nowgrammargraduallycameintobeing.Thusthisartofspeaking,thisphilosophyaboutxRousseaudivinedthisthesis,whichIheredefine[moreclosely]andprove,inhishypothesis.[RousseauhadwritteninhisDiscourssurl’origineetlesfondementsdel’in´egalit´eparmileshommes:“Onemustjudgethatthefirstwordsofwhichmenmadeusehadintheirmindsamuchbroadersignificancethanhavethosewhichareemployedinthealreadydevelopedlanguages,andthat,notknowingthedivisionofspeechintoitsconstitutiveparts,theyinitiallygaveeachwordthemeaningofanentireproposition.”]Thissentenceisdifficult.IinterpretAns¨atzeaswordendingsandVors¨atzeaswordbeginnings–cf.above“preformativesandadformatives,...affixesandsuffixes.”SomeofthethingsthatHerdermayperhapshaveinmindhere:()“Breathsturnedintoarticles”:thetransitionfromtheabsenceofdefinitearticlesinHomericGreektotheirpresenceinAtticGreek.()“Wordendingsturnedintopersons”:thetransitionfromthenormalomissionofpersonalpronouns(‘I,’‘you,’‘he,’etc.)inGreekandLatintotheirnormalinclusioninrelatedmodernlanguagessuchasFrenchandEnglish.()“Wordbeginningsturnedinto...adverbs”:thetransitionfromancient\nPhilosophyofLanguagelanguage,wasonlyformed[gebildet]slowlyandstepbystep,downthroughcenturiesandages,andthefirstmindwhocontemplates“atruephilosophyofgrammar,theartofspeaking!”mustcertainlyfirsthavethoughtover“thehistoryofthesamedownthroughpeoplesandlevels.”Butifweonlyhadsuchahistory!Withallitsprogressionsanddeviationsitwouldbeamapofthehumanityoflanguage.)Buthowwasitpossibleforalanguagetoexistentirelywithoutgrammar?Amereconfluenceofimagesandsensationswithoutinter-connectionanddetermination?Bothwereprovidedfor;itwaslivinglanguage.Therethegreatattuningparticipationofgesturessotospeaksettherhythmandthespheretowhichwhatwassaidbelonged;andthegreatwealthofdeterminationswhichlayinthevocabularyitselfsubsti-tutedfortheartofgrammar.ObservetheoldwritingoftheMexicans!Theypaintsheerindividualimages;wherenoimageentersthesenses,theyhaveagreedonstrokesandtheinterconnectionforeverythingmustbegivenbytheworld,towhichitbelongs,fromwhichitgetsprophesied.This“propheticartofguessinginterconnectionfromindividualsigns”–howfaronlyindividualdumbanddeafpeoplecanstillexerciseit!Andifthisartitselfbelongstothelanguageasapartofit,itselfgetslearnedfromchildhoodonasapartofit,ifthisartbecomesevereasierandmoreperfectwiththetradition[Tradition]ofgenerations,thenIseenothingunintelligible[init].–Butthemorethisartismadeeasier,thenthemoreitdiminishes,themoregrammarcomesintobeing–andthatistheprogressivecourseofthehumanspirit!Proofsofthisare,forexample,LaLoubere’sreportsabouttheSiameselanguage.Howsimilaritstillistotheinterconnectionof[thelanguageof]theEasterners–especiallybeforemoreinterconnectionyetenteredthroughlatercultivation[Bildung].TheSiamesewantstosay“IfIwereinGreek’sfrequentinclusionofanadverbialprecisificationofaverbalideaintheformofaprefixintheverb(kata-,hupo-,etc.)tothecommonrelianceofmodernlanguagessuchasEnglishonaseparateadverbtoexpressthesameprecisification.EditionAjusthases,“it,”here,butBspecifiesmoreprecisely“whatwassaid.”Grammatically,theitsinthissentencebothrefertoeverything.Butatleastinthecaseofthesecondone,theintendedreferencereallyseemsrathertobetotheinterconnection(cf.thenextsentence).“Only”seemstofunctionambiguouslyhere,bothrestrictingthescopeoftheclaimandempha-sizingthewholeexclamation.ReadingwithSuphansieforihn.Here,asofteninHerder,“tradition”ismeantmainlyintheetymologicallyderivedsenseofthehandingover(oftheartinquestionbysuccessivegenerations).B:unintelligibleinit.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageSiam,thenIwouldbehappy!”andsays“IfIbeingcitySiam,Ihappyheartmuch!”HewantstopraytheLord’sPrayerandhastosay“Fatherusbeingheaven!God’snamewantinghallowingeverywhere,etc.”HowEasternandoriginalthatis!JustasinterconnectingasaMexicanimage-writing!,orthestammeringsofthosewhoareineducableinforeignlanguages!)ImustexplainhereonefurtherstrangephenomenonwhichIagainseemisunderstoodinMr.Su¨ßmilch’sdivineordering:“namely,thedi-versityofthemeaningsofawordaccordingtothedifferencebetweenminorarticulations!”Ifindthisknackamongalmostallsavages–as,forexample,GarcilasodelaVegacitesitofthePeruvians,CondamineoftheBrazilians,LaLoubereoftheSiamese,ResneloftheNorthAmericans.Ifinditlikewiseinthecaseoftheancientlanguages,forexample,theChineselanguageandtheEasternlanguages,especiallyHebrew,whereaminorsound,accent,breathchangesthewholemeaning.Andyet,Ifindinitnothingbutaveryhumanthing:povertyandcomfortoftheinventors!Theyneededanewword,andsinceunnecessaryinventionoutofnothingissodifficult,theytookasimilarwordwiththealterationofperhapsonlyasinglebreath.Thatwasalawofeconomy,initiallyverynaturalforthemwiththeirinterwovenfeelingsandstillfairlycomfortableforthemwiththeirmoreforcefulpronunciationofwords.Butforaforeigner,whohasnotha-bituatedhiseartothisfromchildhood,andtowhomthelanguageisnowhissedforthwithphlegm,thesoundhalfremaininginthemouth,thislawofeconomyandneedinessmakesspeechinaudibleandinexpressible.Themoreasoundgrammarhasimporteddomesticmanagementintolanguages,thelessnecessarythisparsimonybecomes.So[itis]preciselytheoppositeofanindicationofdivineinvention–inwhichcasetheinventorwouldcertainlyhavebeenveryineptatcopingifhehadtoresorttosuchathing.)Finally,theprogressoflanguagethroughreasonandofreasonthroughlanguagebecomesmostobvious“whenlanguagehasalreadytakenafewsteps,whenpiecesofartalreadyexistinit,forexample,poems,whenwritingisinvented,whenonegenreofwritingdevelopsaftertheother.”Thennostepcanbetaken,nonewwordinvented,nonewhappyformgivencurrencyinwhichthereisnotanoffprintofthehumansoul.ThenthroughThephrase“thedifferencebetweenminorarticulations”isanexampleoftherhetoricalfigureofhypallage,ormakinganadjectiveagreegrammaticallywithanounotherthantheoneitisreallymeanttoqualify.Thusthephraseisvirtuallyequivalentto“theminordifferencebetweenarticulations.”Ontheotherhand,thesituationisnotclear-cut,forcf.below“aminorsound,accent,breath.”Identityunknown.HerdermaymeanRasles,whomhediscussedearlier.\nPhilosophyofLanguagepoemsmeters,choiceofthestrongestwordsandcolors,andorderingandzestinimagesenterlanguage;thenthroughhistorydistinctionbetweentensesandprecisionofexpressionenterlanguage;then,finally,throughtheoratorsthefullrounding-outoftherefinedsentenceenterslanguage.Nowjustasbeforeeachsuchadditionnothingofthesortyetexistedinthelanguage,buteverythingwasintroducedbythehumansoulandcouldbeintroducedbythehumansoul,wherewouldonewanttosetlimitstothiscreativity,thisfruitfulness?Wherewouldonewanttosay“Herethehumansoulbegantooperate,butnotearlier”?Ifthehumansoulwasabletoinventwhatisfinest,whatismostdifficult,thenwhynotwhatiseasiest?Ifitwasabletoinstitute,whynottoexperiment,whynottobegin?Forafterall,whatelsewasthebeginningbuttheproductionofasinglewordasasignofreason?Andthisthesoulhadtodo,blindlyanddumblyinitsdepths,astrulyasitpossessedreason.∗IamvainenoughtosupposethatthepossibilityofthehumaninventionoflanguageissoprovenbywhatIhavesaid,fromwithinintermsofthehumansoul,andfromwithoutintermsoftheorganizationofthehumanbeingandintermsoftheanalogyofalllanguagesandpeoples,partlyinthecomponentsofallspeech,partlyinthewholegreatprogressoflanguagewithreason,thatwhoeverdoesnotdenyreasontothehumanbeing,orwhatamountstothesame,whoevermerelyknowswhatreasonis,whoeverinadditionhaseverconcernedhimselfwiththeelementsoflanguageinaphilosophicalway,whoevermoreoverhastakenintoconsiderationwiththeeyeofanobservertheconstitutionandhistoryofthelanguagesontheearth,cannotdoubtforasinglemoment,evenifIweretoaddnotonewordmore.[Thecasefor]thegenesis[oflanguage]inthehumansoulisasdemonstrativeasanyphilosophicalproof,andtheexternalanalogyofalltimes,languages,andpeoples[possesses]ashighadegreeofprobabilityasispossibleinthemostcertainhistoricalmatter.However,inordertoforestallallobjectionsforgood,andalsotomakethethesisasexternallyReadingwithSuphanhinzusetzte.AsHerderwrotethisfirstpartofthesentence,i.e.withouttheadditionsinparentheses,itisastrikingexampleofhisuseofbrachylogy,or“shortening.”AsHerderwrotethiswholesentence,i.e.withouttheadditionsinparenthesesandinparticulartheword“possesses,”itisagoodexampleofhisuseoftherhetoricalfigureofzeugma,i.e.usingaverbwithtwonounswhenitreallyonlyappliestooneofthem(andleavingthereadertoinfertheverbalideathatreallyappliesintheothercase,here“possesses”).\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagecertainasaphilosophicaltruthcanbe,sotospeak,letusinadditionprovefromallexternalcircumstancesandfromthewholeanalogyofhumannature“thatthehumanbeinghadtoinventhislanguageforhimself,andunderwhichcircumstanceshewasabletoinventitforhimselfmostsuitably.”Secondpart:InwhatwaythehumanbeingwasmostsuitablyableandobligedtoinventlanguageforhimselfNaturegivesnoforcesinvain.Sowhennaturenotonlygavethehumanbeingabilitiestoinventlanguage,butalsomadethisabilitythedistin-guishingtraitofhisessenceandtheimpulsebehindhisspecialdirection[inlife],thisforcecamefromnature’shandnootherwisethanliving,andhenceitcouldnotbutbesetinaspherewhereithadtobeeffective.Letusconsidermorecloselyafewofthesecircumstancesandconcernswhichstraightawayoccasionedthehumanbeingtodeveloplanguagewhenheenteredtheworldwiththeimmediatedispositiontoformlanguageforhimself.Andsincetherearemanyoftheseconcerns,Icollectthemundercertainmainlawsofthehumanbeing’snatureandofhisspecies:Firstnaturallaw“Thehumanbeingisafreelythinking,activebeing,whoseforcesoperateforthprogressively.Thereforelethimbeacreatureoflanguage!”Consideredasanaked,instinctlessanimal,thehumanbeingisthemostmiserableofbeings.Herethereisnoobscure,innatedrivewhichpullshimintohiselementandintohiscircleofefficacy,tohismeansofsubsistenceandtohiswork.Nosenseofsmellorpowertoscentwhichpullshimtowardsplantssothathemaysatehishunger!Noblind,me-chanicalmastercraftsmanwhowouldbuildhisnestforhim!Weakandsuccumbing,abandonedtothecontentionoftheelements,tohunger,toalldangers,totheclawsofallstrongeranimals,toathousandfolddeath,ThesecondpartoftheBerlinAcademy’squestion,whichHerderisnowgoingontoaddress,asked:“Andbywhatmeanswillthey[i.e.menabandonedtotheirnaturalfaculties]arriveatthisinvention[i.e.theinventionoflanguage]?”IhaveaddedemphasizingquotationmarkstoHerder’sstatementsofhisfirstthreenaturallaws,whichlacktheminGaier’stext.ThisadditionissuggestedbothbytheobviousimportanceofthesestatementsandbythefactthatHerderdoesuseemphasizingquotationmarksaroundhisfourthnaturallawinGaier’stext.\nPhilosophyofLanguagehestandsthere!,lonelyandalone!,withouttheimmediateinstructionofhiscreatress[nature]andwithoutthesureguidanceofherhand–thus,lostonallsides.Butasvividlyasthispicturemaybepaintedout,itisnotthepictureofthehumanbeing–itisonlyasinglesideofhissurface,andeventhatstandsinafalselight.Ifunderstandingandawareness[Besonnenheit]isthenaturalgiftofhiskind,thishadtoexpressitselfimmediatelywhentheweakersensualityandallthepovertyofhislacksexpresseditself.Theinstinctless,miserablecreaturewhichcamefromnature’shandssoabandonedwasalsofromthefirstmomentonthefreelyactive,rationalcreaturewhichwasdestinedtohelpitself,andinevitablyhadtheabilitytodoso.Allhisshortcomingsandneedsasananimalwerepressingreasonstoprovehimselfwithallhisforcesasahumanbeing–justasthesehumanforceswerenot,say,merelyweakcompensationsforthegreateranimalperfectionsdeniedtohim,asourmodernphilosophy,thegreatpatronessofanimals!,claims,butwere,withoutcomparisonoractualbalancingofoneagainstanother,hisnature.Hiscenterofgravity,themaindirec-tionofhissoul’sefficacies,fellasmuchonthisunderstanding,onhumanawareness[Besonnenheit],aswiththebeeitfallsimmediatelyonsuckingandbuilding.Ifnowithasbeenprovedthatnoteventheslightestactionofhisunderstandingcouldoccurwithoutacharacteristicword,thenthefirstmomentoftaking-awareness[Besinnung]wasalsothemomentfortheinwardemergenceoflanguage.Letoneallowthehumanbeingasmuchtimeasonewantsforthisfirstdistincttaking-awareness[Besinnung].Letone–inthemannerofBuffon(onlymorephilosophicallythanhe)–makethiscreaturethathascomeintobeingachieveconsciouscontrolgradually.Butletonenotforgetthatimmediatelyfromtheveryfirstmomentonitisnoanimalbutahumanbeing,tobesurenotyetacreaturewhichtakesawareness[vonBesinnung]butonewhichalreadyhasawareness[vonBesonnenheit],thatawakensintotheuniverse.Notasagreat,clumsy,helplessmachinewhichissupposedtomove,butwithitsstifflimbscannotmove;whichissupposedtosee,hear,taste,butwiththickfluidsinitseye,withahardenedear,andwithapetrifiedtongue,candononeofthis–peoplewhoraisedoubtsofthissortreallyoughttokeepinmindthatthishumanbeingdidnotcomefromThisisanotherexampleofHerderusingtherhetoricalfigureofhendiadys,“onethroughtwo.”ReadingwithSuphanmußte.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagePlato’scave,fromadarkjailwhere,fromthefirstmomentofhislifeonthroughaseriesofyears,withoutlightormovement,hehadsatwithopeneyesuntilhewasblind,andwithhealthylimbsuntilhewasstiff,butthathecamefromthehandsofnature,withhisforcesandfluidsinthefreshestofconditions,andwiththebestimmediatedispositiontodevelophimselffromthefirstmoment.Tobesure,creatingProvidencemusthavepresidedoverthefirstmomentsofcomingtoconsciouscontrol–butitisnotthejobofphilosophytoexplainthemiraculousaspectinthesemoments,aslittleasphilosophycanexplainthehumanbeing’screation.Philosophytakesupthehumanbeinginhisfirstconditionoffreeactivity,inhisfirstfullfeelingofhissoundexistence,andhenceexplainsthesemomentsonlyinhumanterms.NowIcanreferbacktowhatwassaidbefore.Sincenometaphysicalsep-arationofthesensesoccurshere,sincethewholemachinesensesandim-mediatelyworksupfromobscurefeelingtotaking-awareness[Besinnung],sincethispoint,thesensationofthefirstdistinctcharacteristicmark,pre-ciselyconcernshearing,themiddlesensebetweenseeingandfeeling–thereforethegenesisoflanguageisasmuchaninnerimperativeasistheimpulseoftheembryotobebornatthemomentwhenitreachesmaturity.Thewholeofnaturestormsatthehumanbeinginordertodevelophissensesuntilheisahumanbeing.Andsincelanguagebeginsfromthiscondition,“thewholechainofconditionsinthehumansoulisofsuchakindthateachofthemformslanguagefurther[fortbildet].”Iwanttocastlightonthisgreatlawofthenaturalorder.Animalsconnecttheirthoughtsobscurelyorclearlybutnotdistinctly.Justas,tobesure,thekindswhichareclosesttothehumanbeinginmanneroflifeandnervestructure,theanimalsofthefield,oftendisplaymuchmemory,muchrecollection,andinsomecasesastrongerrecollectionthanthehumanbeing,butitisstillalwaysonlysensuousrecollection,andnoneofthemhaseverdemonstratedthroughanactionamemorythatithadimproveditsconditionforitswholespecies,orhadgeneralizedexperiencesinordertomakeuseofthemsubsequently.Tobesure,thedogcanrecognizethebodilygesturewhichhashithim,andthefoxcanfleetheunsafeplacewherehewasambushed,butneitherofthemcanillumi-nateforitselfageneralreflectionconcerninghowitcouldeverescapethisHerderisherealludingtoPlato’sfamouscaveallegoryintheRepublic.a:inordertodevelophisforces,inordertodevelophissenses...B:throughwhich...\nPhilosophyofLanguageblow-threateningbodilygestureorthishunters’ruseforgood.Sotheanimalstillalwaysonlyremainedstuckattheindividualsensuouscase,anditsrecollectionbecameaseriesofthesesensuouscases,whichproduceandreproducethemselves–butneverconnected“throughreflection”;amanifoldwithoutdistinctunity,adreamofverysensuous,clear,vividrepresenta-tionswithoutanoverarchinglawofclearwakefulnesstoorderthisdream.Tobesure,thereisstillagreatdifferenceamongthesespeciesandkinds.Thenarrowerthecircleis,thestrongerthesensualityandthedriveis,themoreuniformtheabilityforartandtheworkinlifeis,thenthelessiseventheslightestprogressthroughexperienceobservable,atleastforus.Thebeebuildsinitschildhoodasitdoesinadvancedage,andwillbuildthesamewayattheendoftheworldasinthebeginningofcreation.Theyareindividualpoints,shiningsparksfromthelightofGod’sperfection,which,however,alwaysshineindividually.Anexperiencedfox,ontheotherhand,isindeedverydifferentfromthefirstapprenticeofthechase;healreadyknowsmanytricksaheadoftime,andattemptstoescapethem.Butwhencedoesheknowthem?Andhowdoesheattempttoescapethem?Becausethelawofthisactionfollowsimmediatelyfromsuchexperience.Innocaseisdistinctreflectionoperative,forarenotthecleverestfoxesstillnowtrickedinthesamewayasbythefirsthunterintheworld?Inthecaseofthehumanbeingadifferentlawofnatureobviouslygovernsthesuccessionofhisideas:awareness.Awarenessstillgovernseveninthemostsensuouscondition,onlylessnoticeably.[Thehumanbeingis]themostignorantcreaturewhenhecomesintotheworld,butimmediatelyhebecomesnature’sapprenticeinawaythatnoanimaldoes;notonlydoeseachdayteachthenext,buteachminuteofthedayteachesthenext,eachthoughtthenext.Itisanessentialknackofhissoultolearnnothingforthismoment,buttomarshaleverythingeitheralongwithwhatitalreadykneworinreadinessforwhatitintendstolinkwithitinthefuture.Hissoulhencetakesintoaccountthestorewhichithasalreadycollectedorstillintendstocollect.Andinthiswaythesoulbecomesaforceofsteadilycollecting.Suchachaincontinuesonuntildeath.[Heis,]sotospeak,neverthewholehumanbeing;alwaysindevelopment,inprogression,inprocessofperfection.Onemodeofefficacyistranscendedthroughtheother,onebuildsontheother,onedevelopsoutoftheother.a:Becausehehashadimmediateexperienceofthemaheadoftime,andbecausethelawofhisactionfollowsimmediatelyfromsuchexperience.B:Becausethelawofthisandnootheractionfollowsimmediatelyfromsuchandsuchexperience.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageThereariseperiodsoflife,epochs,whichweonlynameaccordingtothenoticeablesteps,butwhich–sincethehumanbeingneverfeelshowheisgrowingbutalwaysonlyhowhegrew–canbedividedinfinitelyfinely.Wearealwaysgrowingoutofachildhood,howeveroldwemaybe,areeverinmotion,restless,unsatisfied.Theessentialfeatureofourlifeisneverenjoymentbutalwaysprogression,andwehaveneverbeenhumanbeingsuntilwe–havelivedoutourlives.Bycontrast,thebeewasabeewhenitbuiltitsfirstcell.Tobesure,thislawofperfecting,ofprogressthroughawareness,doesnotoperatewithequalnoticeabilityatalltimes.Butiswhatislessnoticeablethereforenonexistent?Inadream,inathought-dream,thehumanbeingdoesnotthinkasorderlyanddistinctlyaswhenawake,butnonethelesshestillthinksasahumanbeing–asahumanbeinginamiddlestate,neverasacompleteanimal.Inthecaseofahealthyhumanbeinghisdreamsmusthavearuleofconnectionasmuchashiswakingthoughts,onlyitcannotbethesamerule,oroperateasuniformly.Henceeventheseexceptionswouldbearwitnesstothevalidityoftheoverarchinglaw.Andtheobviousillnessesandunnaturalconditions–swoons,madnesses,etc.–dosoevenmore.Noteveryactionofthesoulisimmediatelyaconsequenceoftaking-awareness[Besinnung],buteveryoneisaconsequenceofawareness[Besonnenheit].Noneofthem,intheforminwhichitoccursinahumanbeing,couldexpressitselfifthehumanbeingwerenotahumanbeinganddidnotthinkinaccordancewithsuchalawofnature.“Nowifthehumanbeing’sfirstconditionoftaking-awarenesswasnotabletobecomeactualwithoutthewordofthesoul,thenallconditionsofawarenessinhimbecomelinguistic;hischainofthoughtsbecomesachainofwords.”DoImeantosaybythisthatthehumanbeingcanmakeeverysensationofhismostobscuresenseoffeelingintoaword,orcannotsenseitexceptbymeansofaword?Itwouldbenonsensetosaythis,sincepreciselytothecontraryitisproventhat“asensationwhichcanonlybehadthroughtheobscuresenseoffeelingissusceptibleofnowordforus,becauseitissusceptibleofnodistinctcharacteristicmark.”Hencethefoundationofhumanityis,ifwearetalkingaboutvoluntarylanguage,linguisticallyOrperhaps:...provetobelinguistic...provestobeachainofwords(takingtheverbwerdeninanepistemicratherthanadevelopmentalsense).Wereitnotfortheneedtokeepverbalfaithwiththeunequivocallydevelopmental“become”of“becomeactual”whichprecedes,thetranslationwouldherepreservetheambiguitybetweenanepistemicandadevelopmentalsense(asisdonebelow)bytranslating:...turnouttobelinguistic...turnsouttobeachainofwords.\nPhilosophyofLanguageinexpressible.Butthen,isthefoundationthewholeform?Plinththewholestatue?Isthehumanbeinginhiswholenatureamerelyobscurelyfeelingoyster,then?Soletustakethewholethreadofhisthoughts:sincethisthreadiswovenfromawareness[Besonnenheit],sincethereisnoconditioninitwhich,takenasawhole,isnotitselfatakingofawareness[Besinnung]oratleastcapableofbeingilluminatedinatakingofawareness,sinceinitthesenseoffeelingdoesnotrulebutthewholecenterofitsnaturefallsonfinersenses,visionandhearing,andtheseconstantlygiveitlanguage,itfollowsthat,takenasawhole,“thereisalsonoconditioninthehumansoulwhichdoesnotturnouttobe[werde]susceptibleofwordsoractuallydeterminedbywordsofthesoul.”Tothinkentirelywithoutwordsonewouldhavetobethemostobscuremysticorananimal,themostabstractreligiousvisionaryoradreamingmonad.Andinthehumansoul,asweseeevenindreamsandinthecaseofmadmen,nosuchconditionispossible.Asboldasitmaysound,itistrue:thehumanbeingsenseswiththeunderstandingandspeaksinthinking.Andnow,duetothefactthathealwaysthinksoninthiswayand,aswehaveseen,implicitlyputseachthoughttogetherwiththeprecedingoneandwiththefuture,itmustbethecasethat:“Eachconditionwhichislinkedupinthiswaythroughreflectionthinksbetterandhencealsospeaksbetter.”Allowhimthefreeuseofhissenses;sincethemid-pointofthisusefallsonvisionandhearing,wheretheformergiveshimthecharacteristicmarkandthelatterthesoundforthecharacteristicmark,itfollowsthatwitheacheasier,moreformed[gebildeteren]useofthesesenseslanguagegetsformedfurther[fortgebildet]forhim.Allowhimthefreeuseofhisforcesofsoul;sincethemid-pointoftheirusefallsonawareness,andhencedoesnotoccurwithoutlanguage,itfollowsthatwitheacheasier,moreformeduseofawarenesslanguagegetsmoreformedforhim.Consequently,“theprogressiveformationoflanguageturnsouttobe[wird]asnaturalforthehumanbeingashisnatureitself.”Orpossibly:his.Orpossibly:him.“Turnouttobe”translateswerdewhichseemstohoverbetweenamerelyepistemicsense(which,note,wouldleavearealcontradictionbetweenthepresentprincipleandtheprecedingoneinquotationmarks)andadevelopmentalsense(which,note,wouldpromiseanescapefromthatcontradiction).Thetranslationtriestopreservethisambiguity.Binsertsasei,andtherebyoptsforyetathirdsensewhichcouldhavebeenexpressedbytheoriginalwordinginA(thoughsomewhatlessnaturallyfromalinguisticstandpoint,andagainleavingacontradictionwiththeprecedingprinciple):“thereisalsonoconditioninthehumansoulwhichneitheris[sei]susceptibleofwordsnoractuallygetsdeterminedbywordsofthesoul.”B:hislanguagegetsformedfurthertoo.B:hislanguagegetsmoreformedtoo.Again,wirdherehoversbetweenamerelyepistemicandadevelopmentalsense,anambiguitywhichthetranslation“turnsouttobe”triestopreserve.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageWhoisthere,then,whowouldknowthescopeoftheforcesofahumansoul,especiallywhentheyexpressthemselveswithfulleffortagainstdifficultiesanddangers?Whoistherewhowouldassessthedegreeofperfectionatwhich,throughaconstant,inwardlycomplicated,andsodiverseprogressiveformation,thesoulcanarrive?Andsinceeverythingcomesdowntolanguage,howgreatisthatwhichanindividualhumanbeingmustcollecttowardslanguage!Ifeventheblindanddumbper-sononhislonelyislandhadtocreateameagerlanguageforhimself,thenthehumanbeing,theapprenticeofallthesenses!,theapprenticeofthewholeworld!–howmuchricherhemustbecome!Whatshouldheeat?Senses,senseofsmell,abilitytoscent,fortheplantsthatarehealthyforhim,dislikingforthosethatareharmfulforhim,naturehasnotgivenhim;sohemustexperiment,taste,and,liketheEuropeansinAmerica,learnfromwatchingtheanimalswhatisedible.Hencecollectforhimselfcharacteristicmarksofplants,andthereforelanguage!Heisnotstrongenoughtoconfrontthelion;solethimfleefarfromit,knowitfromafarbyitssound,andinordertobeabletofleeitinahumanwayandwithforethought,lethimlearntorecognizeitandahundredotherharmfulanimalsdistinctly,andthereforetonamethem!Nowthemorehecollectsexperiences,becomesacquaintedwithvariousthingsandfromvarioussides,thericherhislanguagebecomes!Themoreoftenheseestheseexperi-encesandrepeatsthecharacteristicmarkstohimself,thefirmerandmorefluenthislanguagebecomes.Themorehedistinguishesandsubordinatesonethingtoanother,themoreorderlyhislanguagebecomes!This,continuedthroughyears,inanactivelife,incontinualchanges,inconstantstrugglewithdifficultiesandnecessity,withconstantnoveltyinobjects,isthebe-ginningoflanguage.Unimpressive?Andobserve!,itisonlythelifeofasinglehumanbeing!Ahumanbeingwhowasdumbinthesenseinwhichtheanimalsare,whocouldnoteveninhissoulthinkwords,wouldbethesaddest,mostsenseless,mostabandonedcreatureofcreation–andthegreatestself-contradiction!Alone,asitwere,inthewholeuniverse,attachedtonothingandthereforeverything,securedbynothing,andstilllessbyhimself,thehumanbeingmusteithersuccumborelseruleovereverything,withtheplanofawisdomofwhichnoanimaliscapable,eithertakedistinctpossessionofeverythingorelsedie!BethounothingorelsethemonarchThissentenceisanotherexampleofHerder’suseoftherhetoricalfigureofchiasmus.\nPhilosophyofLanguageofcreationthroughunderstanding!Fallinruinsorelsecreatelanguageforthyself!Andif,now,inthispressingcircleofneedsallforcesofthesoulbringthemselvestoconsciouscontrol,ifthewholeofhumanitystrugglestobehuman–howmuchcanbeinvented,done,ordered!Wehumanbeingsofsocietycanonlyeverimaginativelyprojectour-selvesintosuchaconditionwithtrembling:“Oh!Ifthehumanbeingisonlydestinedtosavehimselffromeverythinginsuchaslow,weak,inade-quatemanner...Throughreason?Throughreflection?Howslowlythisreflects!Andhowfast,howpressinghisneedsare!Hisdangers!”–Thisobjectioncanindeedberichlydeckedoutwithexamples.Butitisalwaysfightingagainstaquitedifferentposition[fromtheoneinquestion].Oursociety,whichhasbroughtmanyhumanbeingstogethersothatwiththeirabilitiesandfunctionstheyshouldbeone,mustconsequentlydis-tributeabilitiesandaffordopportunities[topeople]fromchildhoodoninsuchawaythatoneabilitygetsdevelopedinpreferencetoanother.Inthisway,theonehumanbeingbecomesforsocietyentirelyalgebra,entirelyreason,sotospeak,justasinanotherhumanbeingsocietyneedsonlyheart,courage,andphysicalforce.Thisoneisofusetosocietybyhavingnogeniusandmuchindustry;theformerbyhavinggeniusinonethingandnothinginanythingelse.Eachcogmusthaveitsrelationshipandposition,otherwisetheydonotconstituteawholemachine.Butletthisdistributionoftheforcesofthesoul,inwhichpeoplenoticeablysuffocatealltheotherforcesinordertoexcelbeyondotherpeopleinasingleoneofthem,notbetransferredtotheconditionofanaturalhumanbeing.Setaphilosopher,bornandraisedinsociety,whohasonlytrainedhisheadforthinkingandhishandforwriting,sethimsuddenlyoutsidealltheprotectionandreciprocalcomfortsthatsocietyaffordshimforhisone-sidedservices–heissupposedtoseekhisownmeansofsubsistenceinanunfamiliarland,andfightagainsttheanimals,andbehisownprotectingdeityineverything.Howhelpless!Hehasforthisneitherthesensesnortheforcesnorthetrainingineither!Inthestrayingsofhisabstractionhehasperhapslostthesenseofsmellandsightandhearingandthegiftofquickinvention–andcertainlythatcourage,thatquickdecisiveness,whichonlydevelopsandexpressesitselfindangers,whichneedstobeinconstant,newefficacyorelseitdies.If,now,heisofanagewhenthelife-sourceofhismentalabilitieshasalreadyceasedtoflow,orisbeginninga:positionthantheonewearedefending.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagetodryup,thenindeeditwillbeforevertoolatetowanttoeducatehiminto[hineinbilden]thiscircle.Butthen,isthisthecaseinquestion?AlltheattemptsatlanguagethatIamcitingarenotatallmadeinordertobephilosophicalattempts.ThecharacteristicmarksofplantsthatIamcitingarenotdiscoveredasLinnaeusclassifiedthem.Thefirstexperiencesarenotcold,slowlyreasoned,carefullyabstractingexperimentsliketheleisurely,lonephilosophermakeswhenhecreepsinpursuitofnatureinitshiddencourseandnolongerwantstoknowthatbuthowitworks.Thiswaspreciselywhatconcernednature’sfirstdwellerleast.Didheneedtohaveitdemonstratedtohimthatthisorthatplantispoisonous?Washe,then,somuchmorethanbrutishthateveninthishedidnotimitatethebrutes?Anddidheneedtobeattackedbythelioninordertobeafraidofit?Isnothistimiditycombinedwithhisweakness,andhisawarenesscombinedwithallthesubtletyofhisforcesofsoul,enoughbyitselftoprovidehimwithacomfortablecondition,sincenatureherselfacknowledgedthatitwasadequateforthis?Since,therefore,wehavenoneedatallofatimid,abstractstudy-philosopherastheinventoroflan-guage,sincetheprimitivenaturalhumanbeingwhostillfeelshissoul,likehisbody,soentirelyofasinglepieceismoretousthananynumberoflanguage-creatingacademies,andyetisanythingbutascholar...whyonearth,then,wouldwewanttotakethisscholarasamodel?Dowewanttocastdustineachother’seyesinordertohaveprovedthatthehumanbeingcannotsee?S¨ußmilchisagainheretheopponentwithwhomIamfighting.Hehasdevotedawholesectionytoshowing“howimpossibleitisthatthehumanbeingshouldhaveformedalanguagefurther[fortbilden]forhimself,evenifhehadinventeditthroughimitation!”Thattheinventionoflanguagethroughmereimitationwithoutahumansoulisnonsenseisproven,andifthedefenderofthedivineoriginoflanguagehadbeendemonstrativelycertainofthiscause,thatitisnonsense,thenItrustthathewouldnothavegatheredtogetheramassofhalf-truereasonsagainstthisnonsensewhich,asthingsare,allprovenothingagainstahumaninventionoflanguagethroughunderstanding.Icannotpossiblyexplainthewholesectioninitstotalityhere,woventhroughwitharbitrarilyassumedpostulatesandfalseaxiomsaboutthenatureoflanguageasitis,becausetheauthorwouldalwaysappearinacertainlightinwhichheshouldnotappearhere.SoySection.\nPhilosophyofLanguageIselectonlyasmuchasisnecessary,namely,“thatinhisobjectionsthenatureofahumanlanguagethatformsitselffurther[sichfortbildenden]andofahumansoulthatformsitselffurtherisentirelymisperceived.”“Ifoneassumesthattheinhabitantsofthefirstworldconsistedonlyofafewthousandfamilies,sincethelightoftheunderstandingalreadyshonesobrightlythroughtheuseoflanguagethattheyunderstoodwhatlanguageisandhencewereabletobeginthinkingoftheimprovementofthissplendidinstrument,itfollows...”zButnooneassumesanythingofalltheseantecedentpropositions.Didpeopleneedathousandgenera-tionstounderstandforthefirsttimewhatlanguageis?Thefirsthumanbeingunderstooditwhenhethoughtthefirstthought.Didpeopleneedathousandgenerationstoreachthepointofunderstandingforthefirsttimethatitisgoodtoimprovelanguage?Thefirsthumanbeingunderstooditwhenhelearnedtoorderbetter,correct,distinguish,andcombinehisfirstcharacteristicmarks,andheimmediatelyimprovedlanguageeachtimethathelearnedsuchathingforthefirsttime.Andthen,how,though,couldthelightoftheunderstandinghavebecomesobrightlyenlight-enedoverthecourseofathousandgenerationsthroughlanguageifinthecourseofthesegenerationslanguagehadnotalreadybecomeenlightened?Soenlightenmentwithoutimprovement?,andafteranimprovementlast-ingthroughathousandfamiliesthebeginningofanimprovementstillimpossible?Thatissimplycontradictory.“Butwouldnotwritinghavetobeassumedasaquiteindispensableaidinthisphilosophicalandphilologicalcourseofinstruction?”No!Foritwasnotatallaphilosophicalandphilologicalcourseofinstruction,thisfirst,natural,living,humanprogressiveformationoflanguage.Andthen,whatcanthephilosopherandphilologistinhisdeadmuseumimproveinalanguagewhichlivesinallitsefficacy?“Areallpeoplessupposed,then,tohaveproceededwiththeimprove-mentinthesameway?”Inexactlythesameway,fortheyallproceededinahumanway–sothatwecanbeconfidenthere,intherudimentsoflan-guage,abouttakingonepersonforall.When,however,itissupposedtobethegreatestmiracleaathatalllanguageshaveeightpartsofspeech,thenonceagainthefactisfalseandtheinferenceincorrect.Notalllanguageshavefromalltimesonhadeight,but[even]thefirstphilosophicallookzPp.–.aa#,.B:asisnecessarytoshow...CorrectingwithSuphanalsotoals.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageatthemannerofconstructionofalanguageshowsthattheseeighthavedevelopedoutofeachother.Intheoldestlanguagesverbswereearlierthannouns,andperhapsinterjectionsearlierthanevenregularverbs.Inthelaterlanguagesnounsareimmediatelyderivedtogetherwithverbs–butevenoftheGreeklanguageAristotlesaysthateveninitthesewereinitiallyallthepartsofspeech,andtheothersonlydevelopedoutofthemlaterthroughthegrammarians.Ihavereadpreciselythesameofthelan-guageoftheHurons,anditisobviousoftheEasternlanguages.Indeed,whatsortoftrick,then,isitintheend,thisarbitraryandinpartun-philosophicalabstractionbythegrammariansintoeightpartsofspeech?Isthisasregularanddivineastheformofabee’scell?Andifitwere,isitnotentirelyexplicableandshownnecessaryintermsofthehumansoul?“Andwhatissupposedtohaveattractedhumanbeingstothismostbitterlaborofimprovement?”Oh,[itwas]notatallabitterspeculativestudy-labor!Notatallanabstractimprovementapriori!Andhence[therewere]alsocertainlynoattractantstodoit,whichonlyoccurinourcon-ditionofrefinedsociety.Ihavetopartcompanywithmyopponentcom-pletelyhere.Heassumesthat“thefirstimproverswouldhavetohavebeenreallygoodphilosophicalmindswhowouldcertainlyhaveseenfurtheranddeeperthanmostscholarsarenowwonttodoinregardtolanguageanditsinnerconstitution.”Heassumesthat“thesescholarswouldhavetohaverecognizedeverywherethattheirlanguagewasimperfectandthatitwasnotonlycapablebutalsoinneedofanimprovement.”Heassumesthat“theyhadtojudgethepurposeoflanguageproperly,etc.,thattherepresentationofthisgoodwhichwastobeachievedneedstohavebeenadequate,strong,andvividenoughtobecomeamotivefortakingonthisdifficultlabor.”Inshort,thephilosopherofouragewasnotwillingtoventureevenonestepoutsideofallourage’saccidentalfeatures.Andhow,then,couldhefromsuchapointofviewwriteabouttheoriginationofalanguage?Tobesure,inourcenturylanguagecouldhaveoriginatedaslittleasitneedstooriginate.Butdowenot,then,alreadynowknowhumanbeingsinsuchvariousages,regions,andlevelsofcivilization[Bildung]thatthissotransformedgreatdramawouldteachustoinferwithgreatersurenessbacktoitsfirstscene?Dowenot,then,knowthatpreciselyinthecornersoftheearthBomitsthisredundant“even.”Orpossibly,givingdarfitsmorecommonandmodernmeaning:mayoriginate.\nPhilosophyofLanguagewherereasonisstillleastcastintothefine,societal,many-sided,scholarlyform,sensualityandprimitiveclevernessandcunningandcourageousefficacyandpassionandspiritofinvention–thewholeundividedhumansoul–stilloperatesinthemostlivelyway?Stilloperatesinthemostlivelyway–because,notyetbroughttoanylongwindedrules,thissoulstilleverliveswholeinacircleofneeds,ofdangers,ofpressingdemands,andhenceeverfeelsnewandwhole.There,onlythere,doesthesoulrevealforcestoform[bilden]languageforitselfandtoformitfurther[fortzubilden]!Therethesoulhasenoughsensualityand,sotospeak,instinctinordertosensethewholesoundandalltheself-expressingcharacteristicmarksoflivingnatureaswhollyaswearenolongerableto,and,whenthetakingofawarenessthenisolatesoneofthesecharacteristicmarks,inordertonameitasstronglyandinwardlyaswewouldnotnameit.Thelesstheforcesofthesoulareyetunfoldedandeachoneadjustedforasphereofitsown,thenthemorestronglyalloperatetogether,thedeeperthemid-pointoftheirintensityis.Butseparateoutthisgreat,unbreakablesheafofarrowsandyoucanbreakthemall,andthencertainlythemiraclecannotbeperformedwithasinglewand,thencertainlylanguagecanneverbeinventedwiththephilosophers’singlecoldgiftofabstraction.Butwasthatourquestion?Didnotthatothersensefortheworldpenetratemoredeeply?And,withtheconstantconfluenceofallthesenses,inwhosemid-pointtheinnersensewasalwaysalert,werenotevernewcharacteristicmarks,orderings,viewpoints,rapidmodesofinferencepresent,andhenceevernewenrichmentsoflanguage?Anddidthehumansoulnotthereforereceiveitsbestinspirationsforlanguage(ifonedoesnotwanttocountoneightpartsofspeech)foraslongas,stillwithoutanyofthestimulationsofsociety,itonlystimulateditselfallthemoremightily,gaveitselfalltheactivityofsensationandthoughtwhichithadtogiveitselfinviewofinnerimpulseandexternaldemands?Therelanguagewasbornwiththewholeunfoldingofthehumanforces.Itisunintelligibletomehowourcenturycanloseitselfsodeeplyintheshadows,intheobscureworkshops,ofthatwhichrelatestoartwithoutevenwantingtorecognizethebroad,brightlightofunimprisonednature.Thegreatestheroicdeedsofthehumanspiritwhichitcouldonlydoandexpressinimpactwiththelivingworldhaveturnedintoschoolexercisesinthedustofourschool-prisons,themasterpiecesofhumanpoeticartandoratoryintochildishtricksfromwhichagedchildrenandyoungchildrenlearnemptyphrasesandcullrules.Wegrasptheirformalities\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageandhavelosttheirspirit,welearntheirlanguageanddonotfeelthelivingworldoftheirthoughts.Itisthesamewithourjudgmentsconcerningthemasterpieceofthehumanspirit,theformationoflanguageingeneral.Heredeadreflectionissupposedtoteachusthingswhichwereonlyabletoensoulthehumanbeing,tosummonhim,andformhimfurther,fromthelivingbreathoftheworld,fromthespiritofgreat,activenature.Herethedull,latelawsofthegrammariansaresupposedtobethemostdivinething,whichwereverewhileforgettingthetruedivinelinguisticnaturewhichformeditselfinitscorewiththehumanspirit–howeverirregularthistruedivinelinguisticnaturemayseem.Theformationoflanguagehasretreatedtotheshadowsoftheschools,whenceitnolongerachievesanythingforthelivingworld–consequentlyitissaidthatthereneverevenwasabrightworldinwhichthefirstformersoflanguagehadtolive,feel,create,andpoetize.Iappealtothesensitivityofthosewhodonotfailtorecognizethehumanbeingintherootofhisforces,andwhatisforceful,powerful,andgreatinthelanguagesofthesavages,andtheessentialnatureoflanguageingeneral.SoIcontinue:Secondnaturallaw“Thehumanbeingisinhisdestinyacreatureoftheherd,ofsociety.Hencetheprogressiveformationofalanguagebecomesnatural,essential,necessaryforhim.”Thehumanfemalehasnoseasonforbeinginheatlikeanimalfemales.Andtheman’spowerofprocreationisnotsounrestrainedbutenduring.If,now,storksanddoveshavemarriages,Icannotseewhythehumanbeingshouldnothavethem,forseveralreasons.Thehumanbeing,comparedtotheroughbearandthebristlyhedge-hog,isaweaker,needier,morenakedanimal.Itneedscaves,andtheseverynaturallybecome,duetotheprecedingreasons,communalcaves.Thehumanbeingisaweakeranimalwhichinmanyzoneswouldbeverybadlyexposedtotheseasons.Thehumanfemalethereforeinherpregnancy,asabirth-giver,hasgreaterneedofsocietalhelpthantheostrichwhichlaysitseggsinthedesert.Finally,especiallythehumanyoung,theinfantputintotheworld–howmuchheisavassalofhumanhelpandsocietalpity.Fromaconditioninwhichhedependedasaplantonhismother’sheart,heisthrownontotheearth–theweakest,mosthelplesscreatureamongalltheanimals,were\nPhilosophyofLanguagenotmaternalbreaststheretonourishhim,anddidnotpaternalkneescometowardshimtotakehimupasason.Towhomdoesnot“nature’shousehold-managementintheinterestofhumanity’ssocialization”becomeobviousfromthesefacts?Andindeedanaturalhousehold-managementthatisasimmediate,asclosetoinstinct,ascouldbethecasewithacreaturepossessedofawareness!Imustdevelopthelastpointfurther,fornature’sworkshowsitselfmostclearlyinthis,andmyinferenceproceedsfromitthatmuchmorequickly.If,likeourcrudeEpicureans,onewantstoexplaineverythingfromblindpleasureorimmediateself-interest–whocanexplainthefeelingofparentstowardstheirchildren?Andthestrongbondsthatthisproduces?Behold!Thispoorearth-dwellercomeswretchedintotheworldwithoutknowingthatheiswretched;heneedspitywithoutbeingabletomakehimselfintheleastdeservingofit;hecries,buteventhiscryingoughttobecomeasburdensomeaswasthehowlingofPhiloctetes,eventhoughhehadsomanymeritoriousaccomplishments,totheGreeks,whoabandonedhimtothedesolateisland.Thusaccordingtoourcoldphilosophythebondsofnaturepreciselyoughttobreakearliesthere,wheretheyare[infact]moststronglyefficacious!Themotherhasfinallydeliveredherselfwithpainsofthefruitthathascausedhersomuchtrouble–ifthematterdependsmerelyonenjoymentandnewpleasure,thenshethrowsitaway.Thefatherhascooledhisburninglustinafewminutes–whyshouldheconcernhimselffurtherwithmotherandchildasobjectsofhiseffort?LikeRousseau’sman-animal,herunsintotheforestandseeksforhimselfanotherobjectofhisanimalenjoyment.Howquiteoppositeistheorderofnaturehere,withanimalsandwithhumanbeings,andhowmuchmorewise.Preciselythepainsandtroublesincreasematernallove!Preciselytheinfant’slamentablenessandunamiableness,theweak,frailqualityofhisnature,thetroublesome,vexingeffortofhisupbringing,doublesthestrivingsofhisparents!Themotherregardswithwarmeremotionthesonwhohascostherthemostpains,whohasthreatenedherwithhisdeparturemostoften,onwhomsheshedmosttearsofcare.Thefatherregardswithwarmeremotionthesonwhomhesavedfromadangerearlyon,whomheraisedwiththegreatesteffort,whocosthimthemostininstructionandeducation[Bildung].Andlikewisenaturealsoknows“howtomakestrengthoutofweaknessinthewholeofthespecies.”ThehumanbeingcomesReadingwithSuphanm¨ußte.ReadingwithSuphanm¨ußten.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageintotheworldweaker,needier,moreabandonedbynature’sinstruction,morecompletelywithoutskillsandtalents,thananyanimal,preciselyinorderthat,likenoanimal,he“mayenjoyanupbringing,andthehumanspeciesmay,likenoanimalspecies,becomeaninwardlyunitedwhole!”Theyoungducksslipawayfromthehenwhichhatchedthemoutand,happilysplashingintheelementintowhichthecallofmaternalnaturedrewthem,theydonothearthewarning,callingvoiceoftheirstep-motherwholamentsontheshore.Thehumanchildwoulddothesameaswellifitcameintotheworldwiththeinstinctoftheduck.Eachbirdbringstheskillofbuildingnestswithitfromitseggandalsotakesitwithit,withouttransferringittoothers,intoitsgrave;natureinstructsforit.Thuseverythingremainsindividual,theimmediateworkofnature,andsotherearises“noprogressionofthesoulofthespecies,”nowhole,ofthesortthatnaturewantedinthecaseofthehumanbeing.Natureconsequentlybondedtogetherthehumanbeing[withotherhumanbeings]throughnecessityandacaringparentaldriveforwhichtheGreekshadthewordstorgˆe,andinthisway“abondofinstructionandupbringing”becameessentialtohim.Inthiscaseparentshadnotcollectedthecircleoftheirideasforthemselves;atthesametimeitwasthereinordertobecommu-nicated,andthesonhastheadvantageofalreadyinheritingthewealthoftheirspiritearly,asthoughinepitome.Theformerpayoffnature’sdebtbyteaching;thelatterfilluptheidea-lessneedoftheirownnaturebylearning,justastheywilllaterinturnpayofftheirnaturaldebtofin-creasingthiswealthwiththeirowncontributionandtransferringitagaintoothers.Noindividualhumanbeingexistsforhimself;“heisinsertedintothewholeofthespecies,heisonlyoneforthecontinuingseries.”Whatsortofeffectthishasonthewholechainwewillseelater.Herewewillrestrictourselvestotheconnectionbetweenthefirsttworingsonly!,to“theformationofafamilialmannerofthinkingthroughtheinstructionofupbringing”and–Sincetheinstructionofthesinglesoulistheparentallanguage’scircleofideas,“thefurtherformationofhumaninstructionthroughthespiritofthefamily,throughwhichspiritnaturehasunitedthewholespecies,becomesalsothefurtherformationoflanguage.”Whydoesthischild-without-any-say[Unm¨undiger]clingsoweaklyandignorantlytothebreastsofhismother,tothekneesofhisfather?ThatParentallove.\nPhilosophyofLanguagehemaydesiretobetaughtandmaylearnlanguage.Heisweaksothathisspeciesmaybecomestrong.Nowthewholesoul,thewholemannerofthinking,ofhisbegettersgetscommunicatedtohimwiththelanguage;buttheycommunicateittohimgladlypreciselybecauseitiswhattheyhavethoughtforthemselves,feltforthemselves,inventedforthemselvesthattheyarecommunicating.Theinfantwhostammershisfirstwords,stammersarepetitionofthefeelingsofhisparents,andswearswitheachearlystammering,inaccordancewithwhichhistongueandsoulformsitself,thathewillmakethesefeelingsendureeternally,astrulyashecallsthemfather-ormother-tongue.Forhiswholelifethesefirstimpressionsfromhischildhood,theseimagesfromthesoulandtheheartofhisparents,willliveandtakeeffectwithinhim:withthewordwillcomebackthewholefeelingthatthen,earlyon,flowedoverhissoul;withtheword’sideaallthesideideasthatthenpresentedthemselvestohimwhenhemadethisnew,earlydawn-surveyintotherealmofcreation–theywillreturnandtakeeffectmoremightilythanthepure,clearmainideaitself.Thisthereforebecomesfamilialmannerofthinkingandhencefamiliallanguage.Here,then,standsthecoldphilosopherbbandasks“throughwhatlaw,then,indeed,humanbeingscouldhaveforcedtheirarbitrarilyinventedlanguageononeanother,andcausedtheotherparttoacceptthelaw.”Thisquestion,aboutwhichRousseaupreachessoloftilyandanotherauthorsolong,answersitselfimmediatelywhenwetakealookat“theeconomyofthenatureofthehumanspecies”–andwhocanthenenduretheaforementionedsermons?Isitnot,then,lawandmaking-eternalenough,thisfamilialfurtherformationoflanguage?Thewoman,innaturesomuchtheweakerparty–mustshenotacceptlawfromtheexperienced,providing,language-formingman?Indeed,isthatproperlyevencalledlawwhichismerelythegentlegooddeedofinstruction?Theweakchild,whoissoaptlycalledachild-without-any-say[Unm¨undiger],doesitnothavetoacceptlan-guage,sinceitconsumesthemilkofitsmotherandthespiritofitsfatherwithlanguage?Andmustnotthislanguagebemadeeternalifanythingismadeeternal?Oh,thelawsofnaturearemightierthanalltheconventionsbbRousseau.B:and.ReadingwithSuphanstammelt.ReadingwithSuphannachdem.ThisisanotherexampleofHerder’suseofhendiadys.ProbablySu¨ßmilch.Unm¨undiger,aminor,i.e.oneunderageornotyetlegallyresponsible,butliterally“onewithoutamouth.”\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagethatcunningpoliticsagreestoandthewisephilosopherwantstoenumer-ate!Thewordsofchildhood–theseourearlyplaymatesinthedawnoflife!,togetherwithwhomourwholesoulformeditselfjointly–whenwillwefailtorecognizethem?Whenwillweforgetthem?Forourmother-tonguewassimultaneouslythefirstworldthatwesaw,thefirstsensationsthatwefelt,thefirstefficacyandjoythatwetasted!Thesideideasofplaceandtime,ofloveandhate,ofjoyandactivity,andwhateverthefiery,turbulentsoulofyouththoughttoitselfintheprocess,allgetsmadeeternalalongwithit.Nowlanguagereallybecomestribalcore[Stamm]!Andthesmallerthistribalcoreis,themoreitgainsininnerstrength.Ourfathers,whothoughtnothingforthemselves,whoinventednothingthemselves,wholearnedeverythingmechanically–whatdotheycareabouttheinstructionoftheirsons,aboutmakingeternalwhattheydonotevenpossessthemselves?Butthefirstfather,thefirstneedyinventorsoflanguage,whosacrificedtheworkoftheirsoulsonalmosteveryword,whoeverywhereinthelanguagestillfeltthewarmsweatwhichithadcosttheiractivity–whatinformantcouldtheycallupon?Thewholelanguageoftheirchildrenwasadialectoftheirownthoughts,apaeantotheirowndeeds,likethesongsofOssianforhisfatherFingal.Stammcanmeaneitheratrunk/stem/coreoratribe.Herderispunninghere.“Tribalcore”approximatesthesemanticalcontentofthepun.B:whattheyonlypossessasthoughinadream.Readingsieforer.Manuscriptaincludesthefollowinginterestingcontinuationafter“fatherFingal”:“Forthephilosopherthereappearsonpreciselythispath,especiallyatpointsmoreremotefromthiswarmfamilyfeeling,asourceofthemostharmfulerrorsofthehumanspecies,namelybecausethroughthetraditionoflanguageerrorsdonotmerelygettransmittedandeternalized,butalsogetmadeandnewlyproduced,sothatthehumanspiriteternallyfightsforbreathunderaloadofthem.Ifeverypersoninventedhislanguageforhimselforbroughtitwithhimintotheworldastheanimalsbringtheirdrivestoart,thennaturewouldhavetakencareofthemoratleasttheywouldhavegonewronginawaythatwaspeculiartothemselvesandoriginaland,sotospeak,attheirownexpense.Butasthingsare,whatagreatheapoferrorsandprejudicesexistsattheexpenseoftheirfathers.Childrenlearnlanguage,andchildrenhavelearneditfromthebeginning–whowerethereforenotintheleastabletothinkover,totest,whoacceptedalltruthsandprejudicesoftheinventorsonthebasisoftheirteachers’prestige,andsworethemeternalloyalty.Here,ashasbeenshown,alongwithwordsviewpointsgotestablishedasshrinesforyouthfuladorationatthesametime,sothattheworldshouldberegardedfromtheseviewpointsandnoothersforawholelifetime![Thesewere]thepillarsofHerculesmarkedwiththeholyoracle:Letnooneventurefurther!Here,withthewordsoftradition,themostpopulartruthsandprejudicesfloweddownontheriveroftimelikelightchaff;whatwasheavyperishedandperhapsonlyrevealsitselfbyhavingcloudedspeechandleftbehindstrangewordcombinations,paradoxesbeyondhumanunderstanding,which,however,onlybecamesuchmonstersthroughthetransmitterandthereceiver,likesomeoldphilosophicalsystems!Hereitwasespeciallytheidolsofboldliarsaboutthetruth,thephantomsofhot-headedfanatics,andtheprejudiceswhich\nPhilosophyofLanguageRousseauandothershaveraisedsomanyparadoxesabouttheoriginofandrighttothefirstproperty.Andiftheformerhadonlyaskedthenatureofhisbelovedanimal-human,thenthisanimal-humanwouldhaveansweredhim.Whydoesthisflowerbelongtothebeethatsucksonit?Thebeewillanswer:Becausenaturemademeforthissucking!Myinstinct,whichlandsonthisflowerandnoother,isdictatorenoughforme–letitassignmethisfloweranditsgardenasmyproperty!Andifnowweaskthefirsthumanbeing,Whohasgivenyoutherighttotheseplants?,thenwhatcanheanswerbut:Nature,whichgavemethetakingofawareness[Besinnung]!Ihavecometoknowtheseplantswitheffort!WitheffortIhavetaughtmywifeandmysontoknowthem!Wealllivefromthem!Ihavemorerighttothemthanthebeethathumsonthemandthecattlethatgrazesonthem,forthesehavenothadalltheeffortofcomingtoknowandteachingtoknow!ThuseverythoughtthatIhavedesignedonthemisasealofmyproperty,andwhoeverdrivesmeawayweremightiestintheireffectandhencethemostharmfulforthehumanunderstandingthatforcedtheirwayondown!Beforewewereabletothinkweweretaughttofalldownbeforelinguisticconceptsasbeforestatues,insteadofobservingandstudyingthemmovingaboutinnaturelikelivingbodies.Andhereweget,asBacon,theleaderinsensitivitytothisweaknessofhumanity,callsthem:tradeidols,idolsfromadarkcave,idolswhicharetheseductionofthemarket,idolswhicharethedramaofthestage,allofwhicharemadeeternalbynothingasmuchasbylanguage.Herelierulesandlaws[commandingpeople]tothinkinaccordancewiththeanalogyoftheirfathersandnotinaccordancewiththeanalogyofnature,toreadtheimagesoftheuniverseinthedistortingmirroroftraditionandnotinnature.Herelietheformsofthatcaveinwhichtheinventorsoflanguageandalltheirfollowersthought:theplasticshapesofthosesmallworldsfromoutofwhichtheylookedintothegreatworld,thepuppetswhichthroughtheusageofthecenturieshavebecomeimagesofgods,linguisticfablesandmerehollowvesselsofexpressionswhichthroughtheloudnoiseofourdearhabitfromyouthuphavebecomeformsinourheads.Whoevercan,lethimthinkhiswaybeyondthem,orratherrightthroughthem–forifonemeanstodestroyalltheseimagesandprejudices(praeiudicata)asprejudices(praeiudicia)andemptyidols,thenindeedonehastheeasyworkoftheGothsinItalyorthePersiansinEgypt,butonealsoleavesoneselfwithnothingmorethanadesert.Preciselytherebyonehasstrippedoneselfoftheaidofallthecenturiesofone’sfathers,andstandstherenaked,inordertobuildfromthesmallheapofmaterialsthatonehasoneselfgatheredandofarbitrarywordsthatonehasperhapsoneselfexploredalittlesystemwhichisassimilartothatworkofthecenturiesasthelittletempleswhichtheworshipersofDianahadmadeforthemselvestothegreatbuildingofwonderatEphesus.So,unlesswewanttofollowthewarningexampleofallthosewhomakesystemsoutoftheirownheads,thereisnothingforustodoinsuchacasebuttothrowourselvesintothegreatoceanoftruthsanderrors,and,withthehelpofallthosewhohavelivedbeforeus,toseehowfarweget,then,inbeholdingandobservingnatureandinnamingitthroughdistinctlinguisticideas!Thereisnothingforustodobuttobecomechildrenagaininthefootstepsofgreatpeoplebeforeus,andtolearntorecognizeandexaminethegreattreasurethathascomedowntouswiththelanguageandthemassofthoughtsbelongingtoallnations.Whatcouldbeattemptedhere,buthasbeenlittleattempted,fromandconcerningseverallanguagesforthebenefitofthegeneralphilosophyofhumanityisalmostinexpressible.”B:forallthesehavenothadtheeffort...\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagefromthemtakesawayfrommenotonlymylife,ifIdonotfindthismeansofsubsistenceagain,butreallyalsothevalueofmylivedyears,mysweat,myeffort,mythoughts,mylanguage.Ihaveearnedthemformyself!Andshouldnotsuchasignatureofthesoulonsomethingthroughcomingtoknow,throughcharacteristicmark,throughlanguage,constituteforthefirstamonghumanitymoreofarightofpropertythanastamponacoin?“Howmuchorderinganddevelopment[Ausbildung]languagethereforealreadyreceivespreciselybybecomingpaternalteaching!”Whodoesnotlearnintheprocessofteaching?Whodoesnotreassurehimselfofhisideas,whodoesnotexaminehiswords,intheprocessofcommunicatingthemtoothersandsooftenhearingthemstammeredbythelipsofthechild-without-any-say[desUnm¨undigen]?Languagethereforealreadyherewinsanartisticform,amethodicalform!Herethefirstgrammar,whichwasanoffprintofthehumansoulandofitsnaturallogic,alreadygotcorrectedbyasharplyexaminingcensorship.Rousseau,whohereexclaimsinhisusualmanner,“Whatgreatamountdidthemotherhavetosaytoherchild,then?Didthechildnothavemoretosaytoitsmother?Whence,then,didthechildalreadylearnlanguageinordertoteachittoitsmother?”also,though,inhisusualmanner,heremakesapanickybattleclamor.Certainlythemotherhadmoretoteachthechildthanthechildthemother–becausetheformerwasabletoteachitmore,andbecausethematernalinstinct,loveandsympathy,whichRousseaufromcompassionconcedestotheanimalsbutfrompridedeniestohisownspecies,compelledhertothisinstruction,astheexcessofmilkcompelledhertosuckle.Dowenot,then,seeeveninsomeanimalsthattheolderoneshabituatetheiryoungtotheirmanneroflife?Andnow,whenafatherhabituatedhissontohuntingfromearlyyouthon,didthishappenwithoutinstructionandlanguage,then?“Yes!,suchadictationofwordscertainlyindicatesaformedlanguagewhichoneisteaching,[but]notalanguagewhichisjustbeingformed!”Andagain,isthisadifferencethatconstitutesanexception?Tobesure,thatlanguagewhichtheytaughttheirchildrenwasalreadyformedinthefatherandmother,butdoesthisimplythatthelanguagealreadyhadtobecompletelyformed,includingeventhatlanguagewhichtheydidnotteachtheirchildren?Andcouldthechildreninanewer,broader,morerefinedworldnot,then,inventanythingmoreinaddition?Andis,then,apartlyformedlanguageReadingwithSuphanwurdeforw¨urde.B:“Butsuchadictationofwordswouldalreadyindicate...,notalanguage...”\nPhilosophyofLanguagewhichisstillundergoingfurtherformationacontradiction?When,then,istheFrenchlanguage,whichhasbeensomuchformedthroughacademiesandauthorsanddictionaries,sofinallyformedthatitwouldnothavetoform,ordeform,itselfanewwitheachneworiginalauthor,indeedwitheachmindwhointroducesanewtoneintosociety?Itiswithsuchfallaciesthatthechampionsoftheoppositeopinionareadorned.Letitbejudgedwhetheritisworthwhiletogointoeverytrivialdetailoftheirobjections.Another,forexample,asks“buthow,then,humanbeingscouldeverhavewantedtoformtheirlanguagefurtherduetonecessityiftheyhadbeenLucretius’smutumetturpepecus,”andgoesintoapileofhalf-trueevidentiaryexamplesofsavages.Imerelyanswer:Never!Theycouldneverhavewantedto,orbeenableto,doitiftheyhadbeenamutumpecus.Forinthatcasedidtheynot,ofcourse,lackalllanguage?Butaresavageslikethis?Is,then,eventhemostbarbaroushumannationwithoutlanguage?Andhasthehumanbeingeverbeenso,then,exceptinphilosophers’abstractionsandhenceintheirheads?Heasks“whether,then,really,sinceallanimalseschewconstraint,andallhumanbeingslovelaziness,itcaneverbeexpectedofCondamine’sOrenocksthattheyshouldchangeandimprovetheirlongwinded,eight-syllabled,difficult,andmostcumbersomelanguage.”AndIanswer:First,thefactisagainincorrect,likealmostallthathecites.cc“Theirlong-winded,eight-syllabledlanguage”itisnot.Condaminemerelysaysthatitissounpronounceableanddistinctivelyorganizedthatwheretheypro-nouncethreeorfoursyllableswewouldhavetowritesevenoreight,andyetwewouldstillnothavewrittenthemcompletely.Doesthatmeanthatitislongwinded,eight-syllabled?And“difficult,mostcumbersome”?Forwhomisitsoexceptforforeigners?Andtheyaresupposedtomakeim-provementsinitforforeigners?ToimproveitforanarrivingFrenchmanwhohardlyeverlearnsanylanguageexcepthisownwithoutmutilat-ingit,andhencetoFrenchifyit?ButisitthecasethattheOrenockshavenotyetformedanythingintheirlanguage,indeednotyetformedforthemselvesanylanguage,justbecausetheydonotchoosetoexchangethegeniuswhichissopeculiarlytheirsforaforeignerwhocomessailingalong?Indeed,evenassumingthattheyweretoformnothingmoreintheirccSu¨ßmilch[VersucheinesBeweises,p.].I.e.Su¨ßmilch.Dumbandugly/shamefulcattle.Dumbcattle.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagelanguage,notevenforthemselves–hasaperson,then,nevergrownifhenolongergrows?Andhavethesavages,then,donenothingbecausetheydonotliketodoanythingwithoutneed?Andwhatatreasurefamiliallanguageisforadevelopingrace!Inalmostallsmallnationsofallpartsoftheworld,howeverlittlecultivated[gebildet]theymaybe,balladsoftheirfathers,songsofthedeedsoftheirancestors,arethetreasureoftheirlanguageandhistoryandpoeticart,[theyare]theirwisdomandtheirencouragement,theirinstructionandtheirgamesanddances.TheGreekssangoftheirArgonauts,ofHerculesandBacchus,ofheroesandconquerorsofTroy,andtheCeltsofthefathersoftheirtribes,ofFingalandOssian!AmongPeruviansandNorthAmericans,ontheCaribbeanandMarianaIslands,thisoriginofthetriballanguageintheballadsoftheirtribesandfathersstillholdssway–justasinalmostallpartsoftheworldfatherandmotherhavesimilarnames.Anditisonlypreciselyherethatitcanbeindicatedwhyamongmanypeoples,ofwhichwehavecitedexamples,themaleandfemalegendershavealmosttwodifferentlanguages,namely,becauseinaccordancewiththecustomsofthenationthetwo,asthenobleandthebasegenders,almostconstitutetwoquiteseparatepeoples,whodonoteveneattogether.According,then,towhethertheupbringingwaspaternalormaternal,thelanguagetooinevitablybecameeitherfather-ormother-tongue–as,inaccordancewiththecustomsoftheRomans,itevenbecamelinguavernacula.Thirdnaturallaw“Justasthewholehumanspeciescouldnotpossiblyremainasingleherd,likewiseitcouldnotretainasinglelanguageeither.Sotherearisesaformationofdifferentnationallanguages.”Intherealmetaphysicalsense,itisalreadyneverpossiblefortheretobeasinglelanguagebetweenmanandwife,fatherandson,childandoldman.Letone,forexample,gothrough,inthecaseoftheEasterners,thelongandshortvowels,themanydifferentkindsofbreathingsandgutteralletters,theeasyandsomanifoldexchangingoflettersbyonekindoforgan,thepauseandthelinguisticsigns,withallthevariationswhicharesodifficulttoexpressinwriting:pitchandemphasis,increaseanddiminutionofthis,andahundredothercontingentsmallthingsintheThelanguageofhomebornslaves.B:Since...B:byallkindsoforgans.\nPhilosophyofLanguageelementsoflanguage.Andletone,ontheotherhand,notethediversityofthelinguisticorgansinbothgenders,inyouthandinoldage,evensimplyinthecaseoftwosimilarpeople–inaccordancewithmanycontingenciesandindividualcircumstanceswhichalterthestructureoftheseorgans,givenmanyhabitswhichbecomesecondnature,etc.“Aslittleastherecanbetwohumanbeingswhoshareexactlythesameformandfacialtraits,justaslittlecantherebetwolanguagesinthemouthsoftwohumanbeingswhichwouldinfactstillbeonlyonelanguage,evenmerelyintermsofpronunciation.”Eachracewillbringintoitslanguagethesoundbelongingtoitshouseandfamily;thisbecomes,intermsofpronunciation,adifferentdialect.Climate[Klima],airandwater,foodanddrink,willhaveaninfluenceonthelinguisticorgansandnaturallyalsoonlanguage.Society’sethicsandthemightygoddessHabitwillsoonintroducethesepeculiaritiesandthosedifferencesinaccordancewithbehavioranddecency–adialect.–“AphilosophicalessayontheEasterners’relatedlanguages”wouldbethepleasantestproofofthesetheses.Thatwasonlypronunciation.Butwordsthemselves,sense,thesouloflanguage–whatanendlessfieldofdifferences.Wehaveseenhowtheoldestlanguagesnecessarilycametobefullofsynonyms.Andnow,when,ofthesesynonyms,thisonebecamemorefamiliartotheoneperson,thatonetotheotherperson,moreappropriatetohisviewpoint,moreoriginalforhiscircleofsensation,morefrequentlyoccurringinthecourseofhislife,inshort,ofgreaterinfluenceonhim–thentherearosefavoritewords,wordsofone’sown,idioms,linguisticidiom.Fortheformerpersonthatwordbecameextinguished,thiswordremained.Thatwordgotbentawayfromthemainsubjectthroughasecondaryviewpoint;herethespiritofthemainconceptitselfchangedB:adifferentdialectalready.ThewordKlimainHerdersometimesmeansclimate,ashere,butatothertimesitinsteadmeansclimeorregion,inwhichcasesIhavetranslateditclime.AtyetothertimesitishardtotellwhichmeaningHerderhasinmind,eitherbecausehehimselfhoversbetweenthetwomeaningsorbecauseinadequateguidancefromthecontextleavesthereaderdoingso–andinthesecasestooIhaveusedthetranslationclime,sincethiswordcanbeareithermeaningorbothtogetherinEnglish.ReadingwithSuphanjeneVerschiedenheiten.Inthissentence“that”and“this”evidentlydonotmean,astheyoftendoinGerman,formerandlatterbutineffectjusttheopposite,i.e.thewordsreferredtoas“that”and“this”intheprecedingremark“thisonebecamemorefamiliartotheoneperson,thatonetotheotherperson.”\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagewiththepassageoftime.Therehencearoseheredistinctivebendings,diversions,changes,promotionsandadditionsandtranspositionsandremovals,ofwholeandhalfmeanings–anewidiom!Andallthisasnaturallyaslan-guageisforthehumanbeingthesenseofhissoul.Thelivelieralanguageis,theneareritistoitsorigin,andhence[themore]itisstillintheperiodsofyouthandgrowth,thenthemorechange-ableitis.Ifthelanguageexistsonlyinbooks,whereitislearnedaccordingtorules,whereitisusedonlyinsciencesandnotinlivingintercourse,whereithasitssetnumberofobjectsandapplications,wherethereforeitsvocabularyisclosed,itsgrammarregulated,itsspherefixed–suchalanguagecanthemoreeasilyremainunchangedinwhatisnoticeable,andyetevenhereonlyinwhatisnoticeable.Butalanguageinsavage,freelife,intherealmofgreat,broadcreation,stillwithoutformallymintedrules,stillwithoutbooksandlettersandacceptedmasterpieces,poorandimperfectenoughstilltoneeddailyenrichment,andyouthfullysuppleenoughstilltobecapableofitatthefirsthintfromattentiveness,thefirstcommandfrompassionandsensation–thislanguageinevitablychangeswitheachnewworldthatisseen,witheachmethodinaccordancewithwhichpeoplethinkandprogressinthinking.Egyptianlawsofuniformitycannoteffecttheoppositehere.Nowitisobviousthatthewholefaceoftheearthismadeforthehumanspecies,andthehumanspeciesforthewholefaceoftheearth.(Idonotsaythateveryinhabitantoftheearth,everypeopleisimmediately,throughthemostsuddenleap,forthemostoppositeclime[Klima]andhenceforallzonesoftheworld,butthewholespeciesforthewholecircleoftheearth.)Whereverwelookaboutus,therethehumanbeingisasmuchathomeasthelandanimalswhichareoriginallydestinedforthisregion.HeenduresinGreenlandamidtheiceandroastsinGuineaundertheverticalsun;heisonhometurfwhenheglidesoverthesnowwithhisreindeerinLapland,andwhenhetrotsthroughtheArabdesertwithhisthirstycamel.ThecaveofthetroglodytesandthemountaintopsoftheKabyles,thesmokingfireplaceoftheOstyaksandthegoldenpalaceThissentenceseemstoloosentheconnectionwiththeprecedingparagraphthatwassustainedinthesentencebefore,“Thatword...here...”ineffectjustmeaning“Inthecaseofoneword...inthecaseofanother...”Kabyles:membersofagroupofBerbertribesinAlgeriaandTunisia.Ostyaks:membersofaFinno-UgricpeoplelivinginWesternSiberia.\nPhilosophyofLanguageoftheMogul,contain–humanbeings.Forthemistheearthflattenedatitspoleandraisedatitsequator,forthemdoestheearthrevolvearoundthesunasitdoesandnototherwise,forthemaretheearth’szonesandseasonsandchanges–andtheyintheirturnareforthezones,fortheseasons,andforthechangesoftheearth.Thisnaturallawishenceapparentheretoo:“Humanbeingsshouldliveeverywhereontheearth,whileeveryanimalspeciesmerelyhasitslandanditsnarrowersphere”;theearth-dwellerbecomesapparent.Andifthatisso,thenhislanguagebecomeslanguageoftheearthaswell.Anewlanguageineverynewworld,nationallanguageineverynation–Icannotrepeatalltheaforementioneddeterminingcausesofthechange–languagebecomesaProteusontheroundsurfaceoftheearth.SomerecentfashionablephilosophershavebeensounabletobindthisProteusandseehiminhistrueformthatithasseemedtothemmoreprobablethatnaturewasasabletocreateforeachlargeregionoftheearthapairofhumanbeingstofoundtribesasitwastocreatespecialanimalsforeachclime.Thesehumanbeingsthen–itisalleged–inventedforthemselvessucharegionalandnationallanguageoftheirownashadawholeconstructionthatwasmadeonlyforthisregion.Onthisaccount,thelittleLapp,withhislanguageandhisthinbeard,withhisskillsandhisspirit,isasmuchahumananimaloriginaltoLaplandashisreindeer[isananimaloriginaltoLapland];andtheNegro,withhisskin,withhisink-bubbleblackness,withhislips,andhair,andturkeylanguage,andstupidity,andlaziness,isanaturalbrotheroftheapesofthesameclime.Oneshould–itisalleged–aslittledreamupsimilaritybetweenthelanguagesoftheearthasbetweenthe[physical]formationsofthe[different]racesofhumanbeings.AnditwouldhavebeenaveryunwiseplanofGod’s–theaccountproceeds–tohaveputforth,soweakandtimid,apreyfortheelementsandanimals,onlyonepairofhumanbeingsintoonecorneroftheearthastribalparentsforthewholeearth,andtohaveabandonedthemtoathousandfoldhazardofdangers.Atleast–anopinionwhichassertslesscontinues–languageisanaturalproductofthehumanspiritwhichonlygraduallymovedtoforeignclimeswiththehumanspecies;henceitmustalsohavechangedonlygradually.Onewouldneedtoobservethesubtlealteration,themovementforth,andGaieridentifiesespeciallyVoltaireinhisEssaisurlesmoeursetl’espritdesnations[EssayontheEthicsandMindoftheNations]().ThisisanotherexampleofHerder’suseofbrachylogy,or“shortening.”B:anidentityoforigin.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagetherelatednessofpeoplesprogressinginconnectionwithoneanother,andtobeabletogiveoneselfanexactaccounteverywhereofmannerofthought,mannerofspeechordialect,andmanneroflifeintermsofsmallnuances.Butwhocandothat?Doesonenotfindinthesameclime,indeedrightnexttoeachother,inallpartsoftheworldlittlepeopleswhointhesamesortofcirclehavesuchdifferentandoppositelanguagesthateverythingbecomesaconfusingthicket?WhoeverhasreadtraveldescriptionsfromNorthandSouthAmerica,fromAfricaandAsia,doesnotneedtohavethetribesofthisthicketcountedouttohim.Sohere,thesedoubtersconclude,allhumaninvestigationcomestoanend.Andbecausethesepeoplemerelydoubt,Iwanttoattempttoshowthattheinvestigationdoesnotcometoanendhere,butthatthis“difference[betweenpeoples]rightnexttoeachothercanbeexplainedjustasnaturallyastheunityofthefamiliallanguageinonenation.”Thedivisionofthefamiliesintoseparatednationscertainlydoesnotproceedinaccordancewiththeslowandboringconnectionsbetweendistance,migration,newrelationship,andthatsortofthing,astheidle,coldphilosopher,compassesinhand,measures[them]onthemap,andas,intermsofthismeasurement,largebookshavebeenwritten“onrelatednessesofthepeoples,”whereineverythingistrueexcepttheruleinaccordancewithwhicheverythingwascalculated.Ifwetakealookattheliving,activeworld,therearemotivestherewhichmustverynaturallygiverisetothedifferenceoflanguageamongpeoplesneartoeachother–onlyletonenotwanttoforcethehumanbeingtochangeinaccordancewithsomepetsystem.HeisnoRousseauianforestman;hehaslanguage.HeisnoHobbesianwolf;hehasafamiliallanguage.Butinotherconnectionsheisalsonoprematurelamb.Sohecanformforhimselfanopposednature,habit,andlanguage.Inshort,“thebasisofthisdifferencebetweensuchnearlittlepeoplesinlanguage,mannerofthought,andmanneroflifeis–reciprocalfamilialandnationalhatred.”Withoutanyblackeningofhumannatureorstigmatizingofitashereti-cal,[wecansay,]ifwetransposeourselvesintotheirfamilialmannerofthought,[that]twoormoreneartribescannotdootherwisethansoonfindthingstoquarrelover.Itisnotmerelythatsimilarneedssoonentangletheminastruggleof–ifImayputitthisway–hungerandthirst,asforexampletwobandsofshepherdsquarreloverwellandpasture,andinviewofthe[physical]constitutionoftheirregionsoftheworldmayoftenverynaturallyquarrel.Amuchhottersparkkindlestheirfire:jealousy,\nPhilosophyofLanguagefeelingofhonor,prideintheirraceandtheirsuperiority.Thesamelikingforfamilywhich,turnedinwardonitself,gavestrengthtotheharmonyofasingletribe,turnedoutwardfromitself,againstanotherrace,producesstrengthofdissension,familialhatred!Intheformercaseitdrewmanyallthemorefirmlytogetherintoasinglewhole;inthelattercaseitmakestwopartiesimmediatelyintoenemies.Thebasisofthisenmityandtheseeternalwarsisinsuchacasemorenoblehumanweaknessthanbasevice.Sincehumanityonthislevelofcivilization[Bildung]hasmoreforcesofefficacythangoodsofpossession,itisalsothecasethatprideintheformerismorethepointofhonorthanmiserablepossessingofthelatter,asinlater,fiberlessages.Butinthatagetobeabravemanandtobelongtoabravefamilywerealmostthesamething,sincethesoninmanywaysevenmoretrulythanisthecasewithusinheritedandlearnedhisvirtueandbraveryfromhisfather,andthewholetribeingeneralsupportedabravemanonalloccasions.Hencetheslogansoonbecamenatural:Whoeverisnotwithandofusisbeneathus!Theforeignerisworsethanus,isabarbarian.Inthissense‘barbarian’wasthewatchwordofcontempt:aforeignerandsimultaneouslyamoreignoblepersonwhoisnotourequalinwisdomorbravery,orwhatevertheage’spointofhonormightbe.Now,indeed,asanEnglishmancorrectlynotes,ifwhatisatstakeismerelyselfishnessandsecurityofpossession,thenthisfact,thatourneighborisnotasbraveasweare,isnoreasonforhatred,butweshouldquietlyrejoiceaboutit.Butpreciselybecausethisopinionisonlyanopinion,andisthesameopinionofbothparties,whohavethesamefeelingfortheirtribe–preciselyherebythetrumpetofwarisblown!Thistouchesthehonor,thisawakenstheprideandcourage,ofthewholetribe!Heroesandpatriots[comeforth]frombothsides!Andbecausethecauseofthewaraffectedeachperson,andeachpersoncouldunderstandandfeelthiscause,thenationalhatredwasmadeeternalinperpetual,bitterwars.Andtherethesecondsynonymwasready:Whoeverisnotwithmeisagainstme.Barbarianandspitefulone!Foreigner,enemy!Asthewordhostisoriginally[illustrates]inthecaseoftheRomans!ddThethirdthingfollowedimmediately:completedivisionandsepara-tion.Whowantedtohaveanythingincommonwithsuchanenemy,theddVossius,Etymologicon[i.e.Etymologiconlinguaelatinae[EtymologicalDictionaryoftheLatinLanguage]()].GaierconjecturesthatHerdermeansHumeintheTreatiseofHumanNature.hostis:foreigner,enemy.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagecontemptiblebarbarian?Nofamilialcustoms,noremembranceofasingleorigin,andleastofalllanguage.Forlanguagewasactually“characteristicwordoftherace,bondofthefamily,toolofinstruction,herosongofthefathers’deeds,andthevoiceofthesefathersfromtheirgraves.”Languagecouldnotpossibly,therefore,remainofonekind,andsothesamefamilialfeelingthathadformedasinglelanguage,whenitbecamenationalhatred,oftencreateddifference,completedifferenceinlanguage.Heisabarbarian,hespeaksaforeignlanguage–thethird,sousualsynonym.Asinvertedastheetymologyofthesewordsmayseem,thehistoryofalllittlepeoplesandlanguages,whichareatissueinthisquestion,onthecontraryfullyprovesitstruth.Andthelayersofetymologyareonlyabstractions,notdivisionsinhistory.Allsuchnearpolyglotsaresimulta-neouslythefiercest,mostirreconcilableenemies–andindeed,notallfromdesiretorobandgreed,sinceforthemostparttheydonotplunder,butonlykillandlaywaste,andsacrificetotheshadesoftheirfathers.Shadesoftheirfathersarethedivinities,andthesoleinvisibledeiexmachina,ofthewholebloodyepic–asinthesongsofOssian.Itistheywhostirandstimulatetheleaderindreams,andforwhomhespendshisnightsawake;itistheywhosenameshiscompanionsnameinvowsandsongs;itistothemthatthecapturedareconsecratedinalltortures;anditisalsothey,ontheotherside,whostrengthenthetorturedoneinhissongsanddirges.“Familyhatredmadeeternal”ishencethecauseoftheirwars,oftheirsojealousseparationsintopeoples,whichareoftenscarcelyevenlikefamilies,andinallprobabilityalsoofthe“completedifferencesbetweentheircustomsandlanguages.”AnEasterndocumentaboutthedivisionofthelanguagesee–whichIcon-siderhereonlyasapoeticfragmentforthearchaeologyofthehistoryofpeoples–confirmsthroughaverypoeticnarrativewhatsomanynationsfromallpartsoftheworldconfirmthroughtheirexample.“Thelanguagesdidnotchangegradually,”asthephilosophermultipliesthemthroughmigrations;“thepeoplesunited,thepoemsays,foragreatwork;thenthefrenzyofconfusionandofthemultiplicityoflanguagesflowedoverthem,sothattheydesistedandseparated.”Whatwasthisbutarapidem-bittermentandquarrel,forwhichpreciselysuchagreatworkprovidedthericheststimulus?Therethespiritoffamilyawakened,insultedoneeMoses,bk.,ch..[I.e.Genesis.]ThisisclearlythesenseinB.InAthemeaningcouldalternativelybe:andindeed,allnot...\nPhilosophyofLanguagewhatwasperhapsatrivialoccasion.Allianceandpurposefoughtthem-selvestopieces.Thesparkofdisunityshotintoflames.Theyspedapart,andachieved“nowallthemoreviolentlywhattheyhadwantedtofore-stallthroughtheirwork:theyconfusedtheunitaryconstituentoftheirori-gin,theirlanguage.Inthiswaytherearosedifferentpeoples,andthere,thelaterreportsays,theruinsarestillcalled:confusionofthepeoples!”–WhoeverknowsthespiritoftheEasternersintheiroftensofar-fetchedclothings[oftheirideas]andtheirepic,miraculoushisto-ries(IdonotmeanheretoexcludefortheologyahigherProvidence),willperhapsnotfailtorecognizethemainthoughtthatismadesen-suous[here]:that“divisionoveragreatcommonpurpose,”andnotonlythemigrationofpeoples,becameacontributingcauseofsomanylanguages.SettingasidethisEasterntestimony(which,moreover,Ionlyinfactmeanttocitehereasapoem),oneseesthatthemultiplicityoflanguagescanconstitutenoobjectiontothenaturalandhumancharacterofthefurtherformationofalanguage.Tobesure,mountainscanberaiseduphereandtherebyearthquakes,butdoesit,then,followfromthisthattheearthasawhole,withitsmountainrangesandriversandseas,cannothavewonitsformfromwater?–Only,indeed,justthesameconsiderationalsoimposesonetymologistsandethnographersausefulconstrainttocaution,“nottoinfertoodespoticallyfromdissimilaritiesinlanguagestotheirgenealogy.”Familiescanbeverycloselyrelatedandyethavehadcausetosuppresstherelatednessoftheircoatsofarms.Thespiritofsuchlittlepeoplesgivessufficientcauseforthis.Fourthnaturallaw“Justasinallprobabilitythehumanspecies[Geschlecht]constitutesasingleprogressivewholewithasingleorigininasinglegreathousehold-economy,likewisealllanguagestoo,andwiththemthewholechainofcivilization[Bildung].”Genesis:.IhavehadtovarythetranslationsofthewordsGeschlecht,Bildung,andtheircompounds/cognatesoverthecourseofthenextfewparagraphstoanunusualextentinordertomakeclearwhatItaketobeHerder’ssense.ThereadercanifneedbeseehowthishasbeendonebyfollowingtheGermaninsquarebrackets.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageThedistinctivecharacteristicplanwhichgovernsahumanbeinghasbeenpointedout:hissoulhasthehabitofalwaysrankingwhatitseeswithwhatithasseen,andtherethusarisesthroughawareness“aprogressiveunityofallconditionsoflife.”Hence,furtherformation[Fortbildung]oflanguage.Thedistinctivecharacteristicplanwhichgovernsahumanrace[Menschengeschlecht]hasbeenpointedout:thatthroughthechainofin-structionparentsandchildrenbecomeone,andhenceeachlinkonlygetsshovedbynaturebetweentwoothersinordertoreceiveandtocommu-nicate.Therebyarises“furtherformationoflanguage.”Finally,thisdistinctiveplanalsocontinuestothewholehumanspecies[Menschengeschlecht],andtherebyarises“afurtherformationinthehighestmeaningoftheexpression”whichfollowsimmediatelyfromthetwopreceding.Eachindividualisahumanbeing;consequently,hecontinuestothinkforthewholechainofhislife.Eachindividualisasonordaughter,wasedu-cated[gebildet]throughinstruction;consequently,healwaysinheritedashareofthethought-treasuresofhisancestorsearlyon,andwillpassthemdowninhisownwaytoothers.Henceinacertainwaythereis“nothought,noinvention,noperfectionwhichdoesnotreachfurther,almostadinfinitum.”JustasIcanperformnoaction,thinknothought,thatdoesnothaveanaturaleffectonthewholeimmeasurablesphereofmyexistence,likewiseneitherInoranycreatureofmykind[Gattung]candosowithoutalsohavinganeffectwitheach[actionorthought]forthewholekindandforthecontinuingtotalityofthewholekind.Each[actionorthought]alwaysproducesalargeorsmallwave:eachchangestheconditionoftheindividualsoul,andhencethetotalityoftheseconditions;alwayshasaneffectonothers,changessomethingintheseaswell–thefirstthoughtinthefirsthumansoulisconnectedwiththelastthoughtinthelasthumansoul.Iflanguagewereasinnatetothehumanbeingasproducinghoneyistobees,thenthisgreatestandmostsplendidofbuildingswouldimmediatelyfallapartinruins!Eachpersonwouldbringhislittlebitoflanguageintotheworldforhimself,orrather,since“bringingintotheworld”fora[facultyof]reasonmeansnothingbutinventinglanguageforitselfimmediately–whatasadisolatedthingeachhumanbeingbecomes!Eachoneinventshisownrudiments,diesatworkonthem,andtakesthemintohisgrave,likethebeeitsskilledproducing;thesuccessorcomes,tortureshimselfworkingonthesamebeginnings,getsexactlyasfar,orexactly\nPhilosophyofLanguageaslittledistance,dies–andsoitgoesonadinfinitum.Oneseesthat“theplanthatholdsfortheanimals,whoinventnothing,cannotholdforcreatureswhomustinvent”–otherwiseitbecomesaplanlessplan!Ifeachcreatureinventsbyandforitselfalone,thenuselesseffortgetsincreasedadinfinitumandtheinventingunderstandinggetsrobbedofitsbestprize,thatofgrowing.WhatsortofreasoncouldIhaveforstoppingsomewhereinthechain,insteadof,aslongasIperceivethesameplan,alsoinferringbackintimeaboutlanguage?IfIcameintotheworldinordertoneedtoenterimmediatelyintomyfamily’sinstruction,thenlikewisemyfather,likewisethefirstsonofthefirstfatherofthetribe;andjustasIspreadmythoughtsaboutmeandamongmysuccessors,likewisemyfather,likewisethefatherofhistribe,likewisethefirstofallfathers.Thechaingoesonandonlystops“withone,thefirst”;inthisway,weareallhissons,fromhimbeginspecies,instruction,language.Hebegantheprocessofinvention;wehaveallinvented,formed,anddeformedinhiswake.Nothoughtinahumansoulwaslost,butnorwasasingleskillofthisspecieseverpresentinitsentiretystraightaway,asinthecaseoftheanimals:“inaccordancewiththewholeeconomy”itwasalwaysinprogress,inmotion–nothinginventedlikethe[bee’s]productionofacell,buteverythinginprocessofinvention,inprocessofproducingfurthereffects,striving.Fromthispointofviewhowgreatathinglanguageturnsouttobe!“Atreasureroomofhumanthoughtstowhicheachpersoncontributedsomethinginhisownway!Anepitomeoftheefficacyofallhumansouls.”“Atmost,”–intervenesheretheprecedingphilosophywhichwouldliketoconsiderthehumanbeingasapropertyoflandanddomain–“atmost,though,surely,thischainmayreachonlyasfaraseachin-dividualfirsttribalfatherofalandfromwhomitsrace,likeitsnativelanguage,wasborn.”ffIcannotseewhyitshouldonlyreachthatfarandnotfurther,whythesefathersoflandscouldnotinturnhavehadamongffPhilosophiedel’histoireetc.etc.[ThisisanallusiontoVoltaire,Laphilosophiedel’histoire[ThePhilosophyofHistory]().]Theexpression“aplanlessplan”isanexampleoftherhetoricalfigureofdeliberateoxymoron–especiallyfavoredintheancientworldbyAeschylus.a:Now,what...(ThisisprobablywhatHerderintendedinAaswell,nungettingchangedtoumbyerror.)ThissentenceprovidesastrikingexampleofHerder’sreadinesstodepartfromnormalgrammarwhenitseemstohimdesirabletodoso–inthiscasemainlyforreasonsofeuphony.Hewriteswirallehabenihmnacherfunden,bildenundmißbildenwhereasnormalgrammarwouldrequiresomethinglikewirallehabenihmnacherfunden,-gebildetund-mißbildet.Thisisanotherexampleofanadiplosis.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguagethemafatheroftheearth,since“thewholecontinuingsimilarityofthehousehold-economyofthisspeciesdemandsthatthisbeso.”Ofcourse,weheardtheobjection:“Asifitwouldhavebeenwisetoexposeoneweak,wretchedhumanpairinacorneroftheearthasapreyfordanger!”Andasifitwouldhavebeenwisertosetmanysuchweakhumanpairsseparatelyindifferentcornersoftheearthaspreyfortenfoldworsedangers!Thecircumstanceofrecklesslackofforethoughtisnotmerelyeverywherethesame,butalsogetsendlesslyincreasedwitheveryincreaseinnumbers.Ahumanpairanywhereinthebest,mostcomfortableclimeoftheearth,wheretheclimateisleastrigorousontheirnakedness,wherethefruitfulsoilofitselfbenefitstheneedsoftheirinexperience,whereeverythingis,sotospeak,setoutroundaboutlikeaworkshopinordertocometotheaidofthechildhoodoftheirarts–isthispairnotmorewiselyprovidedforthananyotherhumanlandanimalthat,undertheunfriendliestskyinLaplandorGreenland,surroundedbythewholepovertyofnaked,frozennature,isexposedtotheclawsofequallypoor,hungry,andall-the-more-cruelanimals,andhencetoinfinitelymoredifficulties?Thecertaintyofpreservationhencediminishesthemoretheoriginalhumanbeingsoftheearthgetincreasedbypairs.Andthen,howlongdoesthepairinthemorefavorableclimeremainonepair?Itsoonbecomesafamily,thensoonasmallpeople,andwhennowitspreadsasapeople–itentersanotherland–italreadyentersasapeople–howmuchwiser!,howmuchmorecertain!Manyinnumber,withhardenedbodies,withtriedandtestedsouls,indeedwiththeinheritanceoftheirancestors’wholetreasureofexperiences–howmultiplystrengthenedandincreasedthustheirsouls!Nowtheyarecapableofperfectingthemselvessoonintolandcreaturesofthisregion!Inashorttimetheybecomeasnativeastheanimalsoftheclimewiththeirmanneroflife,mannerofthought,andlanguage.Butdoesnotpreciselythisprove“thenaturalprogressofthehumanspirit,whichstartingfromacertainmid-pointcanformitselfforeverything”?Itneverturnsonamassofmerenumbersbutonthevalidityandprogres-sionoftheirmeaning,neveronamassofweaksubjectsbutonforceswithwhichtheyoperate.Theseoperatemoststronglypreciselyinthesimplestcontext;andsoonlythosebondsencompassthewholespecieswhichproceedfromasinglepointofattachment.Ishallgointonofurtherargumentsforthisorigininasinglestem-tribe–forexample,thatnotrueevidentialdatahaveyetbeenfoundofnewhumankindswhichwoulddeservethisnameliketheanimalkinds;\nPhilosophyofLanguagethattheobviouslygradualandprogressivepopulationoftheearthshowsexactlytheoppositeofnativelandanimals;thatthechainofcultureandofsimilarhabitsshowsitaswell,onlymoreobscurely,etc.Ishallremainwithlanguage.Ifhumanbeingswerenationalanimalssothateachsuchanimalhadinventeditsownlanguageforitselfquiteindependentlyandseparatelyfromothers,thenthislanguagewouldcertainlyhavetodisplay“adifferenceintype,”suchastheinhabitantsofSaturnandoftheearthmayperhapshavevis-a-viseachother.Andyetitisobviousthatwith`useverythingdevelopsonasinglebasis.Onasinglebasisconcerningnotonlytheformbutalsotheactualcourseofthehumanspirit,foramongallpeoplesoftheearthgrammarisconstructedinalmostasinglemanner.AsfarasIknow,onlytheChineselanguageconstitutesanessentialexception–whichIamveryconfidentofexplainingasanexception,however.“HowmanyChinesegrammars,andhowmanytypesofthem,therewouldhavetobeiftheearthhadbeenfulloflanguage-inventinglandanimals!”Whatexplainsthefactthatsomanypeopleshaveanalphabetandyetthereisalmostonlyonealphabetonthefaceoftheearth?Thestrangeanddifficultthoughtofformingarbitrarysignsforoneselffromthecom-ponentsofarbitrarywords,fromsounds,issuchaleap,socomplicated,sostrange,thatitwouldcertainlybeinexplicablehowmanyandsomanywouldhavehituponthesamesoremotethought,andhowallofthemwouldhavedonesoexactlyinthesameway.Thattheyallignoredthemuchmorenaturalsigns,thepicturesofthings,anddepictedbreaths,amongallpossiblebreathsdepictedthesametwenty,andresortedtopoorexpedientsvis-a-vis`theothermissingones,thatsomanyusedthesamearbitrarysignsforthesetwenty–doesnottraditionbecomeapparenthere?TheEasternalpha-betsareatbottomone;theGreek,theLatin,theRunic,theGerman,etc.arederivatives;hencetheGermanstillhaslettersincommonwiththeCoptic,andIrishmenhavebeenboldenoughtodeclareHomertobeatranslationfromtheirlanguage.Who,howevermuchorlittlehecountsonit,canentirelyfailtoperceiverelatednessinthebasisofthelanguages?“Justastherelivesonlyasinglehumanpeopleonearth,likewiseonlyasinglehumanlanguage;butjustasthisgreatkindhasnationalizeditselfintosomanylittletypesspecifictoaland,likewisetheirlanguagesnodifferently.”“Tradition”againwithitsetymologicalmeaningofhandingover,handingdown.Onlytheopening(emphatic)quotationmarksareprintedinGaier’stext;thelocationoftheclosingonesisthereforeconjectural.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageManyhavemadeattemptsat“genealogiesoftheselanguagespecies.”Ishallnotattemptit–forhowmany,manyincidentalcausescouldhaveproducedchangesinthisdescentandintherecognizabilityofthisdescentwhichtheetymologizingphilosophercannotanticipateandwhichdeceivehisgenealogy.Inaddition,therehavebeensofewtruephilosophersoflanguageamongthetraveldescribersandeventhemissionarieswhocouldhavegivenusorwouldhavewantedtogiveusinformationaboutthegeniusandthecharacteristicbasisoftheirnativepeoples’languagesthatoneingeneralstillgoesastrayhere.Theygivelistsofwords–andfromthisjumbleofsoundsoneissupposedtoinfer!Also,therulesofatruedeductionoflanguagearesosubtlethatfew...Butallthisisnotmytask!Overall,thenaturallawremainsclear:“Languagereproducesitselfandformsitselffurtherwiththehumanspecies.”UnderthislawIshallenumerateonlymaintypeswhichaddadifferentdimension.I.Eachhumanbeinghas,tobesure,alltheabilitiesthathiswholespecieshas,andeachnationtheabilitiesthatallnationshave.However,itisneverthelesstruethatasocietyinventsmorethanahumanbeing,andthewholehumanspeciesinventsmorethanasinglepeople–andthisindeednotmerelyasaresultofthequantityofheadsbutasaresultofthemanyfoldandintensiveincreaseofrelationalcircumstances.Oneshouldthinkthatalonelyhumanbeing,withoutpressingneeds,withallcomfortinhismanneroflife,wouldforexampleinventmuchmorelanguage,thathisleisurewouldstimulatehimtoexercisehisforcesofsoul,andhenceconstantlytothinkupsomethingnew,etc.Buttheoppositeisclear.Withoutsocietyhewillalwaysinacertainmannergotoseedandsoonlanguishininactivityoncehehasonlyfirstputhimselfinthestrategic,middlingpositionforsatisfyinghismostessentialneeds.Heisalwaysaflowerwhich,tornfromitsroots,brokenfromitsstem,liesthereandwithers.Sethimintosocietyandmoreneeds,lethimhavetotakecareofhimselfandothers.Oneshouldthinkthatthesenewburdenswouldrobhimofthefreedomtoraisehimselfup,thatthisincreaseofinconvenienceswouldrobhimoftheleisuretoinvent.Butpreciselythecontrary.Needmakeshimstretch,inconvenienceawakenshim,restlessnesskeepshissoulinmotion;hewilldomore,themoreamazingitbecomesthathedoesit.Inthisway,therefore,thefurtherformationofalanguagealreadyincreasesfroma[solitary]individualtoaBomits“forexample.”\nPhilosophyofLanguagehumanbeingwhobelongstoafamilyinaveryhighratio.Settingeverythingelseaside,howlittlethelonelyperson–eventhelonelyphilosopheroflanguage–onadesolateislandwouldinfactinvent!Howmuchmoreandmorestronglythetribalfather,themanwhobelongstoafamily.Naturehashencechosenthisfurtherformation.II.Anindividual,separatedfamily,onewouldthink,willbeabletodevelopitslanguagemoreincomfortandleisurethanindistractions,waragainstanothertribe,etc.Butnothingcouldbefurtherfromthetruth.Themoreitisturnedagainstothers,thenthemorestronglyitiscompressedwithinitself,themoreitcentersitselfonitsroot,makesitsancestors’deedsintosongs,intocallstoaction,intoeternalmonuments,preservesthislinguisticremembrancethatmuchmorepurelyandpatriotically–thefurtherformationoflanguage,asthedialectofthe[familial]fathers,progressesthatmuchmorestrongly.Thatiswhynaturehaschosenthisfurtherformation.III.Butwithtimethistribe,whenithasgrownintoalittlenation,also“getsstuckinitscircle.”Ithasitsmeasuredcircleofneeds,andlanguageforthesetoo–furtheritdoesnotgo,aswecanseefromthecaseofalllittle,so-calledbarbarousnations.Separatedwiththeirnecessities,theycanremaininthestrangestignoranceforcenturies,likethoseislandswithoutfireandsomanyotherpeopleswithouttheeasiestofmechanicalarts.Itisasthoughtheydidnothaveeyestoseewhatliesbeforethem.Hence,then,theoutcryofotherpeoplesaboutsuchpeoplesasstupid,inhumanbarbarians;whereasinfactwewerealljustthesamebarbariansashorttimeagoandonlyreceivedthesepiecesofknowledgefromotherpeoples!Hencealsotheoutcryofmanyphilosophersaboutthisstupidityasthemostincomprehensiblething;whereasinfactinaccordancewiththeanalogyofthewholehousehold-management[ofnature]withourspeciesnothingismorecomprehensiblethanthis!–Herenaturehaslinkedanewchain:traditionfrompeopletopeople!“Inthiswayarts,sciences,culture,andlanguagehaverefinedthemselvesinagreatprogressionoverthecourseofnations”–thefinestbondoffurtherformationthatnaturehaschosen.WeGermanswouldstill,liketheAmericans,livequietlyinourforests,orratherstillroughlywarandbeheroesinthem,ifthechainofI.e.nativeAmericans.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageforeignculturehadnotpressedsoneartousandcompelleduswiththeforceofwholecenturiestoparticipateinit.TheRomangothisculture[Bildung]fromGreeceinthisway,theGreekreceiveditfromAsiaandEgypt,EgyptfromAsia,ChinaperhapsfromEgypt–thusthechainpro-ceedsonfromafirstringandwillperhapssomedaystretchovertheearth.TheartthatbuiltaGreekpalacealreadyshowsitselfwiththesavageinthebuildingofaforesthut;justasthepaintingofMengsandDietrichalreadyinitsmostprimitivebasisshoneonthered-paintedshieldofHermann.TheEskimoinfrontofhisarmyalreadyhasalltheseedsforafutureDemosthenes,andthatnationofsculptorsontheAmazonriverggperhapsathousandfuturePhidiases.Onlyletothernationsmoveaheadandthoseonesturnback–theneverything,atleastinthetemperatezones,isasintheancientworld.EgyptiansandGreeksandRomansandmodernsdidnothingbutbuildahead;Persians,Tatars,Goths,andpriestsinterfereandproduceruins;allthemorefreshlydoesbuildingproceedfurtherfromandafterandonsucholdruins.Thechainofacertainperfectionofartprogressesovereverything(althoughothernaturalpropertiesbycontrastonthecontrarysuffer)andlikewiseoverlanguageaswell.TheArabiclanguageiscertainlyahundredtimesfinerthanitsmotherinthefirst,primitivebeginning;ourGermancertainlyfinerthantheoldCeltic;thegrammaroftheGreekswasabletobeandbecomebetterthantheEasterngrammar,foritwasthelatter’sdaughter;theRomangrammarmorephilosophicalthantheGreek,theFrenchmorethantheRoman.Isthedwarfontheshouldersofthegiantnotalwaystallerthanthegianthimself?Nowoneseesimmediatelyhowdeceptivetheproofofthedivinityoflanguagefromitsorderandbeautyturnsouttobe.Orderandbeautyarethere.Butwhen,how,andwhencedidtheycome?Isthissoadmiredlanguagetheoriginallanguage,then?OrnotalreadythechildofwholeggDelaCondamine.A.R.Mengs(–),painterandauthor.C.W.E.Dietrich(–),painter.B:D¨urer.Klopstock,HermannsSchlacht[Hermann’sBattle],scene.Thetextisproblematichere.ItlooksasthoughHerderinitiallywroteuberalles¨,“overeverything,”meaning“througheverything,”“whatevertheobstacles,”butthenpausedinhiswritingandwhenheresumedmisreadhimselfashavingmeantitratherinthesense“abouteverything,”“concerningeverysubject”–asensewhichhethenpresupposedinthephrasetranslatedhere“andlikewiseoverlanguageaswell.”Thephrase“tobeandbecome”isanexampleoftherhetoricalfigureofhysteronproteron,or“laterearlier.”afootnoteshere:Su¨ßmilch,section.\nPhilosophyofLanguagecenturiesandmanynations?Behold!Nationsandregionsoftheworldandageshavebuiltatthisgreatbuilding.Andbecauseofitthatpoorhutcouldnothavebeentheoriginoftheartofarchitecture?Becauseofitagodimmediatelyhadtoteachhumanbeingstobuildsuchapalace?Becausehumanbeingscouldnothavebuiltsuchapalacestraightaway?Whataninference!Andwhataninferenceitisingeneraltosay:Idonotcompletelyunderstandthisgreatbridgebetweentwomountains,howitisbuilt–consequently,thedevilbuiltit!Ittakesahighdegreeofdaringorignorancetodenythatlanguageformeditselfprogressivelywiththehumanspeciesinalllevelsandchanges.Thatisshownbyhistoryandpoetry,oratoryandgrammar–and,ifnothingelse,reason.Didlanguage,then,eternallyformitselfprogressivelyinthiswayandneverbegintoformitself?Ordiditalwaysformitselfhumanly,sothatreasoncouldnotfunctionwithoutitanditcouldnotfunctionwithoutreason,andthensuddenlyitsbeginningisdifferent?Andmoreover,differentassense-lesslyandgroundlesslyasweshowedatthebeginning?Inanycasethehypothesisofadivineorigininlanguageturnsouttobe–implicit,subtlenonsense!Irepeatthedeliberatelyspokenhardword:nonsense!AndIwant,incon-clusion,toexplainmyself.Whatdoesadivineoriginoflanguagemeanbuteither:“Icannotexplainlanguagefromhumannature,consequentlyitisdivine.”–Doesthisinferencemakesense?Theopponentsays:“Icanexplainitfromhumannature,andfullyso.”Whohassaidmore?Theformerhidesbehindascreenandcallsforth“Godishere!”;thelatterstandsvisibleonthestage,acts–“Behold!Iamahumanbeing!”Orahigheroriginsays:“BecauseIcannotexplainhumanlanguagefromhumannature,nooneatallcanexplainit–itisentirelyinexplicable.”–Doesthisinferencefollow?Theopponentsays:“Noelementoflanguageinitsbeginningorineachofitsstepsofprogressisincomprehensibletomeintermsofthehumansoul;indeed,thewholehumansoulbecomesinexplicabletomeifIdonotpositlanguageinit;thewholehumanspeciesnolongerremainsthenaturalspecies[thatitis]ifitdoesnotprogressivelyformlanguage.”Whohassaidmore?Whotalkssense?Theorscorrelativewiththiseithercomeinthenexttwoparagraphs.Theprintedtext,injederihrerProgreßion,isjustpossible,takingihrerasafemininesingularpersonalpronouninthegenitive,butitseemsmorelikelythatweshouldreadProgreßionen.Theresultingsenseisalmostthesameeitherway,however.\nTreatiseontheOriginofLanguageOrfinally,thehigherhypothesisevensays:“Notonlycannooneun-derstandlanguageintermsofthehumansoul,butIalsoseedistinctlythereasonwhy,accordingtoitsnatureandtheanalogyoftheirspecies,itwascompletelyuninventableforhumanbeings.Indeed,IseedistinctlyinlanguageandintheessenceofthedeitythereasonwhynoonebutGodwasabletoinventit.”–Nowtheinferencewouldbecomelogical,certainly;butitalsonowbecomesthemosthorriblenonsense.ItbecomesasprobativeasthatproofoftheTurksforthedivinityoftheKoran:“WhootherthantheprophetofGodcouldhavewritteninthisway?”AndalsowhootherthanaprophetofGodcanknowthatonlytheprophetofGodcouldhavewritteninthisway?NooneexceptGodcouldhaveinventedlanguage!ButalsonooneexceptGodcangraspthatnooneexceptGodcouldhaveinventedit!Andwhathandcanbesoboldastomeasureagainsteachothernotonlyperhapslanguageandthehumansoulbutalsolanguageanddeity?Ahigheroriginhasnothingspeakingforit,noteventhetestimonyoftheEasterntexttowhichitappeals,forthistextclearlygiveslanguageahumanbeginningthroughthenamingoftheanimals.Humaninventionhaseverythingspeakingforitandnothingatallagainstit:essenceofthehumansoulandelementoflanguage;analogyofthehumanspeciesandanalogyoftheadvancesoflanguage–thegreatexampleofallpeoples,times,andpartsoftheworld!Thehigherorigin,aspiousasitmayseem,isentirelyirreligious;witheachstepitdiminishesGodthroughthelowest,mostimperfectanthro-pomorphisms.ThehumanoriginshowsGodinthegreatestlight:Hiswork,ahumansoul,creatingandcontinuingtocreatealanguagethroughitselfbecauseitisHiswork,ahumansoul.Thehumansoulbuildsforitselfthissenseofreasonasacreator,asanimageofHisnature.Theoriginoflanguagehenceonlybecomesdivineinaworthymannerinsofarasitishuman.Thehigheroriginisuselessandextremelyharmful.Itdestroysallefficacyofthehumansoul,explainsnothing,andmakeseverything,allpsychologyandallsciences,inexplicable.Forhavehumanbeings,then,withlanguagereceivedalltheseedsofformsofknowledgefromGod?Sonothingcomesfromthehumansoul?Sothebeginningofeveryart,science,andformofknowledgeisalwaysunintelligible?Thehumanoriginletsnostepbetakenwithoutprospects,andthemostfruitfulexplanationsinall\nPhilosophyofLanguagepartsofphilosophy,andinalltypesandgenresoflanguage.Theauthorhassuppliedafewhereandcansupplyalotofthem.∗Howhappyhewouldbeifwiththistreatiseheweretodisplaceahypoth-esisthat,consideredfromallsides,causesthehumansoulonlyfoganddishonor,andmoreoverhasdonesofortoolong!ForjustthisreasonhehastransgressedthecommandoftheAcademyandsuppliednohypothesis.Forwhatwouldbetheuseofhavingonehypothesisoutweighorcoun-terbalancetheother?Andhowdopeopleusuallyregardwhateverhastheformofahypothesisbutasaphilosophicalnovel–Rousseau’s,Condillac’s,andothers’?Hepreferredtowork“atcollectingfirmdatafromthehumansoul,humanorganization,thestructureofallancientandsavagelanguages,andthewholehousehold-economyofthehumanspecies,”andatprovinghisthesisinthewaythatthefirmestphilosophicaltruthcanbeproved.HethereforebelievesthatwithhisdisobediencehehasachievedthewilloftheAcademymorethanitcouldotherwisehavebeenachieved.\nPartIIIPhilosophyofMind\n\nOnThomasAbbt’sWritings()[selectionsconcerningpsychology]Ahumansoulisanindividualintherealmofminds[Geister]:itsensesinaccordancewithanindividualformation[Bildung],andthinksinaccor-dancewiththestrengthofitsmentalorgans.Througheducationthesehavereceivedacertain,eithergoodornegative,directionoftheirownaccordingtothesituationofcircumstanceswhichformedordeformedinthecaseinquestion.Sointhiswayourmannerofthoughtgetsformed,becomesawholebodyinwhichthenaturalforcesare,sotospeak,thespecificmasswhichtheeducationofhumanbeingsshapes.Afteracertainnumberofyearsofformationalaterlearningisseldomable,asIbelieve,tocauseanewcreation,seldomabletotransformshapeandmass,butallthemorerecognizablycanittakeeffectonthesurfacethroughmanifoldphenomena,lendandtakeandemphasizecoating,vestment,andbearingandpropriety.Mylongallegoryhassucceededifitachievestherepresen-tationofthemindofahumanbeingasanindividualphenomenon,asararitywhichdeservestooccupyoureyes.Butitwouldbeevenbetterif,throughthisallegory,asthroughamagicalspell,Iwerealsoabletoopenoureyestosee,toobserve,mindslikecorporealphenomena.Ourpsychologyisstillnotyetfarbeyondchildhoodwhenitcontinuesonitswaythroughinferencesandconjecturesmerelyinaccordancewiththemostfamiliarelementwhichallhumansoulshaveincommon,withoutpayingattentiontothepeculiaritiesofindividualsubjectswiththepreci-sionwhichthenaturalscientistappliesindissectingthebodiesofanimalsinordertostealintotheinnerworkshopofnature.Monsters,congenitalGeistcouldalternativelybe,andinwhatfollowssometimesis,translated“spirit.”\nPhilosophyofMinddeformities,raritiesareforthenaturalscientistwelcome,instructive,anduseful;andsoshouldbeforthephilosopherallextraordinarymindswhoflareupanddisappearlikecomets.IfoursystematicphilosophersinthetheoryofthemindareLinnaeuseswhostubbornlystratifyandclassify,thenthereshouldbemadetoaccompanythemanunsystematicheadwho,likeBuffon,stubbornlydisruptstheirclassesanddissectsindividuals.ButhereImustsay:Whichhumanbeingknowswhatisinthehumanbeingexceptitbethehumanmindinhim?Andeventhisonlyknowsitself,asweknowourface,intuitivelybutnotdistinctly.Withalivelybutconfusedconsciousnessofourselvesweproceedforthasthoughinadreamofwhichonepieceandanotheroccurstousonlyasoccasionallows,tornoff,inadequate,withoutconnection.Weourselvesoftenpaynoattentiontoourthoughts;but–asinPlatonicrecollectionfromtherealmofminds–werecognizeourselvesatthemomentwhenanotherpersonexhibitsthoughtswhichseemtakenfromourownsoul.Weour-selvescannotfullyanswerthequestionofhowourvisageisshaped,butwewillnodoubtgiveagreatstartifanimageofourselves,asecondI,weretoconfrontus.ThusdidSocratesfindhimselfpinneddownwhenthephysiognomistreadinhissoul;butheshookhisheadwhenhesawwhatPlatoclaimedtofindinhim.Ipassoverthewholedarkfoundationofoursoul,inwhoseunfathomabledepthsunknownforcessleeplikeun-bornkings,inwhich,asinanearthenrealmcoveredwithsnowandice,thegermmoldersforaspringtimeofparadisiacalthoughts,inwhich,asindarkashes,thesparkglowsforgreatpassionsanddrives.HowtheresuddenlyarisesheretheideawhereinIthinktomyselftheimageofthedeity:Hewhosummonsthemorningstarsandthespirits[Geister]bytheirnames,whoknowsthethoughtfromafarbeforeitisborn–onlyHe,theCreator,knowsasoulcreatedbyHim!If,then,ourphilosophersdonotyetsofrequentlyattemptthiscogni-tionofindividualminds[Geister],anotherpersonhasmoreopportunityanddutyforthis:thehistorian.Andhewhoknowshowtosee,tosketch,torepresentahumansoulinitswholemannerofthoughthasdonemorethanthatpainterofthesoul,ParrhasiusorAristides.Butontheotherhand,youcanbesurethatImeansomethingdifferentherefromwhatourSeetheMeno,cff.,thefamousslave-boypassage;alsoPhaedo,aff.CiceroreportsthatthephysiognomistZopyrosreadvicesinSocrates’facialtraitswhichSocratesconfirmedashisnaturalflawsbutclaimedtohavesuppressedthroughrationalknowledge.Famouspaintersintheancientworld.\nOnThomasAbbt’sWritingscleverneighborscallcharacter-sketchesandportraits–vignetteswhichhavescarcelyeverbeendrawnbytruthbutratherbyartifice,whicharesketchedfromtheimaginationandnotaccordingtonature,andwhicharepaintedoutbyachildishmindthatoftenonlyaimstogiveitselfpleasurebymeansofalternatingshadowpicturesonthewallandtoover-whelmtheviewer’seyebymeansoffuriouscontrasts.ItannoysmewhenIheararecentGermanauthorgetcalledsobold,apragmatichistorianofourcentury,merelybecausehehasstuckafewsuchFrenchvignettesontohisdryandbroken-backedskeleton,inquitethewrongplace.Abiographer,ifhewantstodeservethisname,mustaboveallknowhowtodraw[reißen]theformofhisherofromhisvisage,sotospeak.Andsince,aswasindicatedpreviously,wedonotevenknowourselvesfromwithin,andwecouldthereforehardlybecomeperfectbiographersofourselvesevenifwewerealllikeMontaigne,itfollowsthatthehistorianmustallthemorestudyhisauthorfromwithoutinordertoscoutouthissoulinwordsanddeeds.Inthiswayhesketchestheimageofthesunnotfromitsshiningvisagebutafteritsreflectioninwater.Thisisthegreatdistinguishingmarkthatseparatesthebiographersofancientandmoderntimesmilesapartfromeachother:theformershowustheirsubjectinactionsanddeedswhich,rightdowntothesmallestnuances,betrayhissoul,whereasthemodernbiographersthemselvesdepictforushischaracter,whichisoftenafictionoftheirsandmoreoftenafictionoftheirauthor’s.Iknowverywellthereasonswhytheancientswerebetterablethanwetobebiographersofthesoul;butifIweretowritealife,thenIwouldeitheremulatethemand,insteadoftalkingmyself,makedeedsdothetalking,or,ifafterallIfellshortofthem,Iwouldreadilywriteinprefacetomywork:“Someeventsfromthelife...asIknowthem,andhischaracterasitappearstotheformandweaknessofmyeyes.”Whatallisnotrequiredforabiographerwhowantstosetthetrueimageofhisauthor,neitherbeautified,nordistorted,norunresembling,initstrueplaceintheorderofminds?AsRousseauknewthesonofhisimagination,thewonderfulEmile,beforehisbirthandinthemarriagebed,likewisethebiographerwouldhavetohaveaccompaniedhisfriendI.e.theFrench.I.e.K.R.Hausen(–),Germanhistorian.Herderispunningontwodifferentsensesofreißeninawaythatisapproximatelyreproducedbytodraw.Cf.Phaedo,d–e.\nPhilosophyofMindthroughallthescenesofhislife,andtohavebecometheintimateofhissecrets;andyethewouldhavetobeableconstantlytoobservehimforeignlylikealeisurelyobserverinordertofolloweverymomentwithattention.Hewouldhavetojudgewithoutbiaslikeajudgeofthedead;andyet–doesitnotalmostrequireasmalldegreeoflove-struckenthusiasmtoimprintone’ssubjectsufficientlyintoone’simaginationthatonecanafterwardssketchhisimageasthoughoutofone’shead?Andifthisimageissupposedtobesketchedoutofone’shead,howeasyisit[not]thenforsapstoflowupfromtheheart’schambertotouchitupandpaintitout?Itgetsmintedinourmind,andbehold!ourownstampmakesitsmarkonitfrombelowandinterfereswiththeother’straits.Iamcitingafewabsolutedifficulties;thepossibleoneswillalreadybefeltbyeverypersonwhohaseveronlysomuchashadthethoughtofwritingalife.Iwouldperhapshavebegunthingstoofarbackwithmylong,heavyprefaceifIwerenottakingpreciselythisstrangepathinordertosaythatmuchmoredistinctlyhowmuchIoughttosupplyandhowlittleIcansupply.Abbthasportrayedhimself,butonlyasanauthor;soIamconsideringonlyonesideofhismind,thescholarlythinking,withoutundertakingtosketchhishumanthinking.Iknowthatbothsidesexplaineachother,asinthecaseofcoinsobverseimageandreverseimage;Ialsofeelasstronglyasanyonethemightytraitsofintegrity,loyalty,andtruthwithwhichAbbtwritesfromhismindandfromhisheart–andIwillmakegreatuseofthesetraits.Butoverall,Iamnotsomuchonthesideofthosepeoplewhowanttolookintothewritingsasamirroroftheheartandthehumandispositions;Iammodestlycontenttowriteaboutanauthor.–Andthismodestywillsavemefrommanyanembarrassment.IshalltobesurenotputAbbtinthefirstrankofthemeritoriousjustbecausehehaswrittenaboutmerit;forhehimselfshowsusthegreatgulfthatstandsbetweenthethoughtandthedeed.Ishalltobesurenotputhimamongtheheroeswhohavediedadeathfortheirfatherlandjustbecausehehaspraiseddeathforone’sfatherland;forcertainlyaherowhowritesbeforethebattleaboutdeathforone’sfatherlandwouldnothavewrittenasAbbtdid.Butontheotherhand,Iwillalsobesparedfromhavingtoscoldhimasacarelessmananddamnhimtoanautodaf´ejustbecausehewroteHerderisreferringheretoAbbt’sessay,VomVerdienst[OnMerit]().HerderisreferringheretoAbbt’sessay,DerTodf¨ursVaterland[DeathforOne’sFatherland]().\nOnThomasAbbt’sWritingsthispopularpamphlet;forwhatanimmeasurablespacemayseparatewritingpiouslyasascholarandthinkingpiouslyasahumanbeing;maythisspacebemeasuredoutbythosepeoplewhowanttocastAbbtintohellbecausehecouldwriteanautodaf´eandtoputthemselvesintoheavenbecausetheyareabletowritesermons.Where,however,IneedtopresentAbbtasahumanbeing,Ishallcastapassingglanceattheaccountofhislife.Irecommendittomyreadersasanintroductionandfoundationformyessay,forjustasIcouldnothavewrittenwithoutit,likewiseIalsocannotbereadwithoutit.Moreover,itsorevealsthemasterfultechniqueofabiographerpreciselybyvirtueofthefactthatitinfersfromAbbt’sworkstohismindandfromhismindtohisworks,explainsoneintermsoftheother,andknowshowtosetAbbtthehumanbeingandfriendalongsideAbbttheauthor.However,Irepeatthatmyglancesatthisareawillremainmerelypassingglances.Ilimitmyselfstillfurther:Idrawthelinesformyimagemerelyac-cordingtothereducedscaleofhisfew,uncompletedwritings.Tobesure,thesearelivingoffprintsoftheirauthor’smind,sinceheputonnodis-guise,buttheyneverexhausthisfacialtraits.Ifonehasknownone’sauthorasafriend,heardhiminreallifeashispupil,thenonestudieshimdeeperinalittletimethancaneverhappeninthedeadreadingofhiswritings.InthelattercaseIhaveonlythecontentslistofhismannerofthought,intheformercasethechapteritself;andoneknowshowmight-ilythosepeoplestumblewhohavetheirlearningmerelyfromindexesandtitles.Stilllesscanthesefew,uncompletedwritingsbeameasureofhismind.Thathonorremainspeculiartothosewhosojailtheirmindsintheirbooks–asthatSpaniardshutupthelamedevilinthebottle,orAriostohishero’sunderstandingintheflaskfromthemoon–thattheyhadnothingleft.Theseconsequentlyhavethepleasureofwritingthem-selvesoutinadoublesense,ofoutlivingthemselvesinadoublesense,andofbequeathingtheirwholemindtotheworldfaithfullywithoutanyHerderisreferringheretoAbbt’ssatireagainsttheintoleranceofsomeProtestantclergy,ErfreulicheNachrichtvoneinemhoffentlichalszuerrichtendenprotestantischenInquisitionsgerichte,unddeminzwischeninEffigiezuhaltendenerw¨unschtenEvangelischenLutherischenAutodaFe[HappyReportofaProtestantCourtofInquisitionHopefullytobeSetUp,andtheDesiredEvangelicalLutheranAutodaF´ewhichistobeHeldinEffigyintheMeantime]().F.Nicolai,Ehrenged¨achtnißHerrnThomasAbbt[AMemorialtoHerrThomasAbbt]().NicolaiwrotethisworkatHerder’sinstigation.AllusiontoA.Guevara(–),Eldiablocojuto[TheLameDevil](firstpublished).AllusiontoAriosto(–),Orlandofurioso(),wheretheheroreceivesbackhislostunderstandingoutofabottlebroughtfromthemoon.\nPhilosophyofMindwithholdingordeception.Abbtwasnotenoughtheprofessortoprovideinthiswayforhispupils,anddeathwasnotslowenoughtoprovideinthiswayforhisbiographer;hiswritingsareasmallfragment,asmallbutthatmuchmorevaluablerelic,ofhismind.AndifnowIwanttoerectforAbbtamemorialstatueoutofthesewritingsofhis,howcanIcallitanythingbutamutilatedtorso?Mostofallitisnecessarytoabstractfromanauthorwhatbelongstohistimeortothepastworld,andwhatheleavesoverfortheworldofposterity.Hebearsthechainsofhisage,towhichheoffershisbookasagift;hestandsinhiscenturylikeatreeintherealmofearthintowhichithasdrivenitsroots,fromwhichitdrawsnourishingjuices,withwhichitcoversitsoriginatingmembers.Themorehewantstodomeritoriousservicetohisworld,themorehemustaccommodatehimselftoit,andpenetrateintoitsmannerofthoughtinordertomoldit.Indeed,sinceheishimselfformedinaccordancewiththistaste,andthefirstformcanneverbeentirelydeconstructed,eachgreatauthormustbearonhimselfthebirthmarksofhistime.Youareacriticalfool!,youwhowanttorobhimofthem;youaretakingfromhimtraitsofhisindividuality,aspectsofhisbeauty,scarsofhismerits.Butonecanandshouldtakenoteofthem,fortheyareinstructive,andthatcommentatoronanauthorisformethegreatestwhodoesnotmodifyhimtoaccordwithhisowncentury,butexplainshiminallthenuancesofhistime,andthencomplementshim.Letthecommentatornotattempttocleanhimofhisdross;forevenifthereshouldremainnogoldinthisdross,stillhewhoknowshowtouseitalwayslosesmuchwithit.Rather,lethimjustpatientlyundertakethechemicaloperationofdissolvingeverythingintoitscomponents,sothatwecanseethemanneroforigination.Iamnotsointerestedinhavingsomeoneknowhowtoextractfromthespirit[Geist]ofanauthorhisspiritinitsturn,andapproachmewithasignifyingexpression[saying]“Behold!Ihaveobtainedforyoupotablegold.”ForfartoomuchdeceptionhastakenplacewithHerderishereplayingontwoslightlydifferentsensesofGeist:ontheonehand,simplymind,ontheotherhand,somethingmorelikesignificantessence(asinSt.Paul’sdistinctionbetweentheletterandthespirit).SoHerderisineffectreferringto,anddistancinghimselffrom,apresumptiontoextractthesignificantessenceofanauthor’smind.HerderisthinkinghereofselectivepopulareditionspublishedintheeighteenthcenturysuchasW.Dodd,BeautiesofShakespeare–thecounterpartsofmodernhorrorslike“Bach’sgreatesthits.”\nOnThomasAbbt’sWritingsthisspiritandpotablegold.Instead,themanIwantistheexplainerwhodefinesthebordersofanauthor’spastworld,owntime,andworldofposterity–whatthefirstsuppliedtohim,howthesecondhelpedorharmedhim,howthethirddevelopedhiswork.Ahistoryofauthorsthatwasexecutedinaccordancewiththisconception–whataworkitwouldbe!Thefoundationforahistoryofthesciencesandofthehumanunderstanding.EvenifweonlyhadasingleBaconexplainedfromancienttimes,justifiedfromhisown,improvedandcomplementedfromoursinthisway,thenwewouldhaveagreataidthatwouldadvanceus;andtherecouldarisebyitasecondBacon,asAlexanderdidbythegraveofAchilles,andCaesarbythestatueofAlexander.WouldAristotleinallprobabilityeverhavebecomesoharmfulifevenonlyasinglesuchglancehadbeencastathim?Butifanauthor’sbirthmarks,whichareforhistime,survivethisageandgetanachronisticallyimitated,thenIseestandingbeforemetheservantofAlexanderwhomimicshislord’scrookedneck,whichasfarasIamconcernedcansuithislord,ormust,butlookspatheticonhim.Inthiswaywhatcanbethehonorofanauthorbecomesashameforus–andwhatcouldbenefitusharms.IhavethusindicatedsomemainlinesofAbbt’scharacter–perhapslineslikethosedrawnbythatCorinthiangirlaroundtheshadowofhersleepinglover,linesinwhichshethoughtshesawhisimagebecauseherimaginationfilleduptheoutline,butanalienobserversawnothing.Abbtwasaphilosopherofthehumanbeing,ofthecitizen,ofthecommonman,notascholar;hewaseducatedthroughhistory,andamongdeeds;inlovewithTacitus’sbrevity,which,however,hemixedwithFrenchexpressionsandBritishimages;educatedfortheology,fromwhichhealsoretainedsomebiblicallanguage;andfortherest,notinfavorofstrictsystematicpresentation.NowIshouldturnhisimagearound,asAnacreondidtotheimageofhisBathyllus,andsay,“Artisenviousthatitcannotexpressthebestthing,hissoul.”Ishould,nowthatIhaveobservedhimfromoutside,reachintotheinnermechanismthateffectedsuchgreatthings–stopitsmotionwithastronghand,anddissectthewheelsandspringsthatmovedeverything.Or,tobendtothetoneofthetimes:IshouldpracticeThisfinalexcerptfollowsthemainbodyofHerder’saccountofAbbt(hereomitted),andformstheconclusionofHerder’sessay.\nPhilosophyofMindinpsychometricsandtakehismeasurelikeaPrussianrecruiter–acourttowhichpoetsandpaintershavehadtosuffersubjectionaftertheirdeath,andforwhichjustrecentlyourKleisthadtotakeoffhisshoes.ButsinceIhavenoskillinthisart,andwouldnotliketomakeAbbtmorelengthythangreat,asthatHylasrepresentedAgamemnon,IreferforthismattertohisMemorial,whoseauthorknewhimpersonally.WhenIreadAbbt’swritingsintohissoul,howIseesomanyofitsforcesinmotion!Sensuousattentivenessfixesitselfoneachpointoftheobject,fliesfromsidetoside,andthrowsraysoflightoneachpoint;hisideabecomeslively,cumulative,luminous,andhisspeechscintillates.Thelightisnotsharp,notstrict,butdispersed,evercominginnewwaves.Hebecomescomprehensiblethroughthenumberofhischaracterizingmarks;heilluminatesevenifhedidnotprove;hecastslight[onthematter]evenifhedidnotdevelop[it];hemakessure,certain,strong;evenifhedidnotconvince[uberzeugte¨],hepersuades[uberredet¨]tothepointofobviousness.HiswholebookOnMeritisasinglegreatexamplehere.Oftenhespeaksasthoughthroughaninnersense–as,forexample,whenhedepictsthegreatness,astrength,bandgoodnessoftheheartasnoonedepictedthembeforehim.Hecomesuponconceptswhichhefeelsdeeply,thinkswitheffort,butexpresseswithdifficulty.Sincehesensedthemasthoughthroughadivination[Divination]andbeheldthemasthoughinavision,heconsequentlyalsogoesontoexpressthemlikeamessengerofsecretsandresortstoimageswhichoftenseemtousanillusionofthesenses,butperhapswerenotsoforhim.ThissideofAbbt’smindisformetheholiestandeachdiscoveryinitadisclosureinthescienceofthesoul,despitethefactthatoursoullesscriticschargeAbbtwithobscurityandlackofprecisionjustbecauseofit.Hisimaginationisrich,fecund,rhapsodic,and,inanobleway,unre-strained:notalwaysanarchitectwhoerectswell-structuredbuildings,butawitchwhostrikesonthegroundandbehold!suddenlyweareinaPp.–.bPp.–.Adisciplinedevotedtothemathematicalmeasurementofmentalprocesses,firstproposedbytheRationalistphilosopherWolff.ThisisprobablyanallusiontoF.Nicolai,Ehrenged¨achtnißHerrnEwaldChristianvonKleist[AMemorialtoHerrEwaldChristianvonKleist]().ThisstorycanbefoundinMacrobius,Saturnalia,bk.,ch..I.e.Nicolai,Ehrenged¨achtnißHerrnThomasAbbt.ThedistinctionbetweenconvincingandpersuadingassumedhereisdrawnsharplyinKant’sLogiclectures.\nOnThomasAbbt’sWritingsthemidstofmagnificentmaterials.Shetouchesthemandbehold!theymovethemselves,riseup,combine,structurethemselves,and,ohmiracle!,therearisesbeforeoureyes,asthoughautonomously,orratherthroughaninvisibleforce,apalace–magnificent,great,bewitching,onlynotinthemannerofVitruvius’sorVincentius’sart.Westepnearerinordertolearnwhetheritisameremirageforoureyes;wetouchit,andbehold!,itisreal;wefeelforsolidity,itstands;finally,wedaretoenterit,convinceourselvesofitspermanence,andmakeitourabode.Itisrarethattheimaginationalwaysremainsasisteroftruth,asisusuallythecasewithAbbt.Thatisduetothefactthatsheeverywheremateswiththegood,healthyunderstanding,leavestothisthegovernanceoftheman,andbe-comesforhimonlyamotheroffecundityandastewardessofhiswealth.EverywherewithAbbtwehearjudgment,andhisjudgmentisfiery,sharpandcorrect,complete.Fiery:Hehasastrongsenseoffeelingforthebeautiful,thehumanandethical.Hencehisaesthetictaste,hishumanandmoraljudgment,isfoundedonsensation,notonrulesaswithfeelinglessteachersofethicsorart.Oneseesthathejudgeswithpleasureordispleasure,notintheinsipidtoneofindifferenceinwhichcastratedword-merchantsgoon.Thesubjectsthatheconsiderssoonbecomehisintimatesandnativetohissoul;heholdsthemclosetohiseyesandtohisheart;hecannotseethebeautifulwithoutbeingcharmed,orthegoodwithoutbeingmoved;eachtraitofhisface,eachmotionofhishands,showsthatinhimasomethingspeaksthatisnotmadeofcoldearthorpureairbutisrelatedtoflameandspeaksasthoughtopeoplewhocanbewarmed.Thisiswhyhisaestheticjudgmentsarefullofgoodtaste,asmanyexamplesintheLiteraturbriefeshow;hispsychologicalinvestigationsnotwithoutsensitivity,asisprovedbytheopeningofhisarticleongreatnessofmind,manyremarksonstrengthofsoul,andespeciallyhisinsertiononEmpfindnisandEmpfindung;andinhumansituationsitishiswholeheartthatspeaks.Itisveryrarethatthisthreefoldfeelingforthebeautiful,forthehuman,andforthegoodRomanandItalianarchitects,respectively.AchapterofVomVerdienst[OnMerit]bearsthistitle.AchapterofVomVerdienst[OnMerit]bearsthistitle.Roughly,sentimentandsensation.AbbtexplainsthedistinctionasfollowsinVomVerdienst,himselfusingtheseEnglishequivalents:“EmpfindungmayserveforsensationandEmpfindnisforsenti-ment...Empfindungrelatesathingtousinalivelywaybutconfusedlybymeansofthesenses;Empfindnisrelatesitinasimilarwaybymeansofimagination.Intheformercasethethingoccu-piesusasthoughpresent;inthelattercase,evenifitshouldbepresent,itismoreitsimagethatoccupiesus.”\nPhilosophyofMindiscombined,andwheretheyarecombinedtheyinevitablyproducethatenthusiasmwhichNicolaiindeedobservesinthecaseofourAbbt.Ifthemerefeelingofbeautycanraisethevirtuoso,andthemerefeelingforhumanityandvirtuethemanofmerit,tothepointofrapture,then,wherethesethreegoddessescombine,rapturewillbeabletobecomeasortofenthusiasmevenfortruth,andjustsuchalikablefanaticwasAbbt.Idonotsaythathisfeelingforallthreekindswasequallystrong.Thatisrare,orevenhalfimpossible–forwhenonekindbecomestoostrong,itweakenstheothers.Hisfeelingforpoetsdidnotreachthepointofpoetry;hisinclinationforthefineartsdidnotreachthepointofamainoccupation;hestayedonthemiddlestringofhumansensation,whenceheisgenerallywonttotouchthestringsofaesthetictasteandofmoralfeeling–asIhavestolenafterthiscourseofhissoulatvariouspointswithpleasure.Sincehisfeelingisalsomoreforcefulthandelicate,inthesejudgmentsithasoftenseemedtomeasthoughtherestoodbeforemyeyesthatheroofHomer’swhoalmostequalledJupiterinwisdom:“ashewithstrongvoicesendsforthfromhisbreastwordsthatresembledrivesofsnowflakes.”Hisjudgmentissharpandcorrect,foritisformedbythehealthyunder-standing,whichherereflects,compares,quicklysummarizes,andspeaks.Ithasnotbeendulled,hardened,andmadestubbornlyidiosyncraticamongbooks,butonlymorewhettedandcorrected.Ithasnotbeeninitiatedintobeingsensitivethroughthescholarlyscentsofacattleshed–whichshedwasrecommendedtothatFrenchduchessasacureandgetsrecommendedtousaseducation–for,asPetroniussaysrightlyofthedegeneratedscholarlinessofhistime,whoeverhasbeenbroughtupinthemidstofsuchathingcanaslittlethinkcleverlyasthosewholiveinthekitchencansmellwell;butsinceAbbtjudgeswithsensitivityandstrengthlikethecommonman,andwithintelligencelikeathinker,heis–unlessaplayfulwitdeceiveshissharpness,andhastyimaginationchasesasortofstormofimagesthroughhisquietreflection–aparagon.Indeed,inthecompletenessofhisspiritofjudgment(Ideliberatelydonotsay:thedeepness)stillmoreso–sincehe,“assoonashemerelyformedawishtoexploreinthisorthatprovinceoftherealmofthesciences,wentthroughitinrapidflightwithincredibleindustryandgaveproofsthatitIliad,bk.,ll.ff.HeretranslatedfromHerder’sGerman.ThepassagedescribesOdysseus,whoistheHomericherotowhomHerderisreferring.\nOnThomasAbbt’sWritingswasalreadyfamiliartohim,accordingtoageneralmapsotospeak!”;csincehedidnotburyhimselfbeneathapileofancientruins,orjailhimselfinanarrowstructureofprofessionalliterature;andespeciallysincehisrichmemorysuppliedhimfromexperienceandhistorywithasmuchaswasnecessaryinordertomakehisjudgmentcomplete.WhenIdissectAbbt’smindinhiswritingsinsuchawayasthis,thenIfirstofallcometothethought,“Howmuchahumansoulcontains!”andthenafterIhavejumpedacrossagreatgulfIsigh,“HowmuchwehavelostwithAbbt!”ClauditeiamParcaenimiumreseratasepulcraClauditeplusiustoiamdomusistapatet.–OvidcSeeMiller’spreface[toAbbt,Fragmentder¨altestenBegebenheitendesmenschlichenGeschlechts()].Closenow,yeFates,thesetoogapingtombs,/Closethem,thishousehasnowlainopentoolong.\nOnCognitionandSensation,theTwoMainForcesoftheHumanSoul()[preface]EstDeusinnobis,agitantecalescimusillo.–VirgilCognitionandsensationarewithusmixedcreaturesintertwined;wehavecognitiononlythroughsensation,oursensationisalwaysaccompaniedwithasortofcognition.Sincephilosophyabandonedthefragmenting,uselessclevernessofthescholasticsandattemptedtofindunityinallsci-ences,inthescienceofthesoultooithasmadegreatadvancesonthisroyalpath.Sincephilosophyfoundcommoncharacteristicmarksinthoughtandsensation;becausethenatureoftheonecouldnotbefullyilluminatedwithoutthepropertiesoftheother;mostofall,because[philosophy]thethinkerwasatheartafriendtoandrelatedtothinking,[philosophy]theseertoseeing,itinevitablyprovedcomfortableforphilosophytopositasingleforceofthesoul,thought,andtowanttoderivefromitsimplyeverythingrightdowntotheobscurest,mostarbitrarysensation.ThisisashortexcerptfromHerder’sdraftoftheessayOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulpublishedinandfullytranslatednextinthisvolume.Theexcerptconsistsofthepreface,astatementbyHerderoftheBerlinAcademy’sprizeessaytask,andthefirstparagraphorsoofthefirstsectionoftheessay–allmaterialthatwasdroppedfromthepublishedversionofbutisofgreatinterestandsignificance,especiallyforitscriticaldiscussionoftheRationalisttheoryofthemindandexplanationoftherelationinwhichHerder’sowntheorystandstoit.Atthepointwherethisexcerptfromthedraftstops,thedraftcontinueswithaversionofthematerialwithwhichthepublishedversionofbegins(from“Ineverything...”inthetranslationthatfollows).However,thetwodraftscontainsignificantdifferencesbeyondthedraft’sinclusionofandtheversion’sexclusionoftheintroductorymaterialstranslatedhere.Someofthemostimportantofthesedifferences,especiallypassagesinwhichthedraftdevelopsamoreconsistentlyandelaboratelyphysiologicaltheoryofthemindthanisfoundintheversionof,areindicatedinfootnotestothetranslationoftheversionwhichfollows.However,thedraftwouldcertainlyrepaymoreattentionthancanbegiventoitinthisvolume.Godiswithinus,whenhestirsusweareinflamed.\nOnCognitionandSensation“Nocognition,”philosophysays,“iswithoutsensation,i.e.withoutsomefeelingofgoodorbad,ofpleasureorpain,ofbeingornonbeing,inoneselforintheobject.Ifthesoulfeelsthatitcognizes,thenitenjoysitself,strivesforth,developsitsforces;thelessimpeded,themorelively.Thatiswhyapersonisirritatedbycuriosity,i.e.thedriveofwantingtoknow.Assumethatthesouldoesnotcognize.Cognitionisitsessence.Henceithaslostitsexistence,itsenjoymentwithit;thereisdarkness,deathhere,paralysis.Assumethatthesoulconsidersanothingassomething.Itcandosoonlyaslongasthedeceptionthatpresentstoitnothingassomethingendures.Buteveninthenothingitsoughtonlysomething,applicationofitspositiveforceonagivenworld-facetoftheCreator.Ifitcametoitssenses,i.e.ifitarrivedattheapplicationofthisforce,thenitpenetratedintotheobject,cognized,distinguished,illuminated;thedelusionhasdisappeared,thesoulnolongerseesacloudoffogbutstars.Assume,”itisinferredfinally,“thatthesoulcognizes,advances,butungently,withoutanycommensuratenessbetweenwhatitissupposedtograspanditsgraspingforces–thenhowbittertheworkturnsouttobeforit;itthirsts,likeatiredhiker,untilitsinksdownwhereitcannolongerbreakthrough,attheplaceofthegreateststrain,orifitstillhasforcesgoesback.Ithaslostitsdesireforcognitionwiththisobject,itgoesanotherpath.Behold,thusiscognitionneverwithoutsensation.Thewordcuriosity[Neugierde],yearningforcognitions,saysit;experience,thena-tureofthings,whichalwayspositssensationforadriveandrewardsthedrivewithenjoyment,confirmsit.Isthewholemountainofourcog-nitionsupposedtobeaccumulatedwithoutfeeling?Isthemostgodlikeforceofoursoulsupposedtobuildwithlessrewardthanabee,andtoflytothegoalofcognitionlikeashotarrow,likearayoflight,quicklyandalsojustaswithoutfeeling?No!Incognitiontherelivessensation,thedeepest,mostspiritual,godlikesensation!Errorandignorancearenightandfog;truthisbrightnessandsun,boundupwiththefeeling‘Thisistherightplacetobe!’likeonthemountainoftransfiguration.Thequickestjudgmentofthesoulisaffirmationordenial,i.e.incruderterms,onlyexpressionofgoodorbad,ofharmonyordiscord,ofpainorpleasure.NotethatGier=eagerness,greed.\nPhilosophyofMindOntheotherside,”orderingmetaphysicscontinues,“nosensationcanbeimaginedentirelywithoutcognition,i.e.withoutanobscurerepresenta-tionofperfectionorofunsuitability.Onceagain,eventhewordsensation[Empfindung]saysit.Isonenotinsensationoccupiedwithoneselfandone’sconditionalongwiththeobjectthatbecomesonewithit?Doesonenotthereforecognizeone’sconditionandtheinfluencingobjectatleastobscurely?Doesonenotfeeldecreaseorincrease,risingorfalling,intheenjoymentofperfection,continuationordestruction?Eventheplantifithassensationmusthavesensationinthisway;itmustslumberasthoughinthedeepestdreamofself-cognitionwithanintuitionofwhatisinfluencingthisself.Eventhestone,ifitfellthroughaninnerdrive,wouldhavetocognize,i.e.tofeel,itsdrivetowardsthemid-pointintheobscurestway.If,inaddition,asensationshouldawakenactivity,shouldabbreviateorlengthentheconditions,whataforce,whataplanincognition–albeitinthemostobscurecognition–doesnotpreciselytherebylieatthebasis!Henceinsensationlieshiddengreat,deep,effectivecognition,receivingmotionfromthehighestangeloftheworldsdownto–ifitfeels–thefallingstone.”Thusdoesmetaphysicsorder–trulyasunnyplanfullofmanifoldnessandunity!Firstandlastisthinkingnature,innerintuitionofperfection,andstretchingofourforcestocomeclosertothisperfection,toturnitmoreandmoreintoourselves.Metaphysicsrevealstheunityineverythingsplendidly,butdoesitalsorevealasdistinguishinglytheeachnessineachthing?Theharmonyofourforcessplendidly,butalsoasthoroughlytheirdisharmonies,contradictions,andshortcomings?Inalltheforcesofoursoulthereisactivity,representation,perception;butcanrepresentationand(asweoftenimputeit)clear,evendistinct,representationexplain,measure,fathom,eachofouractivities?Ifeverycognitionissensation,whattheninthatcasedoesthatclear,luminous,encompassingcognitionlacksothatitisnotanddoesnotbecomesensa-tion?Noteverysensationisatthecommandofthought,sowhatdoesthissensationlacksothatitdoesnotmatewiththoughtandproducewithitcommonfruit?WhatIcognizesoluminouslyasgood,Idonotasoftenlovesoasalsotocognizeittruly,i.e.actively,asgood,tosense,live,andNotethatfinden=tofind,toconsider.\nOnCognitionandSensationactinit.WhatIsense,want,anddoisasdeeplyburiedinmyheartandviscera,asfarfrommythought,astheheartisremotefromthehead.Itgetsformedintheobscurecenterofmybeing;whentheponderingthoughtdigsdownthatfarandilluminatesitwithitstorch,thenitisnolongerwhatitwas.Thereseemstobesuchanimmeasurablegulffixedbetweenthoughtandsensationthatneitherofthemoftengetsovertotheother–thecoldthoughtluminousbutcoldlikethenorthernlights;sensationshotthroughwithponderingnolongersensationbutthought.Twomodesofourexistencethatseemtobehemispheresandantipodes,thatonlytouchacommonearthwiththeirfeet;twopolesoneofwhichattractswhattheotherrepels.Naturalsciencewasunabletoarriveatforcesaslongaspeoplefailedtoregardeachindividualthingaswhatitis,asunique,aslongastheyalwaysonlyimputedtoitwhatitcouldbeorshouldbeingeneral.Thescienceofthesoulmustbecomeentirelynaturalscienceinregardtoeachindividualforce,asthoughtherewasnootherforcebutit.Thereisalwaystimetoclassify,tounite,whenwehavefirstcognizedindivid-ually;butwewillnevercognizewhatsomethingisifweonlybeginbymeasuringitaccordingtowhatitisnot,i.e.ifweonlygraspitasadevi-ation,negatively.Donottheloversofthescienceofthesoulthemselvessaythatthefieldofthehigher,thethinking,forcesismuchmoreculti-vatedthanthebroadregionofsensations,drives,affects,ofaction?Andarethesenottheheartofourbeing?Arethesenotwhateverythingrestson,whateverythingproceedsfrom,whatthesoulfeelsdeeplyboundupwith,eveninitsmostabstractfunctions?Henceiftheygetdisregardedortreatedwithaforeignspirit,withthespiritofthehigherforces,asspeculation,thenwhatstirringwillstandbeforeusasitis?Agardenfullofthemostdiverseplants,flowers,andfruits,thehumansoulwhichsensesathousandfoldandathousandfolddifferentlybecomesontopthedewofauniversalvaporcloud;itgetscalledbody,obscureideas,feelings.MayIgiveafewexamplesoftheshortcomingsoftheaforementionedone-sidedness?SinceDescartesmadethinkingintohisentiredoubtingI,whatsystemshavearisen,eachonemoreunnaturalthantheother.Hehungupthesoulinthepinealglandandmadeitthink;buthowthenmovethebody?Itcannot,evenifithadtobeamatterofthepurestmecha-nism;ithasforthatneitherforcenorlocationnorleisure.Itconsequently\nPhilosophyofMindgotproved,inaccordancewithitsthinkingnature,thatitcouldnotdothis.Whatthen?Godhadtocomeandmovethebody;thinkingmadamsoulonherrestfulcarpetonlyindicatestoherslavetheoccasion.ThusDescartes.Spinoza,amorepenetratingmind,thetheologianofCartesianism,broughtbothtothepointwhitherDescartesbrought[only]one;whyshouldnotthoughtbeasmuchanimmediateeffectandprop-ertyofGodasmotion?AllindividualswerethereforeextinguishedforthethinkinglikethemovingGod.BotharepropertiesofasinglebeingwhichSpinozaforgotordespairedofbringingclosertogethersincehehadpushedthemsofarawayfromhimself.Hehaddeceivedhimselfsohighupintotheempyreanofinfinitythatallindividualitiesfadeddeepbeneathhiseye;thisishisatheismandtrulynoother.Leibnizcame,fearedtheabyss,butstoodonDescartes’bank.Itremained[forhim]thatthesoulcannotmovethebody,andGodnotineverymomenteither;butwhatifthebodymoveditself,ifitsCreatorhadtakencareofthatfromthebeginning,althoughnohumanbeingcouldsayhow?Justaslongasthebodyalwayscomesrightawayforthinkingmadamsoul.Andthustherearosefromthisthebeautifulsystemofpreestablishedharmonywithitssplendidsimileofthetwoclocks–thecleverestsystemandthemostfittingsimilethatwaseverthoughtup.Whatadead,woodenclockthesoulandthescienceofthesoulhasnowbecome.Inallthemutualperceptionsofthoughtandsensationitlacksdeepderivation,fruitfulness,andtruth.Thesoulwithallitsforcesfeelsitselflivinginitsdiverse,thousandfoldorganizedbody;evenitsforcesofcognitionandvolitionareonlyresults,aggregates,ofthisconnection;itisonlypresentintheuniversethroughactionandreactiononthisbodyfullofsensations,fullofirritations;itotherwiselacksevenself-consciousness.WillI,therefore,everbeabletofeelapartandtogether,i.e.toexplain,theharmonyofourbeing,themu-tuallyattunedandyetsodiverseconcertofourthoughtsandsensations,initswholeart,withitswonderfulcontrastsandcounterpoints,weaken-ingsandstrengthenings,ifIlackimmediateinsightintotheinfluence?Twomachinesattunedinthemostartificialwaysothatforeternitytheyshouldnottoucheachother!–Thescienceofthesoulhasbeenrobbedofallspiritofimmediateobservation,allguidancebythemostsecret,Theword“soul,”Seele,isfeminineinGerman.\nOnCognitionandSensationmiraculous,deepexperience.Ifmysoulissupposedtounfoldfromoutofitselfwhatitdoesnothavefromoutofitselfatall,thenthingsturnintoatoweruptothecloudswithoutbasis,aneternalpetitioprincipii.IfIfailtorecognizethebondbetweencauseandeffectwhereIfeelitthroughmarrowandboneateverymoment,wherewillIperceiveitinitsinvisible,spiritual,heavenlynaturewhenitdoesnotlienearlyasclosetomyrogue’seye,mydoubtingdeceptivesenses?Finally,ifitmayforcertainheadsbeallthesametotakeapartaclockortounfoldandeducatealiving,fruitfulseed,foreveryliving,sensingbeingitshouldnotbeallthesame.Itisathousandfolddeeperjoytoseehowthebeautifulflowerofthoughtsproutsfromsensationandproducesnewsensationthantogapeatadeadmarionette-playthatthegreatdramatistplayedfromthebeginningofthecreation.Thecold,sensationlesslythinkingscienceofthesoulhasperpetrateditsdeceptionasfarasintolifeandaction.Whatromanticsystemsoffreedomandperfectionofthehumansoul,whichoccurwhereelsebutintextbooks!Theforceofthinking,ofactingaccordingtoanidealofperfection,istheessenceofthesoul;sensationsanddrives,inaccordancewithwhichitinfactacts,havebeenconsideredonlyasadditions,evenasdisordersinaccordancewithwhichitshouldnotact.Thustherearoseahypocriticalfigmentoftheimaginationwhichthemetaphysiciancallsthehumansoul,clothesinthegloomyraysofhisabstractions,butwhichonlyappearsinthepresenceofhismagicallamp.Thehumanbeingofhealthysenses,thepoet,thehistorian,thepolitician,thephilosopheroflifedonotknowitandhaveneverseenit,andthereforeoftenhateallpsychology(veryunjustly!)forrepresentingtousavaporousskeletonasatrue,whole,livinghumanbeing.Hencethegreatenmitybetweenmetaphysicsandexperience,betweentheabstractandtheconcrete,betweenthoughtandsensation.Hencethegreatillusionwithwhichallabstractionistsconsiderthelivinghumanbeing,andthemselvesactasshadesoflivinghumanbeings.Tossaroundgeneralwordsandformulasinthemidstofwhichallforcefuldistinctionsandindividualbeingsdisappear;bindcontradictionswithgeneralwordsanddauboverwithloosewhitewash.Knowsomuchaboutthehumansoulingeneralthattheyknownothingabouteachindividualhumansoulandnolongerhaveanyvisionforseeingitaswhatitis.Howdoesthisleavetheideathatthescienceofthesoulshouldbethemirrorofhumannature,theuniversalkeytotheeducationofhumansouls,andphilosopherof\nPhilosophyofMindthetrulywise,theirfriendandeducator?Eachnotewouldhavetofinditsdistinguishedsoundandproperplaceitself,thecontradictionswouldhavetobecomeonlydifferencesandregularities,andtherewouldhavetobeinheavenandearth,inthehighregionofthoughtandinthelowbutfruitfulareaofsensation,nophenomenonthatdidnotbelongtoasingleuniverse...Beholdatask,likethehumansoul,greatandbroadanddeep.Italertsustodistinctionswhichwereformerlydisregardedbeneathgeneralformu-las;itwantstoseeilluminatedlaws,relationships,andcharacterswhichmakethehumansoulcountaspartoftheuniverseandarethemselvesacertainuniverse;itdarestoconfrontthegreatquarrelaccordingtowhichthehumanbeingiswithoutandwithinhimselfanimalandangel,plantandgod.Theangelinthehumanbeing–howdoeshecondescendtotheanimal?Thehumanplant–howdoesGodbloominit?Contradictionsinthehumanbeing,heartandmind!,whichlawsdoyouserve?Howareyoutobecognized,tobereconciled,tobeused?Whatnourishesandstrengthensyourdivergence?Isitaworkofnatureoraworkofartandofcorruption?Contradictionsinthehumanbeing,apparentenemies,towhatextentdoyoumutuallysupporteachother?,wheredoyoueliminateeachother?Howdoyourelatetothehappinessofeachhumanbeingandofallhumanbeings?Yougreatstring-playofallmannersofthoughtandsensation,humannature,whotunedyou?Whostrungyou?Whoplaysonyou?Wholistenstoyou?SiewardieLauteseinerHanddieerzuunsrerLusterfandergabihrMillionenSaitenundjedeklingtundjederKlangtontzumharmonischenGesang¨zurLehreseinerHeimlichkeiten!Thereisasubtleshiftinthissentencefromthepresentationofanobjectiontoaccordingthecurrentscienceofthesoultheexaltedstatusdescribedintheprecedingsentence(“Eachnotewould...”)toanindicationofwaysinwhichthedisciplinewouldhavetobeimprovedinordertodeservethatstatus(“thecontradictionswould...andtherewouldhavetobe...”).ItwastheluteofHishand/whichHeinventedforourpleasure,/Hegaveitmillionsofstrings/andeachonesounds,andeachsound/ringstoaharmonioussong,/totheteachingofHissecrets!(J.P.L.Withof,–).\nOnCognitionandSensationTaskThesoulpossessestwooriginalabilities(thefoundationofallitsprop-ertiesandefficacies):theabilitytocognizeandtheabilitytosense.Ifitexercisesthefirst,itisoccupiedwithanobjectwhichitconsidersasathingoutsideitselfinwhichithascuriosity;inthiscaseitsentireefficacyseemstobeonlytoseewell.Ifitexercisestheother,itisoccupiedwithitselfanditscondition,andfeelswellorill.Itsefficacyinthiscaseseemstobesolelytowanttochangetheconditionifitfeelsdiscomfort,ortoenjoytheconditionifitfeelswell.Assumingthis,wewish:.Anexactdevelopmentoftheoriginaldeterminationsofbothabilitiesandoftheuniversallawswhichtheyfollow..Athoroughinvestigationofthereciprocaldependenceofbothfacultiesoneachotherandofthemanneroftheirinfluenceoneachother..Basicprincipleswhichmakeclearhowthegeniusandthecharacterofahumanbeingdependsonthedegree,strength,andliveliness[oftheoneortheotheroftheseabilities],andonthestepsofprogressthattheoneortheotheroftheseabilitieshasachieved,andontheproportionthatholdsbetweenthemboth.Inregardtothefirstquestion,theAcademywishestoseeilluminatedtheconditionsunderwhicharepresentationonlyaffectsthefacultyofsensation,andontheotherhandtowhatorderthoserepresentationsbelongwhichonlyrousecuriosityandoccupythefacultyofcognition.Inbothcasesitwillbeperceivedthattheseconditionsdependpartlyontherepresentationorontheobjectitself,partlyontheconditionofthesoulatthetimewhentherepresentationaffectsit.Concerningthesecondquestion,theAcademywishesaluminous,sat-isfyingexplanationofthepsychologicalobservationthattheheartsooftenapesthemind,andofthefurtherphenomenonthatcertainspeculativeheadssenseonlyweakly.ThissectionsimplycontainsHerder’stranslationintoGermanoftheBerlinAcademy’sprizeessaytaskandelucidatoryremarksaboutthistask,whichwereoriginallyinFrench.TheEnglishtranslationisdonefromHerder’sGerman.ReadingZustandeforGegenstande(“object”).TheFrenchsaidson´etat:itscondition.TheFrenchactuallysaidheredudegr´edeforceetdevivacit´e...:onthedegreeofstrengthandliveliness...I.e.minds,people.\nPhilosophyofMindInthecaseofthethirdquestionitisamatteroftherequisiteconditionsforahumanbeinghavingagreateraptitudeforexercisingtheforcesofcognitionthanthefacultyofsensationorviceversa.FirstsectionDevelopmentoftheoriginaldeterminationsofthetwoabilitiesofthehumansoul,ofthefacultiesofcognitionandsensation,togetherwiththeuniversallawsthattheyfollow.Quiverslaveritesentsoname´elanc´ee´AnimalparlessensestDieuparlapensee.–´Po´esiediverse.Developmentoftheoriginaldeterminationsofthefacultyofsensationinthehumansoul,togetherwiththeuniversallawsthatitfollows.Wepossessconcerningthetwofacultiesofthesoulwhicharenamedinthetaskthedevelopmentbyaphilosopherforwhomthescienceofthesoulhaslongbeenthefieldofhisvictory.aHehasopenedforusthetempleofcognitionwithitshundreddoorwaysofsensationsthatleadtoit,partlyinindividualtreatments,partlyinthegreatworkconcerningthefineartsandscienceswhosetitleshouldbe“Ozymandias’sMonument.”Icouldsethistreatisehereasthefoundationandgoalofmyworkwereitnotthattheloverpreferstoevadetheeyeofhisbelovedinordertoencounteritmorefully,andthattheboldsteersmanhastoturnhisbacktothebanktowardswhichheissteering.[Atthispointthedraftcontinueswithaversionofthematerialinthepublishedversionofthatfollowsbelow,beginningat“Ineverything...”]aSulzer,UberdenverschiedenenZustand,darinsichdieSeelebeiAus¨ubungihrerHauptverm¨ogen¨befindet[OntheDifferentConditionsinwhichtheSoulFindsItselfintheExerciseofitsMainFaculties]–seeHistoiredel’AcademieRoyaledesSciences,vol.´,Berlin,pp.–.Sulzer’sVermischtephilosophischeSchriften,Leipzig,part.[TwofactsaboutSulzerareworthnotinginthisconnection:()HewastransparentlytheauthoroftheBerlinAcademy’stask–soHerderisindulginginsomebootlickinghere.()ContrarytoRationalism,andalsotoHerder’sowndeepestphilosophicalconvictions,Sulzerbelievedinasharpseparationofmentalfaculties,inparticularthefacultiesofrepresentationandsensation.]Whoeverfeelshissoulthrusttowardstruth/[Though]ananimalbyhissensesisagodbyhisthought(MiscellaneousPoetry).ThisreferstoSulzer,AllgemeineTheoriedersch¨onenK¨unste[GeneralTheoryoftheFineArts](–).\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoul()ObservationsanddreamsTopneumahopoutheleipneikaitenphˆonˆenautouakoueis,all’oukˆoidaspothenerchetaikaipouhupagei.FirstessayOncognitionandsensationintheirhumanoriginandthelawsoftheirefficacyIneverythingthatwecalldeadnatureweknownoinnercondition.Wedailyexpressthewordsmass,impact,fall,motion,rest,force,evenforceofinertia,andwhoknowswhattheymeanwithinthethingitself?Butthemorewethoughtfullyobservethegreatdramaofeffectiveforcesinnature,thelesswecanavoideverywherefeelingsimilaritywithourselves,enliveningeverythingwithoursensation.Wespeakofefficacyandrest,ofownorreceived,ofremainingorcommunicating,deadorliving,force,completelyfromthecaseofoursouls.Massseemstousayearningforthemid-point,forthegoalandplaceofrest;inertiathelittlepartialrestonathing’sownmid-pointthroughitsconnectionwithitself;motionaforeigndrive,acommunicatedandonwardlyeffectivestrivingwhichovercomesrest,disturbstherestofforeignthings,untilitfindsitsownrestagain.Whatawonderfulphenomenonelasticityis–alreadyasortofautomaton,whichcanindeednotgiveitselfmotion,butcanrestoremotiontoitself;thefirstapparentsparktowardsactivityinnoblenatures.ThatGreekJohn::“Thewindblowswhereitwishes,andyouhearitsvoice;butyoudonotknowwhenceitcomesorwhitheritgoes.”\nPhilosophyofMindwisemanwhohadanintimationofNewton’ssysteminadreamspokeofbodies’loveandhate;thegreatmagnetisminnaturewhichattractsandrepelshaslongbeenconsideredassouloftheworld.Likewisewarmthandcoldness,andthefinest,noblestwarmth,electricalcurrent,thisstrangephenomenonofthegreat,all-presentspiritoflife.Likewisethegreatsecretoftheprogressiveformation,renewal,refinementofallbeings,thisabyssofhateandlove,attractionandtransformationintoandfromself.–Thesensinghumanbeingfeelshiswayintoeverything,feelseverythingfromoutofhimself,andimprintsitwithhisimage,hisimpress.HenceNewtoninhissystemoftheworldbecameapoetcontrarytohiswishes,asdidBuffoninhiscosmogony,andLeibnizinhispreestablishedharmonyanddoctrineofmonads.Justasourwholepsychologyconsistsoffigurativeterms,forthemostpartitwasasinglenewimage,asingleanalogy,asinglestrikingmetaphorthatgavebirthtothegreatestandboldesttheories.Thephilosopherswhodeclaimagainstfigurativelanguageandthemselvesservenothingbutold,oftenuncomprehended,figurativeidolsareatleastingreatcontradictionwiththemselves.Theydonotwantnewgoldtobeminted,whileontheotherhandtheydonothingbuteverandeverspinthesamethreadsoutofpreciselysuch,oftenmuchworse,gold.Buthowso?Isthereinthis“analogytothehumanbeing”alsotruth?Humantruth,certainly,andaslongasIamahumanbeingIhavenoinformationaboutanyhigher.Iamverylittleconcernedaboutthesuperterrestrialabstractionwhichplacesitselfbeyondeverythingthatiscalled“circleofourthinkingandsensing”ontoIknownotwhatthroneofdivinity,createsthereworldsofwords,andpassesjudgmentonevery-thingpossibleandactual.Whatweknowweknowonlythroughanalogy,fromthecreationtousandfromustotheCreator.SoifIshouldnottrustHimwhoputmeintothiscircleofsensationsandsimilarity,whogavemenootherkeyforpenetratingintotheinsideofthingsthanmyownimpressorratherthereflectedimageofHismindinmymind,thenwhomshouldItrustandbelieve?Syllogismscannotteachmeanythingwhereitisamatterofthefirstconceptionofthetruth,whichtruthsyllogismsnaturallyonlydevelopafterithasbeenconceived;hencethetalkofverbaldefinitionsandproofsisforthemostpartonlyaboardgamewhichrestsonassumedrulesandhypotheses.ThequietsimilaritywhichIsenseandintuitinthewholeofmycreation,mysoul,andmylife;thegreatspiritI.e.Empedocles.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoul[Geist]thatbreathesuponmeandshowsmeasinglecourse,asinglesortoflaws,inwhatissmallandwhatislarge,inthevisibleworldandtheinvisibleworld–thisismysealoftruth.[Itwere]fortunateifthisworkhadthatsealonitaswell,andquiet,modestreaders(sinceIdonotwriteforothers)sensedjustthesameanalogy,thefeelingoftheOnewhorulesinallmanifoldness!Iamnotashamedtosuckatthebreastsofthisgreatmothernatureasamerechild,Irunafterimages,aftersimilarities,afterlawsofharmonyintoOne,becauseIknownootherplayofmythinkingforces(ifindeedonemustthink),andmoreoverbelievethatHomerandSophocles,Dante,ShakespeareandKlopstockhavesuppliedpsychologyandknowledgeofhumankindwithmorematerialthaneventheAristotlesandLeibnizesofallpeoplesandtimes..OfIrritation[Reiz]WeprobablycannotaccompanysensationinitsoriginationfurtherdownthantothestrangephenomenonthatHallerhascalled‘irritation.’Theirritatedlittlefibercontractsandexpandsagain–perhapsastamen,thefirstlittleglimmeringspark,towardssensation,towhichdeadmatterhaspurifieditselfupthroughmanycoursesandlevelsofmechanismandorganization.–Assmallandobscureasthisbeginningofthenoblecapacitythatwecallsensingmayseem,itmustbeequallyimportant–somuchgetsachievedthroughit.Withoutseedsthereisnoharvest,noplantwithoutdelicaterootsandfilaments,andperhapswithoutthissowingofobscurestirringsandirritationsourmostdivineforceswouldnotexist.Alreadyinanimalnature,whatburdensareloadedontheforceandefficacyofamuscle!Howmuchmorethesetiny,thinfiberspullthancrudestringswoulddoaccordingtothelawsofmechanism!Whence,then,thissomuchgreaterforceunlessperhapspreciselythroughmainspringsofinnerirritation?Naturehaswoventogetherathousandlittle,livingstringsintoathousandfoldfight,intosuchamanifoldtouchingandresisting;theymakethemselvesshorterandlongerwithinnerforce,participateintheplayofthemuscle,eachinitsownway–thatiswhatmakesthemusclecarryandpull.Hasanythingmorewonderfuleverbeenseenthanabeatingheartwithitsinexhaustibleirritation?Anabyssofinner,obscureforces,thetrueimageoftheorganicalmightywhichisperhapsdeeperA.vonHaller(–),Swissscientistandpoet,authorofElementaphysiologiaecorporishumani().\nPhilosophyofMindthanthemotionofthesunsandearths.–AndnowirritationspreadsoutfromthisinexhaustiblefountandabyssthroughourwholeI,enlivenseachlittleplayingfiber–allaccordingtoasingle-formed,simplelaw.Ifweareingoodhealth,ourchestisbroad,theheartbeatshealthily,eachfiberperformsitsofficialroleintheplay.Thenfrightstormsuponus,andbehold,asourfirstmovement,withoutyetanythoughtoffearorresistance,ourirritableIretreatstoitsmid-point,ourbloodtoourheart,ourfiber,evenourhair,standsonend–sotospeak,anorganicmessengerfordefense,theguardstandsready.Angerinitsfirstattack,anarmyofwarstirringitselfforresistance,howitshakestheheart,drivesthebloodtotheextremities,tothecheeks,intothearteries,flameintotheeyes–meneosdemegaphrenesamphimelainaiPimplant’,ossedehoipurilampetoontieiktˆen.ˆThehandsstrive,aremorepowerfulandstronger.Courageelevatesthechest,life-breaththebreathingnose,thecreatureknowsnodanger.Purephenomenaofthestirringupofourirritationsinfright,oftheviolentimpulseforthinanger.Bycontrast,love,howitsoftensandcalms!Theheartwellsup,butnottodestroy,fireflows,butonlyinordertowelloverto-wards[itsobject]andblowoutitssoftglow.Thecreatureseeksunification,dissolution,melting-away;thestructureofitsfibersexpands,isasthoughembracinganother,andonlyreturnswhenthecreaturewellingtowards[another]againfeelsitselfalone,aseparated,isolatedOne.Hencestillinthemostcomplexlywovensensationsandpassionsofoursocompositemachinethesinglelawwhichstirredthelittlefiberwithitslittleglimmer-ingsparkofirritationmakesitselfvisible,namely:Pain,thetouchingofsomethingforeign,contracts;hereforceconcentrates,increasesforresis-tance,andrestoresitself.Wellbeingandlovingwarmthexpands,causesrest,gentleenjoyment,anddissolution.Whatindeadnatureexpansionandcontraction,warmthandcoldness,are–thatdotheseobscurestamensofirritationtowardssensationseemtobehere:anebbandflowinwhich,liketheuniverse,similarlythewholesensingnatureofhumanbeings,animals,andhowevermuchfurtherdownitmayextend,movesandstirs.Astoeverything,therebelongstothistoomodulation,measure,gentlemixing,andprogress.Fearandjoy,frightandanger–whatstrikessuddenlylikeathunderboltcanalsokilllikeathunderbolt.Thefiberthat(tospeakIliad,bk.,ll.–:“Andhiswits,blackallabout,filledmightilywithanger,andhistwoeyesresembledblazingfire.”\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulmechanically)expandedcannotcomeback;theonethatcontractedcannotlengthenitselfagain;adeathblowputastoptotheirplay.Everyaffectthatstrikes,evengentleshame,cansuddenlykill.Gentlesensationsare,tobesure,notsoviolent,butuninterruptedtheydestroylikewise.Theywearout,makedullandforceless.Howmanysybariteshave,amongticklesandrosescents,passedawaywithalivingbody,andcertainlybynogentledeath.Ifweareentirelywithoutirritation–acruelillness;itiscalleddesert,boredom,monastery.Thefibersotospeakconsumesitself,rusteatstheidlesword.Thencethatcheckedhatewhichcannotbecomeanger;themiserableenvywhichcannotbecomeact;regret,sadness,despairwhichneitherundonorimprove–cruelserpentswhichgnawatthehumanbeing’sheart.Silentfury,disgust,vexationwithimpotenceisthehell’swolfthateatsatitself.Thehumanbeingiscreatedforreceivingandgiving,forefficacyandjoy,foractingandundergoing.Inhealthhisbodydrawsinandexudes,receiveseasilyandproveseasyforhimtogive;naturedoeshimgentleviolence,andhenature.Inthisattractionandexpansion,activityandrest,lieshealthandhappinessinlife.Iaminterestedintheprizequestion,“Whatsortofeffectsdoesinhalingactuallyproduceinthelivingbody?”FormypurposeIconsideritherejustevenlyastheharmoniousrhythmwithwhichnatureplannedtomoveourmachineandbreathelife-spiritintoit.Thusourmachineisinperpetualeffortandrecuperation,rightdowntothesubtlestinstrumentsofsensationsandthoughts;everythingworks,likethosestones,tothelyreofAmphion.Throughinhaling,thechild,whichhadbeenaplant,becomesananimal.Inthecaseofasickperson,inthecaseofagroaningperson,howinhalinggivescourage,whereaseachsighsotospeakbreathesawayforces.“PraisebetotheAlmighty,”saysthePersianpoetSadi,“foreachlife-breath.Abreaththatonedrawsintooneselfstrengthens,abreaththatonereleasesfromoneselfgivesjoytolife;ineachbreathingtherearetwosortsofmercies.”–Justaseacharterybeats,justasitisonlythroughcontractionthattheheartreceivesforcetopropelforthinitsexpansionthelife-stream,likewisetootheair’sbreathmustcomefromoutsidetoinvigorateandenliventheheartinmodulations.Everythingseemsorderedaccordingtoonesortoflaws.–ButIwouldneverfinishpursuingAccordingtolegend,Amphion,infoundingThebes,madethestonesmovebyplayinghislyre.\nPhilosophyofMindthisgreatphenomenonofefficacyandrest,contractionandexpansion,throughallitsways;letushurryfurther.∗Amechanicalorsupermechanicalplayofexpansionandcontractionmeanslittleornothingifitscausefromwithinandwithoutwerenotalreadypresupposed:“irritation,life.”TheCreatormusthavelinkedaspiritualbondthatcertainthingsaresimilartothissensingpart,andotherscontrarytoit–abondwhichdependsonnomechanism,whichcannotbefurtherexplained,butmustbebelievedbecauseitexists,becauseitrevealsitselfinahundredthousandphenomena.Observethatplant,thatbeautifulstructureoforganicfibers!Howittwists,howitturns,itsleavestodrinkthedewthatrefreshesit!Itlowersandrevolvesitsrootuntilitstands.Eachbush,eachlittletreeinclinestowardsfreshairasmuchasitcan.Thefloweropenstothearrivalofherbridegroom,thesun.Howsomerootsfleetheirenemybeneaththeearth,howtheyspyoutandseekspaceandnourishmentforthemselves!Withwhatwonderfuldiligenceaplantpurifiesalienjuiceintopartsofitsmoresubtleself,grows,loves,givesandreceivesseedsonthewingsofthezephyr,produceslivingoff-printsofitself,leaves,germs,blooms,fruits.Meanwhile,itages,graduallylosesitsirritationsforreceivinganditsforceforgivinganew,dies.Atruemiracleofthepoweroflifeandoflife’sefficacyinanorganicplantbody.Ifweweretoseethroughtheinfinitelysubtlerandmorecomplexlywovenanimalbody,wouldwenotlikewisefindeachfiber,eachmuscle,eachirritablepartinthesamefunctionandinthesameforce,ofseekinglife-juiceinitsownway?Bloodandchyle–dotheynotgetstolenbyallstrandsandglands?Eachseekswhatitneeds,certainlynotwithoutacorrespondinginnersatisfaction.Hungerandthirstinthewholemachineofananimalbody–whatmightyspursanddrives!Andwhyaretheysopowerfulbutbecausetheyareanaggregateofalltheobscurewishes,thelongingyearning,withwhicheachlittlethicketoflifeinourbodythirstsforsatisfactionanditsownpreservation.Itisthevoiceofaseaofwaveswhosesoundsgetlostineachothermoreobscurelyormoreloudly,aflowergardenthirstingforjuiceandlife.Eachflowerwantstodoitswork,toTheimagesofa“seaofwaves”anda“flowergarden”areborrowedfromLeibniz,whohadusedthemfor,respectively,theindividuallysubconsciousbutcollectivelyconscious“petitesperceptions[littleperceptions]”(intheNewEssaysonHumanUnderstanding)andthefullnesswithlifeofeventhesmallestpieceofmatter(intheMonadology).HerderisabouttoturntoacriticismofLeibniz’stheoryofpreestablishedharmony.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulreceive,toenjoy,topurifyforth,togive.Theplantconsumeswaterandearthandpurifiesthemupintopartsofitself;theanimalmakeslessnobleplantsintonobleranimal-juice;thehumanbeingtransformsplantsandanimalsintoorganicpartsofhislife,introducesthemintotheprocessingofhigher,subtlerirritations.Thusdoeseverythingpurifyitselfup;higherlifemustcometobefrominferiorlifethroughsacrificeanddestruction.Finally,thedeepestirritation,asitisthemightiesthungerandthirst:love!Thattwobeingsmate,feelthemselvesoneintheirneedandyearning,thattheirsharedstirring,thewholefountoforganicforces,isreciprocallyoneandbecomesathirdintheirsharedimage–whataneffectofirritationinthewholelivingIofanimalbeings!Animalshavestillbeenabletomatewithoutahead,justasatorn-outheartstillbeatsonirritablyforalongtime.Thedeepabyssofallorganicirritationsandforcesseemstobeinreciprocaloverflow;thesparkofcreationkindlesandtherecomesintobeinganewI,themainspringofnewsensationsandirritations,athirdheartbeats.∗Peoplehavehadsuchstrangelymechanicaldreams“abouttheoriginofhumansouls”asthoughtheyweretrulymadefromclayanddirt.Theylayformedinthemoon,inlimbo,andwaited,doubtlessnakedandcold,fortheirpreestablishedsheaths,orclocks,orclothes,thenot-yet-formedbodies;nowthehousing,garment,clockisreadyandthepoor,so-long-idleinhabitantgetsaddedtoitmechanically,thathemay–bythebody[beiLeibe]!,notaffectit,butonlyinpreestablishedharmonywithitspinthoughtsoutofhimself,justashespunthemthereinlimbotoo,andthatit,theclockofthebody,maystrikeinagreementwithhim.Thereisprobablynothingtobesaidabouttheunnaturalpovertyofthissystem;butwhatwasabletogiverisetoitisdifficultformetoimagine.Ifaforceexistsinnaturewhichmerelythroughorganicirritationformsfromtwobodiesathirdwhichhasthewholespiritualnatureofitsparents,asweseehappenwitheachflowerandplant;ifaforceexistsinnaturesothattwoirritablefibers,woventogetherinacertainway,produceanirritationwhichwasunabletoarisefromasingleoneofthemandisnowofanewsort,as,itseemstome,everysense,indeedeverymuscle,showsusanalogically;HerderismakingasortofpunherewhichcannotbewellpreservedinEnglish:beiLeibe!isanidiomaticexclamationcommonlyusedtoemphasizeanegation,androughlyequivalenttotheEnglish“byJove!”orsomesuch,buttakenmoreliterallyitcanalsomean“withabody.”\nPhilosophyofMindfinally,ifaforceexiststoproducefromtwobodieswhichseemtousdead,fromthemixingoftwoelements,ifnaturedoesit,athirdbodywhichissimilartotheprecedingonesbutisanewthingandifdissolvedintothembyartlosesallitsforce–ifallthis,howeverunintelligibleitmaybe,existsandcannotbedenied,thenwhoistherewhowouldsuddenlyherecutoffthecourseofanalogy,thegreatcourseofcreation,withhispocketknifeandsaythattherevealeddeepabyssoftheirritationoftwothrough-and-throughorganic,livingbeings,withoutwhichbothwouldofcoursebenothingbutdeadclodsofearth,cannotnowinthegreatestfervorofonwardstrivingandunificationproduceanoffprintofitselfinwhichallitsforceslive?Ifthehearthasthepowerofsounitingsensationswhichliearounditthatasingledrive,asingledesirecomesintobeing;iftheheadhasthepowertobringsensationswhichflowthroughthebodyintoasinglerepresentation,andtoguidetheformerthroughthelatter,whichseemstobeofsuchadifferentnature–how[canoneinsist]thatasinglelife-sparkdoesnot,sotospeak,wellupfromoutoftheflameofallunitedirritationsandlifeinswiftflightandhencefaraboveandbeyondthecrawlinglyslowcourseofmechanicalfloorsandmechanismstoanew,higherlevelofitspurification,andasthedistillationofalltheforcesoftwobeingscreatedforeachotherbecomethefirstprincipleofalifeofahigherorder?Doesnotalllifesproutfurther?Doesnoteachsparkofcreationpurifyitselfupwardthroughchannelstoasubtlerflame?Andinthiscase,moreover,itwasthemostensouledsparkoftheirritationandthecreativeforceoftwothrough-and-throughensouledbeingsthatleapt.IdonotsaythatIherebyexplainanything;Ihavenotyetknownanyphilosophythatexplainedwhatforceis,whetherforcestirsinasinglebeingorintwobeings.Whatphilosophydoesistoobserve,ordertogether,elucidateafteritalwaysalreadypresupposesforce,irritation,efficacy.NowIdonotunderstandwhy,ifnothingcanbeexplainedineachindividual,oneshoulddenytheefficacyofonethingonanotherandderideintheunifi-cationoftwothingsphenomenaofnaturewhichoneacceptsunexplainedinthecaseofeachthingindividually.Whoeverwilltellmewhatforceisinthesoulandhowittakeseffectforthesoul,tohimamIwillingtoex-plainimmediatelyhowittakeseffectoutsideitself,alsoonothersouls,alsoonbodies,whichareperhapsnotinnatureseparatedfromthesoul(psychˆe)bysuchstrongwallsastheroomsofourmetaphysicsseparatethem.ThisisanotherexampleofHerder’suseofbrachylogy.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulQuitegenerally,nothinginnatureisseparated,everythingflowsontoandintoeverythingelsethroughimperceptibletransitions;andcertainly,whatlifeisinthecreationisinallitsshapes,forms,andchannelsonlyasinglespirit,asingleflame.Especially,Ithink,thesystemofpreestablishedharmonyoughttohavebeenalientothegreatinventorofthemonad-poem,for,itseemstome,thetwodonotholdwelltogether.NoonesaiditbetterthanLeibnizthatbodyassuchisonlyanappearanceofsubstances,asthemilkywayisofstars,andthecloudofdroplets.Indeed,Leibniztriedtoexplainevenmotionasanappearanceofaninnerconditionwhichwedonotknowbutwhichcouldberepresentationbecausenootherinnerconditionisfamiliartous.What?Andthesoulassuchcouldnothaveeffectonthisinnerconditionoftheforcesandsubstancesofitsbody?–thissoulwhichafterallsharestheirnature,andisitselfinnermost,mosteffectiveforce.Sothesoulwouldgovernonlyinthedomainofitssisters,ofbeingsentirelysimilartoitself;anditcouldnotgovernthere?∗Butitistooearlytogiveroomtoindividualinferences;weremainstillwithphenomenaofthewholemachine.Theinnerhumanbeingwithallhisobscureforces,irritations,anddrivesisonlysingle.Allpassions,lyingabouttheheart,andstirringmanysortsoftools,areconnectedtogetherbyinvisiblebondsandplantrootsinthesubtleststructureofourensouledfibers.Eachlittlestrand,ifonlywecouldhaveinsightintoit,undoubtedlybelongstothisaswell,eachnarrowerandwidervessel,eachmorestronglyandmoreweaklywellingdropofblood.Thecourageofthelion,likethefearfulnessofthehare,liesinitsensouledinnerstructure.Throughthenarrowerarteriesofthelionhiswarmerbloodpressesforthviolently;thestaghasaheartwithwide,openvessels,atimidkingoftheforestdespitehiscrown.Inthematingseason,however,eventhetimidstagisbold;itistheperiodofhisarousedirritationsandincreasedinnerwarmth.Inthedeepabyssofirritationandofsuchobscureforcesliesinhumanbeingsandanimalstheseedofallpassionandenterprise.Moreorlessirritationoftheheartandofitsservantsmakesheroesorcowards,heroesinloveorinanger.TheheartofAchilleswasshakeninitsplexusbyblackanger,itrequiredirritabilitytobecomeanAchilles.Thesatedlionhaslosthiscourage,awomancanhunthim;butahungrywolf,vulture,lion–whatmightycreatures!\nPhilosophyofMindThebravestwereusuallythehappiesthumanbeings,menofopen,broadchest–oftenheroesinloveasinlife.Aeunuchis,inactionasinvoice,onearrestedinyouth,withoutforceordeepexpression.–Thefervor,depth,anddispersionwithwhichwereceive,process,andcommunicatepassionmakesofustheshallowordeepvesselsthatweare.Oftentherelieunderthediaphragmcauseswhichweveryincorrectlyandlaboriouslyseekinthehead;thethoughtcannotreachthereunlessthesensationwasinitsplacebeforehand.Theextenttowhichweparticipateinwhatsurroundsus,howdeeplyloveandhate,disgustandrevulsion,vexationandpleasure,planttheirrootsinus–thistunesthestring-playofourthoughts,thismakesusintothehumanbeingsthatweare.Nowitisinthefaceofthissortofdeepabyssofobscuresensations,forces,andirritationsthatourbrightandclearphilosophyishorrifiedmostofall;itcrossesitselfbeforeitasbeforethehellofthesoul’sbasestforcesandpreferstoplayontheLeibnizianchess-boardwithafewemptywordsandclassificationsaboutobscureandclear,distinctandconfusedideas,aboutcognitioninandoutsideoneself,withoneselfandwithoutoneself,andsoforth.Thismethodissolovelyandeasythatithasalreadybeencho-senasabasicprincipletointroduceintophilosophynothingbutemptywords,withwhich,itisheld,oneisaslittlerequiredtothinkasthecal-culatorwithhisnumbers:this,itisheld,willenablephilosophytoattaintheperfectionofmathematics,thatonecankeeponinferringwithoutthinking–aphilosophyfromwhichmayalltheMusessaveus!Whatelseisthereasonwhyevengood,truephilosophyhassunksolowbutpre-ciselythatinitforwholechaptersanddoctrinesnothinghasbeenthoughtinconnectionwithentirelygeneralwords?Everyhealthyheadnecessarilycaststheseasideandsays,“Iwanttohavesomethingdeterminatetothinkwitheachword,evenineachnewplacewhereitisnewlyused.”Andmy!,howinadequateourmetaphysicalconceptsandwordsare!,whatcareonethereforeneedstotaketokeepafirmgripontheconceptateachmoment,topaycloseattentionwhetheritisstillthesameconceptinthiscaseorisnowonlyitsemptyphantom.Inmymodestopinion,nopsychologyispossiblewhichisnotineachstepdeterminatephysiology.Haller’sphysiologicalworkraisedtopsychology,andenlivenedwithmindHerderisheremainlyalludingtoaproposalofthissortthathadbeenmadebyJ.A.EberhardinhisAllgemeineTheoriedesDenkensundEmpfindens[GeneralTheoryofThinkingandSensation]().Cf.Leibniz’sidealofa“universalcharacteristic.”\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoullikePygmalion’sstatue–thenwecansaysomethingaboutthinkingandsensation.Ionlyknowofthreepathsthatmightleadtothis.Biographies,ob-servationsofdoctorsandfriends,propheciesofpoets–thesealonecanprovideuswithmaterialforthetruescienceofthesoul.Biographies,aboveallautobiographies,iftheyarefaithfulandintelligent–whatdeepidiosyncrasiestheywouldsupply!Ifnotwothingsintheworldarethesame,ifnodissectorhaseveryetfoundtwoidenticalarteries,glands,muscles,orcanals,thenletthisdifferencebepursuedthroughawholehumanstructurerightdowntoeachlittlecog,eachirritationandvaporofthementallife-stream–whataninfinity,whatanabyss!Aseaofdepthswherewaveuponwavestirsandwherealltheabstractionsofsimilarity,category,generalorderareonlyboardedwallsofneedinessorcolorfulhousesofcardstoplaywith.If,now,anindividualhumanbeinghadtheintegrityandfaithfulnesstosketchhimself,fully,asheknowsandfeelshimself,ifhehadenoughcouragetolookintothedeepabyssofPlatonicrecollectionandtosup-pressnothingtohimself,enoughcouragetopursuehimselfthroughhiswholelivingstructure,throughhiswholelife,witheverythingthateachindexfingerpointsouttohiminhisinnerI,whatalivingphysiognomywouldemergefromthat,certainlydeeperthanfromtheoutlineoffore-headandnose.Nopart,Ithink,nolimbwouldbewithoutitscontributionandindication.Itwouldbeabletosaytous:“Heretheheartbeatsweakly;herethechestisflatandunarched;therethearmforceless;herethelungwheezes,therethesenseofsmellisdull;herelivingbreathislacking,sight,hearingareintwilight–thebodydictatestomeweaklyandcon-fusedlyhere;thereforemysoulmustwritehereandthereaswell.Thisislackingtome;whereasIhavethatotherthing,andforsuchareason.”–Ifthefaithfulhistorianofhimselfthenpursuedthisthroughallitscon-sequences,showedthatnoshortcomingandnoforceremainsinoneplacebuthasbroadereffect,andthatthesoulunsuspectedlydrawsAccordingtomyth,Pygmalion,akingofCyprus,fellinlovewithanivorystatueofawoman,askedAphroditetogivehimawomanresemblingit,returnedhometofindthatthestatuehadcomealive,andmarriedher.Herder’sdraftcontainsthefollowinginterestingvariantontheselastremarks:“Sensationisonlytheaggregateofallobscureirritations,justasthoughtistheluminousaggregateofsensation.Physiologyistheshrineofthesoul.Haller’sworkisPygmalion’sstatuewarmingupunderthehandsoftheloverofthehumansoul.”\nPhilosophyofMindbroaderinferencesinaccordancewithsuchgivenformulas,showedhoweacherrorandcoldness,eachfalsecombinationandabsentstirring,mustofnecessityariseineverycase,andhowonemustsupplyineacheffecttheoffprintofone’swholeIwithitsforceandshortcoming–whatinstructiveexamplesdescriptionsofthatsortwouldbe!Thosewillbephilosophicaltimes,whenpeoplewritesuchdescriptions–notwhentheyveilthem-selvesandallhumanhistoryingeneralformulasandword-fog.IftheStoicLipsiusandothersofhispartyhadbeenwillingtosketchthemselvesinthisway,howdifferentlytheywouldappearfromthewaytheynowappearoutofthetwilitword-productsoftheirupperfloor!Iknowofnobiographiesofindividualhumanbeingsbythemselveswhichdidnotineachcase,howeverone-sidedandsuperficialtheirview-pointssometimeswere,havemuchthatwasworthyofattention.BesideswhatAugustine,Petrarch,andMontaignehavestrewnintotheirwritingsaboutthemselves,IshallonlynameCardanoandaweakself-tormentorabeforewhoseextremeweakness,eternaltremblingtowardsandawayfromsuicide,oneshudders.Anumberofstrangephenomena,concerninghowacreaturecanrunsoblindlyintodanger,orcanperpetuallyfleefromitsownshadowsodizzily,timidly,andcowardly,havenotbeenabletobepresentedmorehorrifyinglythanthus,fromthesoftmarrowofhisownsensation.Itisstrangehowanautobiographyalsoshowsthewholemanfromsidesfromwhichhepreciselydoesnotwanttoshowhimself,andoneseesfromcasesofthissortthateverythinginnatureisawhole,that,justpreciselyinobscureindicationsandexamples,onecandisownoneselfbeforeoneselfleastofall.However,sincewewillstillhavetowaitalongtimeforbiographiesofthatsort,anditwouldperhapsnotevenbegoodorusefultobetraythedeepestsanctuarywithinus,whichonlyGodandweshouldknow,toeveryfool,otherpeopletakeourplace,andinthecaseofremarkablepeopletheirfriendshouldbecomewhatthedoctorisinthecaseofsickpeople.ThereisnodoubtatallbutthatamongthemanyobservationsaM.Bernd’sownLebensbeschreibungsamteineraufrichtigenEntdeckungeinerdergro¨ßten,obwohlgroßenteilsnochunbekanntenLeibes-undGemutsplage[¨BiographytogetherwithanHonestRevelationofoneoftheGreatest,althoughfortheMostPartstillUnknown,BodilyandMentalDiseases],Leipzig,especiallypp.–.[Bernd’sinitialwasnotM.butA.,sotheM.heremaystandfor“Monsieur,”inwhichcase,sinceBerndwasGerman,notFrench,HerderwouldbemakingarathermeaninsinuationthathissortofweaknessistypicallyFrench.]J.Lipsius(–),Dutchphilologistandneo-Stoicphilosopher.H.Cardano(–),Italianphilosopher,mathematician,anddoctor.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulofthedoctorsofancientandmoderntimestheremustalsobealotthatcastlightontheseobscureirritationsandforces;themostcomplexpathologyofthesoulandofthepassionsdependsonthese,andnotonspeculation;buttomyknowledgetheyareunordered,uncollected,andnoteveryonehasthedesireortheleisureforthis.Withthemthestrangestanomaliesandanalogiesofhumanfancifulnesswouldcertainlycometolight,andthedirectorofahospitalfortheincurablyinsanewouldmakethemoststrikingcontributionstowardsthehistoryofthegeniusesofalltimesandlands.–WhenIcountthefriendsalongwiththedoctorsIamnotwrongtodoso;theyhaveexactlythesameperspectivethatthedoctorshave,andmoreoverinthecircumstancesofgreaterintimacyandaction.Itisbeyondcomprehensionthesortofobscureeffect,intuition,andinfluencethatonehumansouloftenexercisesonanother,ascanoftenbeseeninthestrangestexamplesofharmoniousdispositions,desires,andforces.Sympathyandlove,pleasureandambition,envyandjealousysolve,throughlooks,throughsecrethints,theriddleofwhatliessowellhiddenbeneaththebreast,scentout,sotospeak,fromnothingbutsmall,visiblesignsthedeeplyhiddensecret.–Thesearesmalldistortedexamplesofthepowerthat,withdiligence,love,andtending,apurehumansoulhasoveranotherperson,andhowfaritcanpenetrateintohim!–adepthofwhichnoonehasasyeteitherattainedthebottomorknowsaplummetforgettingtothebottom.Thepuresthumanbeingonearthknewthemall,needednotestimonyfromoutside,forhewellknewwhatwasinthehumanbeing,anditisascribedtothehumanmindinanespeciallysplendidanalogywiththemindofthedeitythatonlythemindofthehumanbeingknowswhatisinthehumanbeing,sotospeak,restsonitselfandexploresinitsowndepths.Ifnooneelse,thenthepoets’propheciesandsecretintuitionshaveprovedthis.Acharactercreated,conducted,maintainedbyShakespeareisoftenawholehumanlifeinitshiddensprings;withoutknowingit,hedepictsthepassionrightdowntothedeepestabyssesandfibersfromwhichitsprouted.WhensomeonerecentlyclaimedthatShakespeareisnophys-iognomistonthebasisofthenose’sprofile,thenIgladlyconcedethattohim,forShakespearehaslittletimeforadetailofthatsort,exceptwhen,asinthecaseofRichardtheThird,themostobviousnecessitydemandsit.Butthatheisnophysiologist,witheverythinginwhichphysiologyevenrevealsitselfoutwardly–thatnoonecouldsaywhohadseenHamletandLear,OpheliaorOthellosomuchasinadream;quietly,hedepictsHamlet\nPhilosophyofMindrightdowntohishair.Sinceeverythingexternalisonlythereflectionoftheinnersoul,howdeeplyhasthebarbaric,GothicShakespearenoteverywherereachedthroughstrataandlayersofearthtothebasictraitsfromwhichahumanbeinggrows,asKlopstocktothemostsecretwavesandoscillationsofapure,heavenlysoul!Thestudyofthepoetsforthispur-poseissomethingthathasforthemostpartonlybeenattemptedbytheEnglish(onlywiththeirpoets,ofcourse;forwhatwillanEnglishmanfindgoodoutsideofEngland?);forusGermanstherestillremainshereagreatfieldoftimesandpeoples,insteadof[ourusual]uselesseulogiesandchildishreviews.Anduntilthesethreetasksareexhaustedtheanswer[tothequestion]“Underwhatconditionsdoessomethingirritate?”maybepostponed.Icouldgivetenformulasforasolutioninemptyanduncertainexpressions,saythatsomethingirritatesuswhenwecannotavoiditsirritatingus,whentheobjectliessoclosetousthatitrubsagainstusandstirsus.OrIcouldsaythattheobjectirritateswhenitissosimilar,soanalogous,tous...Butwhatwouldthisallmean?Basically,stilljustthatitirritateswhenitirritates,andthateveryonebelieves.Anditmustbebelieved,thatis,experienced,sensed,andfleeseverygeneralword-mongeryandabstractprediction.Ifanobjectofwhichwedidnotdream,fromwhichwehopedfornothing,suddenlyappearssoclosetoourIthatthemostsecretdrivesofourheartwillinglyfollowit,justasthewindstirsthetipsofthegrassbladesandthemagnetstirstheironfilings,thenwhatistheretoponder,toargueabout,here?Itisnewexperience,whichmaynodoubtfollowfromthesystemofthebestworld,butdoesnotexactlyfollowfromoursystemnow.Itisanew,propheticdrivewhichpromisesusenjoyment,makesusintuitthisobscurely,jumpsoverspaceandtime,andgivesusaforetasteofthefuture.Perhapsthatishowitiswiththeinstinctsoftheanimals.Theyarelikeinstrumentstringswhichacertainsoundoftheuniversestirs,onwhichtheworld-spiritplayswithasingleoneofhisfingers.Theyareconnectedwiththeelement,withthecreature,withtheyoung,withtheunknownregionoftheworldwhithertheyspeed;invisiblebondspulltheminthatdirection,whethertheyarrivethereornot,whetheritisaneggorchalkthatthehenbroodson.Thesidesofcreationaresomanyinkind,andsinceeverysidewassupposedtobefelt,intuited,sensedup,thereforetheinstincts,irritations,androotsofsensationhadtobesovariousthatoftennootherbeingexcepttheonethatitselfsensedthemcomprehendsorintuitsthem.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulAnditissplendidthatthingsareso,andthatthedeepestdepthofoursouliscoveredwithnight!Ourpoorladythinker[thesoul]certainlydidnothavetheabilitytograspeachirritation,theseedofeachsensation,initsfirstcomponents;shedidnothavetheabilitytoheararushingworld-seaofsuchobscurewavesaloudwithoutembracingitwithhorrorandworry,withtheanxietyofallfearandtimidity,andhavingtherudderfallfromherhand.Maternalnaturehenceremovedfromherwhatcouldnotdependonherclearconsciousness,weighedouteachimpressionthatshereceivedfromit,andsparedeverychannelthatmightleadtoher.Nowshedoesnotseparateoutrootsbutenjoysthebloom.Scentswafttoherfromobscurebusheswhichshedidnotplant,didnottend;shestandsonanabyssofinfinityanddoesnotknowthatshestandsonit;throughthishappyignoranceshestandsfirmandsecure.Itisnolessgoodfortheobscureforcesandirritationswhichmustcooperateonsuchasubordinatepost;theydonotknowwhy;theycannotandshouldnotknowit;thedegreeoftheirobscurityiskindnessandwisdom.Aclumpofearthbreathedthroughbythelife-breathoftheCreatorisourclayhousing..SensesIfoursoulwassubjecttoaseaofadvancingwavesofirritationandfeelingfromoutside,thedeitygaveussenses;iffrominside,thedeitywoveforusanervestructure.Thenerveprovesmoresubtlywhathasbeensaidconcerningthefibersofirritationgenerally;itcontractsoradvancesaccordingtothetypeofobjectthatcomestoit.Inonecaseitfloatstowards[theobject]andthepointsofitsextremestthicketsstandonend.Thetonguetastesinadvance;thelittlesmelling-thicketsopenupfortheapproachingscent;evenearandeyeopenuptothesoundandthelight,andespeciallyinthecaseofthecoarsersensesthelife-spiritshastenmightilytoreceivetheirHerderishereagainborrowinganimageusedbyLeibnizinasimilarwayintheNewEssaysonHumanUnderstanding.Herder’sdraftcontinuesatthispoint:“Letnoonedemandherethephysiologyoftheseparts;itsufficesforustoknowthatthepithofthenervesisnothingbutafinerweboffibers,thestring-playofanirritationwhichisnowcalledsensationandnowcommunicatesitselfandtakeseffectinaninfinitelymorementalistic,higherway.Dowe,then,encountertheprecedinglawsandpropertiesofirritationheretoo?Certainly!Onlyinahigherequation.”I.e.thenerveendings.\nPhilosophyofMindnewguest.–Ontheotherhand,whenpainapproachesthenervefleesandshudders.Wecontractwithashiverinthepresenceofanextremelydisharmoniousnoise;ourtongueisrepelledinthepresenceofabadtaste,asoursenseofsmellinthepresenceofanunpleasantscent.Theear,saysthespeakerofLatin,isrepelledtohear,theeyetosee;ifitcould,thefeeling-budwouldcloseup,liketheflowerinthefaceofthecoldeveningbreeze.Shuddering,shivering,vomiting,andinthecaseofthesenseofsmellsneezing,arethroughandthroughsuchphenomenaofretreat,ofresistance,ofopposition,asagentlefloatingtowardsandmeltingawayshowstransitionandyieldinginthecaseofpleasantobjects.Atbottom,therefore,westillhaveherethoselawsandphenomenawhichwenoticedinthecaseofeveryirritablefiber,andthatadditionallythatlawholdsinthecaseofthementalsensationsofthebeautifulandthesublime,that,namely,eachfeelingofthesublimeisboundupwitharetreatintooneself,withfeelingforoneself,andeachsensationofthebeautifulwithfloatingtowardsfromoutofoneself,withsympathyandcommunication,hasbeenwellexplainedbytheexcellentauthorofaverywell-knowntreatiseb–atheorywhich,eventhoughamongnobleaffairsanddispositionsitwasonlyplay,onlyrecreationforhim,almostcausesmetoenvyhim.PerhapsIwillsoonreceivefavorableleisuretocollecttogetheressaysthatIhavethrownonpaperaboutthemannerofsensationofafewindividualsenses;heremypurposeaimsonlyatwhatisgeneral.Andobserve–whatIsaidformerlyinthecaseofirritationanditsobject–thathereinthecaseofthesensestoothereisamedium,acertainmentalbond,withoutwhichthesensecouldneitherintimatelyreachtheobjectnortheobjectthesense,andwhichwethereforemusttrust,believein,inthecaseofallsensuouscognitions.Withoutlightoureyeandtheseeingforceinoursoulwouldbeidle,withoutnoiseourearwouldbeempty;henceaspecialseahadtobecreatedthatwouldflowintobothsensesandbringtheobjectsintothem,orinotherwords,“thatabstractsfromcreatedbeings[Geschopfe]¨asmuchasthisportalcanreceive,butleavestothemeverythingelse,theirwholeinfiniteabyss.”WonderfulorganofthebeinginbBurke,UntersuchunguberdenUrsprungunsererBegriffevomErhabenenundSch¨onen[¨Philo-sophicalEnquiryintotheOriginofOurIdeasoftheSublimeandtheBeautiful],Riga,.[Herder’sdraftreferstoBurkeatthispointas“theauthorofthesplendid,trulyNewtoniansystemconcerningthecausesofthebeautifulandsublime.”]HerderhereusestheGermanverbentsetztsich,whichmeans“isappalled”butetymologically“movesitselfaway.”HeisevidentlyalludingtotheLatinverbhorrerewhichsimilarlycombinesanoriginalphysicalsense,“tostandonend,toshudder,”withapsychologicalsense,“todread.”\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulwhomallliveandsense!TherayoflightisHisindication,Hisfingeror[pointing-]stick,foroursoul;noiseisHisbreath,themiraculouswordofHiscreatures[Gesch¨opfe]andservants.HowmightilytheCreatorhasherebybroadenedHisworldforus!Allcoarsesenses,fibers,andirritationscanonlysenseinthemselves;theobjectmustcomeinaddition,touchthem,andinacertainsenseitselfbecomeonewiththem.Hereawayisalreadyopenedupforcognitionoutsideus.cOurearhearsacrossmiles;therayoflightbecomesastickwithwhichwereachupasfarasSirius.Immediatelybeforemyeyethegreateyeoftheworldhasspreadoutageneralorganwhichbringsathousandcreaturesintome,whichclothesathousandbeingswithonerobeforme.AboutmyearflowsaseaofwaveswhichHishandpouredoutinorderthataworldofobjectsmightpenetrateintomewhichwouldotherwisehavetoremainformeeternallyanobscure,silentgraveofthedead.Theredoesmysenseuseallthetricksandsubtletiesthatablindmanwithhisstickusestogrope,tofeel,tolearndistance,difference,size,andintheendwithoutthismediumweknownothing,wemustbelieveit.Ifthenoise,thelight,thescent,thespicedeceivesme,ifmysenseisfalse,orifIhaveonlygotinthehabitofusingitfalsely,thenwithallmycognitionandspeculationIamlost.Also,forathousandothersensesinathousandothermediatheobjectcanbesomethingcompletelydifferent,initselfcompletelyanabyss,ofwhichIscentoutandintuitnothing;formeitisonlywhatthesenseanditsmedium–theformertheportal,thelatterthedeity’sindexfingerforoursoul–presentstome.Internallyweknownothingbeyondourselves;withoutsensestheworld-structurewouldbeforusaninterwoventangleofobscureirritations;theCreatorhadtopart,separate,spelloutforusandinus.NowImustagainremarkthattoinvestigateexactlythecontributionwhicheachsensesuppliestothesoulwouldinevitablybeapleasantandextremelynoteworthypleasure-coursewhichwesaveupforourselvesforanothertime.Butthatthiscontributionofthesensescannotwithtwohumanbeingsbeidenticalinkindandstrength,depthandextent,isshownbymanyexamples.Sightandhearing,whichprovidethemostmaterialforthought,seldomexistinthesamedegreeofdevelopmentcSeeSulzer’sexcellentessayonthinkingandsensation[Anmerkungen¨uberdenverschiedenenZustand,worinsichdieSeelebeiAus¨ubungihrerHauptverm¨ogen,n¨amlichdesVerm¨ogens,sichetwasvorzustellen,unddesVerm¨ogenszuempfinden,befindet(firstedition,inFrench,)],inhismiscellaneousphilosophicalwritings,treatise,andHistoiredel’AcademieRoyaledeBerlin[Historyofthe´RoyalAcademyofBerlin],vol.,pp.–.\nPhilosophyofMindandnaturalstrengthinahumanbeing.Clarityoftheeyeoftenhatesdeepreceptivenessoftheear(toputitinmentalterms),hencethetwosteedsthatpullfirstonthesoul’scarareunequal.Thethreegreatestepicpoetsinthewholeworld,Homer,Ossian,andMilton,wereblind,asthoughthisquietobscuritywasrequiredinorderforalltheimagesthattheyhadseenandgraspednowtobeabletobecomesound,word,sweetmelody.Acongenitallyblindpoetandacongenitallydeafphilosopherwouldinevitablyshowstrangepeculiarities,justastheblindSaundersonalongwithhearinglovedsmellandfeeling.Ifauniversalphilosophicallanguagewereeverinvented,itwouldperhapsbebysomeonecongenitallydeafanddumbwhowas,sotospeak,entirelysight,entirelysignsofabstraction.Notwopoetshaveeverusedonemeterinthesameway,orprobablyfeltitinthesamewayeither.ASapphicodefromtheGreekwoman,fromCatullus,andfromHoraceishardlythesamething.WhatmediocreearwillnotdistinguishahexameterbyKlopstock,Kleist,BodmerorbyLucretius,Virgil,Ovidalmostatthefirstsound?FortheonepoethisMuseissight,image,fortheothervoice,forthethirdaction.Oneprophetwasawakenedthroughtheplayofstrings,theotherthroughvisions.Notwopaintersorpoetshaveseen,grasped,depictedasingleobject,evenifonlyasinglemetaphor,inthesameway.Ifonecouldpursuethisdifferenceinthecontributionsofdifferentsensesthroughlands,times,andpeoples,thematterwouldinevitablybecomeaninfinity.[Onewouldask,]forexample,whatthecauseisofthefactthatFrenchmenandItaliansinmusic,ItaliansandDutchmeninpainting,understandsomethingsodifferent.Forobviouslyatthispartingofthewaystheartsgetsensedby[different]nationswithdifferentmen-talsenses,perfectedwithdifferentmentalsenses.Butherewecontinueon,[noting]that,howeverdifferentthiscontributionofdifferentsensestothoughtandsensationmaybe,inourinnerselveseverythingflowstogetherandbecomesone.Weusuallycallthedepthofthisconfluenceimagination[Einbildung],butitdoesnotconsistonlyofimages[Bildern]butalsoofsounds,words,signs,andfeelings,forwhichlanguagewouldoftenhavenoname.Sightborrowsfromfeelingandbelievesthatitseeswhatitonlyfelt.Sightandhearingdecodeeachotherreciprocally.Smellseemstobethespiritoftaste,orisatleastaclosebrotheroftaste.FromHerderisherealludingtoPlato’sfamousmetaphorforthesoulatPhaedrus,aff.:acharioteersteeringtwosteeds.Diderot,Lettresurlesaveugles.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulallthis,now,thesoulweavesandmakesforitselfitsrobe,itssensuousuniverse.Heretooillusionsandvisions,illnessesanddreams,areoftenthestrangestbetrayersofwhatsleepswithinus.ThatgiantPascalwhosesoulevertearsdowncliffsandrevealsflamingabyssesbesidethemreachedthepointthatintheendhealwayssawthedark,burningabyssnexttohim.Morethanonefanaticofagentlersortbelievedhimselfalwayssurroundedbybrightlight.AndeventhegreatthinkerTsirnhausen,dwhosemannerofstudyingwasatleastromanticenough,didnotfindhimselfinthetrueflowofthoughtuntilhesawsparksandraysaroundhim.Iknowoftheexampleofanotherphilosopherwhoatthebeginningofhisillnessinasortofstrangeswoonheardwords,thelastwordsofwhathehadread.Onehumanbeingpossessestheartofseeingfarmorethantheartofhearing;whetherhebeapoetoraphilosopher,hiscognition,hispresentation,hisstyle,hiscompositionwillcertainlyshapeitselfaccordingly.Howmanyarecalledpoetsandareonlywitsandmenofunderstandingbecausetheyareentirelylackinginpoeticimaginationwithrespecttosightandhear-ing,andhowmanywholikePlatoonlypaintoutafewmetaphorsandthemetaphorslasteternally.ButIamstrayingtoofar.∗Ifinthiswayeverythingflowstogetheroutofoursensesintotheimag-ination,orhoweverwewanttocallthisseaofinnersensuality,andourthoughts,sensations,anddrivesswimandfloatuponit,hasnaturenotwovenanythingfurtherthatunitesthem,thatguidesthem?Certainly,andthisisthenervestructure.DelicatesilverbondsthroughwhichtheCreatorlinkstheinnerandouterworlds,andwithinusheartandhead,thoughtandvolition,sensesandalllimbs.Trulysuchamediumofsen-sationforthemindedhumanbeingasoutwardlylightwasabletobefortheeye,soundfortheear.Wehavesensationsonlyofwhatournervesgiveus;also,onlyaccordingtoandfromthiscanwethink.Now,whetheronecallsthislivingmindthatundulatesthroughusflameorether–enough,itistheincomprehensibleheavenlybeingthatbringseverythingtome,anduniteseverythinginme.WhatdoestheobjectthatIseehaveincommonwithmybrain,thebraindSeetheElogedeTsirnhausenparM.Fontenelle[EulogyofTsirnhausenbyMr.Fontenelle].ProbablyM.Mendelssohn(–).\nPhilosophyofMindwithmyundulatingheart,thattheformerbecomesanimage,thelatterapassion?Behold,thereexistshereasomethingthatmusthaveastrangenaturebecauseitservessuchstrangedifferences.Lightwasabletodoonlyonething,namelyturnthewholeobscureabyssoftheworldintoanimage,makeeverythingeyeablefortheeye[demAugeallesver¨augen];soundwasabletodoonlyonething,namelymakeaudiblethatwhichwouldotherwiseonlyexistforothersenses.Andsoforth.Thisinneretherneednotbelight,sound,scent,butitmustbeabletoreceiveandtransformeverythingintoitself.Itcanbecomelightforthehead,irritationfortheheart;henceitmustbeoftheirnatureorimmediatelyborderthereon.Athought,andaflamingstreampoursfromtheheadtotheheart.Anirritation,asensation,andathoughtflasheslikelightning,therearisesvolition,plan,deed,action–everythingthroughoneandthesamemessenger.Truly,ifthisisnottobecalledstring-playofthedeity,thenwhatshouldbecalledthat?Now,ifIhadenoughpowerandknowledgetorepresentthisnoblestring-playinitsstructure,initsconductingandknotting,entwiningandsubtilizing,toshowthatnobranch,nobond,nolittleknotisinvain,andthatinproportionasitbindsandguidesitselfoursensations,limbs,anddrivesbind,stimulate,andstrengtheneachothertoo(though,tobesure,notmechanicallythroughblowsandimpacts!)–oh,whataworkofstrangelyfinedevelopmentsandobservationsfromthefoundationofoursoulitwouldhavetobecome!Idonotknowwhetheritalreadyexists,whetherathinkingandfeelingphysiologisthaswrittenitespeciallyforthepurposeforwhichIwishit.ItseemstomethatitwouldhavetocontaintheCreator’smostbeautifulwritinginletters,[expressing]howHeboundanddividedlimbs,ensouledthemmoreorless,derived,suppressed,knotted,strengthenedfeelings,sothattheeyeneedonlyseeandthevisceraundulate,theearhearsandourarmstrikes,themouthkissesandfireflowsthroughallthelimbs–miracleuponmiracle!atrue,subtlewritinginflamesbytheCreator.Butweagainremainmerelywithgeneralphenomena,forexample,theso-called“effectsoftheimaginationinthewomb.”Manypeoplehaveflatlydeniedthembecausetheirsystemdidnottoleratethem,whereasinfactstrikingexamplesofthemcanbefamiliartoalmosteveryone.Whatgoodwoulditdo,therefore,todenyexperiencesforthesun?IfitwereOrpossibly:mustnot.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulaquestionofclumsymechanism,woodenpressureandimpact,inourbody,andespeciallyinthedelicatebodyofthemotheratthetimewhenshecarriestheunbornchild,ifthesoulwithitsimaginationresidedinthepinealglandandshouldnowhavetoreachthechildwithpolesandladders,certainlyinthatcaseonecouldshakeone’swisehead.Butasthingsstand,sinceaccordingtoallexperienceseverythingisfullofirritationandlife,sincetheselivesareinsuchamiraculousmanneraunityinus,asoul-human(anthrˆopospsychikos)whomallmechanicalmechanismsandlimbswillinglyserve,andsincenowpreciselythisconfluent,ensouledunityinusiswhatiscalledimaginationwhenweunderstandthewordinitstruescope,whatisincoherentintheideathatthissoul-worldinwhosemidstthechildfloats,sotospeak,thiswholepsychologicalhumanbeingwhoholdsthechildinherarms,shouldalsocommunicatetoitallimpressions,allirritationsfromherself?Inacontextofmentalforcesspaceandtime,whichseemtoexistonlyforthecoarseworldofbodies,disappear.Wegetformed,saystheoldEasternpieceofwisdom,inthelapofthemotherwhogivesuslife,asinthemid-pointoftheearth,whitherallinfluencesandimpressionsflowtogether.Inthismatterwomenareourphilosophers,notwetheirs.Justthesameappliestotheso-called“influenceofthesoulonthebodyandofthebodyonthesoul.”Ifsomethinghereweresupposedtobeexplainedthroughpinealgland,elasticallytensednerves,blowsandimpacts,thenletapersonstillscrupleanddeny.Butasthingsare,sinceourstructureknowsnothingofsuchawoodenweaver’sloom,sinceeverythingswimsinirritationandscentandforceandetherealstream,sinceourwholebody,somanifoldlyensouledinitsdiverseparts,seemstobeonlyasinglerealmofinvisible,inner,butlessbrightandobscureforceswhichisinthestrictestbondwiththeladymonarchwhothinksandwillswithinus,sothateverythingisathercommandandinthisinwardlylinkedrealmspaceandtimedisappear–whatcouldbemorenaturalthanthatsherulesoverthosewithoutwhichshewouldnotbewhatsheis?Foronlythroughthisrealm,inthisconnection,didshebecomeandissheahumansoul.Herthoughtonlyarisesfromsensation;herservantsandangels,messengersofairandflame,streamtoherherfood,justastheyonlyliveinherwill.Sherules,tospeakwithLeibniz,inarealmofslumbering,butthatmuchmoredeeplyeffective,beings.Psalm,vs.–.\nPhilosophyofMindIcannotatallimaginehowmysoulshouldspinsomethingoutofitselfanddreamaworldoutofitself,indeedIcannotevenimaginehowitshouldsensesomethingoutsideitselfofwhichthereexistsnoanalogoninitanditsbody.Iftherewereinthisbodynolight,nosound,thenwewouldhavenosensationinthewholewideworldofanythingthatwassoundandlight;andiftherewerenothinganalogoustosound,tolight,inthesoulitself,oraroundit,thenanyconceptofthiswouldstillbeimpossible.Butasthingsstand,allthestepsthatwehavetakensofarshowthatthedeityachievedallofthisforusthroughwaysandchannelswhichalwaysreceive,purify,washforth,unifymore,makemoresimilartothesoul,thatwhichatadistancewasstillsodissimilartoit.Ithereforeamnotatallfearfuloftheoldexpressionthatthehumanbeingisalittleworld,thatourbodymustbeanepitomeofthewholerealmofbodies,asoursoularealmofallmentalforceswhichreachus,andthatwhatwearesimplynotwealsocannotknowandsense.Thephilosophy-of-preprinted-forms[Formular-Philosophie]whichunwindseverythingfromoutofitself,fromoutofthemonad’sinnerforceofrepresentation,admittedlyhasnoneedofallthis,sinceithaseverythinginitself;butIdonotknowhowitgotthere,andthisphilosophyitselfdoesnotknow.“Butthennaturallythesoulwouldbematerial?,orwewouldevenhavemanyimmaterialsouls?”Wehavenotyetreachedthatpoint,myreader;Idonotyetknowwhat‘material’or‘immaterial’is,butIdonotbelievethatnaturehasfixedironsheetsbetweenthetwobecauseIdonotseetheironsheetsinnatureanywhere,andcancertainlysuspectthemleastofallwherenatureunitedsointimately.Enough,wenowturnfirstofallto.CognitionandvolitionAllsensationswhichrisetoacertainclarity(theinnerconditioninthecaseisunnameable)becomeapperception,thought;thesoulcognizesthatitsenses.Nowwhateverthoughtis,thereisobservableinitthemostintimateforceformakingoutofmanywhichstreamtousaluminousOne,and,ifImayputitthisway,asortofreactionwhichfeelsmostclearlythatitisaOne,aself.Afigurativelanguageofthissortindeedseemsmystical,butinmysteries,andinthedeepestmysteryofthecreationofoursoul,oneThehyphenatedexpressionapproximatelycapturesapunthatisintheGerman.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulcanscarcelyexplainoneselfotherwise.Enough,whatwesawinthecaseofeachirritation,eachsensation,eachsense,namelythatnature“unitesamany,”thathappenshereintheclearest,mostintimateway.If,now,wearewillingtofollowexperience,thenweseethatthesoulspins,knows,cognizesnothingoutofitself,butwhatitsuniversestreamstowardsitfromwithinandwithoutandGod’sfingerindicatestoit.ItgetsbacknothingfromthePlatonicrealmofthepreviousworld;ithasalsonotputitselfintheplacewhereitnowstands;itdoesnotevenknowhowitgotthere.Butthisitdoesknow,orshouldknow,thatitonlycognizeswhatthisplaceshowsit,thatthereisnothingtotheideaofamirroroftheuniversedrawingfromoutofitself,ofaninfiniteascentofitspositiveforceinomnipotentautonomy.Itisinaschoolofthedeitywhichithasnotgivenitself;itmustusetheirritations,thesenses,theforcesandopportunitieswhichbecameitsownthroughafortunate,unearnedinheritance,oritretreatsintoadesertwhereitsdivineforcegoeslameandblind.Abstractegoism,therefore,evenifitwereonlylanguageoftheschools,seemstomecontrarytothetruthandtheopencourseofnature.IcannotheregointoindividualdetailinordertoshowinthecaseofeachsensehowwiselyandkindlythefatherofournatureeverywheretrainsusinformulasofHiswisdomandkindness,butthatheconstantlytrainsusinthisway,thatoursoulactuallycandonothinganddoesnothingbutsolveformulasofthissort,withashotofdivineenergyproducelight,notindeedfromdarkness,butfromtwilight,bright,warmsparksfromadampflame–this,itseemstome,isshownandsaidbyalltheactionsofourcognizing,willingsoul.Thissoulistheimageofthedeityandseekstoimprintthisimageoneverythingthatsurroundsitself,makesthemanifoldone,seeksfromliestruth,fromvacillatingrestclearactivityandeffect.Anditisconstantlyasthoughitintheprocesslooksintoitselfandwiththeloftyfeeling“IamthedaughterofGod,amHisimage”saystoitself“Letus!”andwillsandrules.Wehavenoconceptionofamoreintimateactivitythanthatofwhichahumansouliscapable;itretreatsintoitself,restsonitself,sotospeak,andcanturnandovercomeauniverse.Everyhigherdegreeofpower,ofattentionandabstraction,ofvoluntarychoiceandfreedom,liesinthisobscurefoundationofthemostintimateirritationandconsciousness[thatthesoulhas]ofitself,ofitsforce,ofitsinnerlife.“Egoism”inthesensethatitoftenbearsinKant:solipsism.\nPhilosophyofMindPeopleareinthehabitofaccordingtothesoulamassofsubordi-nateforces,imaginationandforesight,poetictalentandmemory,butmanyexperiencesshowthatwhatinthemisnotapperception,consciousnessofself-feelingandofself-activity,belongsonlytotheseaofinflowingsen-sualitywhichstirsthesoul,whichsuppliesitwithmaterials,butnottothesoulitself.Onewillnevergetdeeplytothebottomoftheseforcesifonemerelytreatsthemsuperficiallyasideasthatdwellinthesoul,or,worsestill,separatesthemfromoneanotheraswalledcompartmentsandconsidersthemindividuallyinindependence.Inimaginationandmemory,recollectionandforesight,toothesingledivineforceofoursoul,“inneractivitythatlookswithinitself,consciousness,apperception,”mustrevealitself.Inproportiontothelatterdoesahumanbeinghaveunderstanding,conscience,will,freedom;therestareinflowingwavesofthegreatworld-sea.Peoplesaythewordimaginationandarewonttocreditittothepoetashispatrimony;butitisveryilliftheimaginingiswithoutconsciousnessandunderstanding,thepoetisonlyaravingdreamer.So-calledphiloso-phershavedecriedwitandmemory,assignedtheformeronlytobuffoons,thelattertoword-merchants–whichisashameforthesenobleforces.Witandmemory,imaginationandpoetictalent,havebeenusedwithsuchunderstandingbygoodsoulsthattheirgreatunderstandingcouldcer-tainlynothavegrowntomaturitywithoutthosebroadlygrippingroots.HomerandShakespearewerecertainlygreatphilosophers,asLeibnizwasathinkerwithmuchwitinwhomitwasusuallyametaphor,animage,acasuallywrittensimilethatproducedthetheorieswhichhecasuallywroteonaquartosheetandfromwhichtheweaving-guildsafterhimspunthickvolumes.RabelaisandSwift,ButlerandeventhegreatBacon,werethinkersofwit;thelastalsobelongsamongthose–Whoseringthroughonethought-pairIntrustandchastitywedoftthousandsdidbear.ButitwouldnotbemyenemyonwhomIwishedtheirwitandtheirfigurativelanguage.Baconwashostiletoscholasticcleverness,butonlytoscholasticcleverness,whichturnseverylivingcreatureofGodintomold.Trueclevernesshehimselflovedandshowed.Locke’sphilosophywasthetrimmingknifeforDescartes’weavings,andLeibniz’witwasrequiredtounfoldBayle’sdialecticalclevernessinitsexaggeratedness.TheverbalReadingdenenforder.LinesadaptedbyHerderfromapoembyJ.P.L.Withof.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulmemoryoftheschoolpedantsisamiserablethinganddriesupthesoulintoasorrylistofnames;butforaCaesarorMithridateswasnotinthesecasestheirmemoryfornamesessentialtoo?Inshort,alltheseforcesareatbottomonlyasingleforceiftheyshouldbehuman,good,anduseful–andthatisunderstanding,intuitionwithinnerconsciousness.Letoneremovethisfromthem,andthentheimaginationisillusion,thewitchildish,thememoryempty,theclevernessacobweb;butinproportionastheyhaveit,theseforcesthatwouldotherwiseseemtobeenemiesuniteandbecomemerelyrootsorsensuousrepresentationsofoneandthesameenergyofthesoul.Memoryandimaginationbecometheextendedanddeepimageoftruth;clevernessseparatesandwitcombinessothatpreciselyaclear,weightyOnearises;fantasyfliesup,self-consciousnessfoldsthewings–throughandthroughexpressionsofoneandthesameenergyandelasticityofthesoul.Whatthough?Doesthisinnerelasticityhavenohelper,nostaff,onwhichitsupportsandholdsitself,nomedium,ifImayputitthatway,whichawakensitandguidesitseffect,aswefoundinthecaseofeachirri-tation,eachsense?Ibelieveso!–andthismediumofourself-feelingandmentalconsciousnessis–language.Peoplecongenitallydeafanddumbshowthroughstrangeexampleshowdeeplyreason,self-consciousness,slumberswhentheycannotimitate,andIbelieve(rathercontrarytomypreviousopinion)thatreallysuchastaffofawakeninghadtocometotheaidofourinnerconsciousness,aslighttotheaidoftheeye,thatitmightsee,soundtotheaidoftheear,thatitmighthear.Justastheseexternalmediaarereallyfortheirsenses[formsof]languagewhichspelloutforthemcertainpropertiesandsidesofthings,similarly,Ibelieve,word,languagehadtocometoaidinorderlikewisetoawakenandguideourinnermostseeingandhearing.Thus,wesee,doesthechildachievementalfocus,itlearnstospeakjustasitlearnstosee,andpreciselyinaccordancetothink.Whoeverhasnoticedchildren,howtheylearntospeakandthink,thestrangeanomaliesandanalogiesthatgetexpressedintheprocess,willhardlydoubtanylonger.Inthedeepestlanguagestooreasonandwordareonlyasingleconcept,asinglething:logos.Thehumanbeinggapesatimagesandcolorsuntilhespeaks,untilhe,internallyinhissoul,names.Thosehumanbeingswho,ifImayputitthisway,havemuchofthisinnerI.e.intheTreatiseontheOriginofLanguage.ThisrevisionbyHerderofhisearlierviewisveryimportant.logos:word,reason.\nPhilosophyofMindword,ofthisintuiting,divinegiftofdesignation,alsohavemuchunder-standing,muchjudgment.Thosewhodonothaveit,evenifawholeseaofimagesweretoswimaroundthem,onlygapewhentheysee,cannotgrasp,nottransformintothemselves,notuse.Themoreonestrengthens,guides,enriches,formsthisinnerlanguageofahumanbeing,thenthemoreoneguideshisreasonandmakesalivethedivineinhim,whichneedsstaffsoftruth,andraisesitselfupwiththemasfromslumber.–Wewillseeinanotherplacethegreatworldofconsequencesthatthisyields.Ourcognitionistherefore,althoughadmittedlyitisthedeepestselfinus,notasautonomous,voluntarilychoosing,andunboundasisbelieved.Settingallthataside(whathasbeenshownsofar),onecanseethatinorderforourcognitioneventoarisefromsensation,theobjectstillhastocometousthroughsecretbonds,throughanindicationwhichteachesustocognize.Thisteaching,thissenseofanalienwhichimprintsitselfinus,givesourthinkingitswholeshapeanddirection.Regardlessofallseeingandhearingandinflowfromoutside,wewouldgropeaboutindeepnightandblindnessifinstructionhadnotearlyonthoughtforusand,sotospeak,imprintedinusready-madethought-formulas.Theredidourforceraiseitselfup,learntofeelanduseitself.Foralongtime,andoftenourwholeliveslong,wewalkwiththesupportofthestaffsthatwerereachedtousinearliestchildhood,ourselvesthinkbutonlyinformsinwhichothersthought,cognizewhatthefingerofsuchmethodsindicatestous;therestisforusasthoughitdidnotexistatall.Forthemostpartthis“birthofourreason”issoindecenttothewisemenofourworldthattheyquitefailtorecognizeitandreveretheirreasonasacongenital,eternal,utterlyindependent,infallibleoracle.Doubtlessthesewisemenneverwalkedinchildren’ssmocks,neverlearnedtospeakastheirnursemaidsspoke,orperhapshavenolimited“circleofsensation,”nomother-andhuman-tongue,atall.Theyspeaklikethegods,thatis,theythinkpurelyandcognizeethereally–wherefore,then,alsonothingbutsayingsofthegodsandofreasonareabletocomefromtheirlips.Everythingisfortheminnate,implanted,thesparkofinfalliblereasonstolenfromheavenwithoutaPrometheus.Letthemtalkandpraytotheiridol-words[Bildw¨orter];theyknownotwhattheydo.Themoredeeplysomeonehasclimbeddownintohimself,intothestructureandoriginofhisnoblestthoughts,thenthemorehewillcoverhiseyesandfeetandsay:“WhatIam,Ihavebecome.Ihavegrownlikeatree;theseedwas\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulthere,butair,earth,andalltheelements,whichIdidnotdepositaboutmyself,hadtocontributeinordertoformtheseed,thefruit,thetree.”∗Cognitionwithoutvolitionisnothingaswell,afalse,imperfectcognition.Ifcognitionisonlyapperception,deepfeelingofthetruth,whowillseetruthandnotsee?Whocognizegoodnessandnotwillandlove?Preciselythesedivisionsshowhowmuchthetreeofourinnerselfispulledapartandshredded,sothatspeculationcancountforusascognitionandplayasactivity.Speculationisonlystrivingforcognition;onlyafoolforgetsthehavingovertheprocessofstriving.Speculationisdividingup;whoeverperpetuallydivideswillneverpossessanduseentirely.Butifonepossessesandfeelsthatonepossesses,theninthecaseofahealthypersonuseandenjoymentisnatural.Hencealso,nopassion,nosensationisexcludedthatwouldnotbe-comevolitionthroughsuchcognition;preciselyinthebestcognitionallcanandmustbeeffective,becausethebestcognitionarosefromallofthemandonlylivesinallofthem.[Thoseare]liarsorenervatedpeoplewhoboastofhavingnothingbutpurefundamentalprinciplesandcurseinclinations,fromwhichalonetruefundamentalprinciplesarise!Thatwouldamounttosailingwithoutwind,andfightingwithoutweapons.Irritationisthemainspringofourexistenceanditmustalsoremainsointhenoblestcognition.Whatinclinationandpassion[isthere]thatcouldnotbeenlivenedwithcognitionandlove,ofGodandone’sneighbor,sothatittakeseffectonlythatmuchmorepurely,certainly,andmightily?Thedrossgetsburnedoffbutthetruegoldshouldremain.EveryforceandeveryirritationthatsleepsinmybreastshouldawakenandtakeeffectonlyinthespiritofmyCreator.Butwhoteachesmethis?Isthereaconscience,amoralfeeling,that,separatedfromallcognition,mightshowmetherightpath?Thewordsthemselvesseemnonsensewhenonepresentstheminthatway–butIhardlybelievethatsuchathinghaseverbeenahumanbeing’sopinion.Ifnothoroughcognitionexistswithoutvolition,thenalsonovolitioncanexistwithoutcognition;theyareonlyasingleenergyofthesoul.Butjustasourcognitionisonlyhumanandmustbethatwayifitistoberight,likewiseourvolitioncanonlybehumanaswell,hencefromandfullofhumansensation.Humanityisthenoblemeasureaccordingtowhichwe\nPhilosophyofMindcognizeandact;henceself-andother-feeling(onceagainexpansionandcontraction)arethetwoexpressionsoftheelasticityofourwill;loveisthenoblestcognition,asitisthenoblestsensation.TolovethegreatCreatorinoneself,toloveone’swayintoothers,andthentofollowthissurepull–thatismoralfeeling,thatisconscience.Itstandsopposedonlytoemptyspeculation,butnottocognition,fortruecognitionisloving,isfeelinginahumanway.Beholdthewholeofnature,observethegreatanalogyofcreation.Everythingfeelsitselfandcreaturesofitskind,lifeflowstolife.Eachstringreverberatestoitssound,eachfiberinterweavesitselfwithitsplay-mate,animalfeelswithanimal–whyshouldnothumanbeingfeelwithhumanbeing?OnlyheisGod’simage,anepitomeandadministratorofthecreation;hencetheresleepwithinhimathousandforces,irritations,andfeelings;henceordermustruleinthem,sothatallawakenandcanbeapplied,sothathemaybecomethesensoriumofhisGodineverythinglivingincreationinproportionasitisrelatedtohim.Thisnobleuniversalfeelinghencebecomespreciselythroughwhatitiscognition,thenoblestknowledgeofGodandhisfellowcreaturesthroughefficacyandlove.Self-feelingshouldremainonlytheconditiosinequanon,theclodthatholdsusfirmlyinourplace,notendbutmeans.Butanecessarymeans,foritisandremainstruethatweloveourneighboronlyasourselves.Ifwearedisloyaltoourselves,howwillwebeloyaltoothers?Inthedegreeofthedepthofourself-feelingliesalsothedegreeofourother-feelingforothers,foritisonlyourselvesthatwecan,sotospeak,feelintoothers.Itseemstomethatthosearethereforeemptyquarrels[whichask]wheretheprincipleofourmoralitylies,whetherinvolitionorcognition,whetherinourownorinalienperfection.Allvolitionindeedbeginsfromcognition,butalsoinitsturnallcognitiononlyarisesthroughsensation.Icanonlyattainmyownperfectionthroughtheperfectionofothers,asthelatter[canonlydoso]throughtheformer.Hippocratesalreadycalledhumannaturealivingcircle,andthatitis.AchariotofGod,eyeallround,fullofwindandlivingwheels.Hencethereisnothingthatonemustguardagainstasmuchasone-sidedmutilationanddissection.Wateraloneisnotenough,anddear,cold,speculatingreasonwillsoonercrippleyourwillforyouthangiveyouwill,motives,feeling.Whenceisitsupposedtoenteryourreasonifnotthroughsensation?Wouldtheheadthinkif\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulyourheartdidnotbeat?Butontheotherhand,ifyoumeantoheedeveryinsistentknockingandwellingofyourheart,everyechoofanirritatedfiber,asthoughitwerethevoiceofGod,andfollowitblindly,wherecanyou[not]endup?–sinceinthatcaseyourunderstandingarrivestoolate.Inshort,follownature!Benopolypwithoutaheadandnostonebustwithoutaheart;letthestreamofyourlifebeatfreshlyinyourbreast,butletitalsobepurifiedupintothesubtlemarrowofyourunderstandingandtherebecomelife-spirit.Hencethequestionwhetherthisvolitionofoursissomethinginheritedoracquired,somethingfreeordependent,wouldresolveitselfheretoo.Itresolvesitselfentirelyonthebasisofthisreason:thattruecognitionandgoodvolitionarejustonesortofthing,asingleforceandefficacyofthesoul.If,now,ourcognitiondidnotexistthroughitself,voluntarilychoosingandunbound,if,inordertofeelitselfmostdeeplyasaself,itneededstaffsforraisingitself,innerlanguage,thencertainlythingswillnotbeabletobeotherwiseforthewill.AgamemnonhadhisscepterfromThyestes,hefromAtreus,thelatterfromPelops,finallythelatterfromZeus,andHephaistoshadwroughtit;thatishowitiswiththenoblestkinglyscepteraswell,“thefreedomofoursoul.”Togoonaboutfreedomisveryeasyifoneserveseveryirritation,everyseeminggoodasacausesufficientforus.Forthemostpartthistalkofsufficientgroundsisamiserabledeceptioninwhichtheuniversalalwaysseemstrueandtheparticularindividualaspectofthespecificcaseisalie.Oneisaslaveofthemechanism(this,though,disguisedasbrightheavenlyreason)andimaginesoneselffree,aslaveinchainsanddreamstooneselfthatthesearewreathsofflowers.Assoonasoneentersuponspeculationonecanmakeanythingfromanything,onefanciesoneselfflownuptotheempyrean,and[inreality]thepoormaggotstillliesinitscasingwithoutwingsorspringtime.–Hereitistrulythefirstseedoffreedomtofeelthatoneisnotfree,andwithwhichbondsoneisbound.Thestrongest,freesthumanbeingsfeelthismostdeeplyandstrivefurther;insaneslavesbornfortheprisonmockthemandremainlyinginthemirefullofhighdreaming.LutherwithhisbookDeservoarbitriowasHerder’sdraftcontinuesatthispoint:“Whatlatemembersweareinthehumanspecies,andwhatacompositemediumpurifiedthroughmillenniaitisthatawakens,strengthens,spreads,directsourforcesofcognitionandofsensationfromourfirstentryintotheworld!”TheBondageoftheWill().\nPhilosophyofMindandstillisunderstoodbythefewestpeople;peopleobjectedpatheticallyorwhimperinagreement.Why?BecausetheydonotfeelandstruggleupwardslikeLuther.WheretheLord’sspiritis,thereisfreedom.Thedeeper,purer,anddivinerourcognitionis,thenthepurer,diviner,andmoreuniversalourefficacyistoo,hencethefreerourfreedom.IffromeverythingonlyGod’slightshinesuponus,ifeverywhereonlytheflameoftheCreatorflowstous,theninHisimageweturnfrombeingslavestobeingkings,andwereceive–whatthatphilosophersought–apointwithinusinordertoovercometheworldaboutus,apointoutsidetheworldinordertomovetheworldwitheverythingthatitcontains.Westandonhigherground,andwitheachthingonitsground,moveinthegreatsensoriumofGod’screation,theflameofallthoughtandsensation,love.Loveisthehighestreason,asitisthepurest,divinestvolition.IfweareunwillingtobelieveSaintJohnonthispoint,thenwemaybelieveonitthedoubtlessstillmoredivineSpinoza,whosephilosophyandmoralityentirelyrevolvesaroundthisaxle.PrimacreaturaDeifuitluxsensus:postrema,luxrationis.Ethocipsumest,coelointerrisfrui,quandomenshumanaincaritatemove-tur,inprovidentiaquiescitetsuprapolosveritatiscircumfertur.–Bacon,DeVeritateLuceintellettualpienad’amoreAmordivero,benpiendeletiziaLetiziachetrascendeognidolzore.–DanteSiewardieLauteseinerHanddieerzuseinerLusterfandergabihrMillionenSaitenundjedeklingtundjederKlangtontzumharmonischenGesang¨derLehreseinerHeimlichkeiten.–WithofI.e.Archimedes.God’sfirstcreationwasthelightofsense,Hislastthelightofreason.Andtoenjoyheavenonearthisjustthis,whenthehumanmindmovesinlove,restsinprovidence,andrevolvesoverthepolesoftruth.Itisaspirituallightandfulloflove,/Loveofthetruegood,fullofjoy,/Anditisjoybeyondalldelights.ItwastheluteofHishand/whichHeinventedforHispleasure/Hegaveitmillionsofstrings/andeachonesounds,andeachsound/ringstoaharmonioussong,/totheteachingofHissecrets.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulSecondessayTheinfluenceofthetwoforcesononeanotherandonthehumanbeing’scharacterandgenius(Ofwhichlastmattermoreanothertime.)Wehavehadtodwellalmosttoolongoncommonplacesafterwhichmanyapersonwhoisnotusedtodearabstractionisperhapsjustaswiseashewas.Letus,inordertobecomeinsomemeasureuseful,calldownphilosophyfromitsheaveninthecloudsontotheearth,andconsiderourpropositionindeterminateindividualcasesandclasses:.Ourthoughtdependsonsensation.Inthecaseofeachindividualhumanbeing.Whoevergoesintoamadhousefindsallthefoolsravinginadifferentway,eachinhisworld;thusdoweallrave,veryrationally,eachaccordingtohisfluidsandtempers.Thedeepestbasisofourexistenceisindividual,bothinsensationsandinthoughts.Onlyobserveinindividualcasesfromwhatstrangegermsandseedstheharvestofthisorthatperson’spassionsgrows.Whatleavestheonepersoncoldcausestheothertoglow;alltheanimalspeciesareperhapslessdifferentamongthemselvesthanhumanbeingfromhumanbeing.Ifahumanbeingcouldsketchthedeepest,mostindividualbasisofhisenthusiasmsandfeelings,ofhisdreamsandtrainsofthought,whatanovel!Asthingsstand,itisonlyperhapsillnessesandmomentsofpassionthatdothis–andwhatmonstersandamazingsea-miraclesoneoftenperceives!Oneoughttobeabletoregardeverybookastheoffprintofalivinghumansoul;themorelivelyandtruetheoffprintis,thelesstheauthorflatteredandgaveamiserablecommonplacedrivelbetweenthefourcor-nersofthemargin,howstrangeandindividualthebookoftenseemstous!Itisoftenariddlewithoutasolution,acoinwithoutamarginalinscription.Theshallowestreaders,andusuallythehollowest,henceHerder’sdraftcontinuesaftertheword“inscription”:“–oneknowstheauthorandhebecomesthekey.Perhapswenowpraisewhatweinitiallyhardlyforgave,recognizewhenweperceiveitwhatwegapedat;butperhapsalsofind,[viewed]againsttheabyssoflifeinhim,thatwhichinitiallydelightedusbase.Andlikewisetheconverseofallthis.“Everylivingworkofahumansoul–whatamirroritisofthesoulitself!Readinthespiritoftheauthorandyouseewhichsensesruledandwhichweresubordinateinhim,accordingtowhat\nPhilosophyofMindalsotheloudestofall,therespectfulcritics,measureaccordingtotheirunauthoritative,slightself,cryout,anddamn.ThemoremodestwisemanjudgesasSocratesjudgedHeraclitus’swritings,seekstoreadmoreinthespiritoftheauthorthaninthebook;themorehepenetratesintoit,theclearerandmorecoherenteverythingbecomes.Thelifeofanauthoristhebestcommentaryonhiswritings–thatis,ifheisfaithfulandonewithhimself,doesnotbleatafteraflockatforksandhighways.Everypoem,especiallyawhole,greatpoem,aworkof[itsauthor’s]soulandlife,isadangerousbetrayerofitsauthor,oftenwhereheleastbelievedthathewasbetrayinghimself.Oneseesinthepoemnotonly,forinstance,asthemassesproclaim,theman’spoetictalents;onealsoseeswhichsensesandinclinationsgovernedinhim,bywhatpathsandhowhereceivedimages,howheorderedandadjustedthemandthechaosofhisimpressions,thefavoritesidesofhisheart,andlikewiseoftenthefatesofhislife,hismanlyorchildishunderstanding,thestaffsofhisthinkingandofhismemory...Butforourcritics,whohaveneverintheirlivesdreamedofsuchathing,Imayalreadyhavesaidmuchtoomuch.Tobesure,noteverysoulfromthegutterisworthyofsuchastudy;butofasoulfromthegutteronewouldalsoneednooffprints,neitherinwritingsnorindeeds.Whereitisworththeeffort,thislivingreading,thisdivinationintotheauthor’ssoul,istheonlyreading,andthedeepestmeansofeducation[Bildung].Itbecomesasortofenthusiasm,intimacy,andfriendshipwhichisoftenmostinstructiveandpleasantforuswherewedonotthinkandfeelinthesameway,andwhichreallyindicateswhatthenamefavoriteauthorrefersto.Suchreadingiscompetition,heuristic;weclimbupwiththeauthortocreativepeaksordiscovertheerrorandthedeviationinitsbirthplace.Themoreoneknowstheauthorfromlifeandhaslivedwithhim,thelivelierthisintercoursebecomes.rulesheorderedandadjustedthechaosofhisimpressions,whatimagesandsoundsheclungtoandmadeintoguidingstaffsofhisthinking.Thestudyofthehumansoulinthismanneristhedeepestmeansofeducation.Wenolongerconsiderthehead,thedeadbust,buttheperson,thewholelivingbeing.Throughasortofinspirationandsympathy,wethink,sensewithhim,climboncreativepeaksordiscovertheerrorinitsbirthplace.Thisislivingcriticism,deepheuristics.Nowforthefirsttimedoweunderstandwhatwearereading,feelitfromitsrootuptotheshoot.Suchareadingiscompetition;itteachesmuchwhenthefellowcompetitorisworthyofthecompetition.”Withthewords“respectful”and“unauthoritative,slight”Herderismimickingcritics’formulaicfalsepolitenessandfalsemodesty.AccordingtoDiogenesLaertius,SocrateswasaskedbyEuripideswhathethoughtofHeraclitus’swritingsandreplied:“WhatIunderstoodofthemisexcellent;IbelievethesameofwhatIdidnotunderstandaswell.”\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulAhumanbeingatdifferenttimesofhislifeisnotthesame,thinksdifferentlyaccordingashehasdifferentsensations.Everyoneknowshowoften,especiallyinthecaseofsuddenpassions,ourfirstjudgmentdeceivesus,andhowontheotherhandthereisnothingtoequalthefirstimpressionforfreshnessandnovelty.Thefirst,uninhibitedworkofanauthoristhereforeusuallyhisbest;hisbloomisunfolding,hissoulstilldawn.Muchwithhimisstillfull,unmeasuredsensationthatlaterbecomesponderingormaturethoughtwhichhasalreadylostitsyouthfulrosiness.Wealwayslovethehalfmorethanthewhole,thepromisingmorningmorethanthemiddaywiththesunatitszenith.Weprefertohavesensationratherthantoknow;toguessforourselves,andperhapstoomuch,ratherthantoreceiveslowlyenumerated.However,fortheworld’sbestinterestalltimesoflifeandtimesofdayarenecessary.TheancientGermansmadedecisionsindrunkennessandexecutedthemsober,otherswillmakethemsoberlyandexecutethemdrunk.Meanwhile,itistrue:ourspherealwaysmovesaboutthesetwofociofourellipseandisseldomequallyneartoboth.Perhapsitcannotandshouldnotbesoeither;onlyletitbewareofeachextremecasefromwhichitcannotreturnagain.Itgrowsexhaustedinpureunderstandingandsinksinburningpassion.Perhapsnoonehasmorerichlyandnaturallyobservedtheweaknessofhumanbeingsandtheirdependenceonthesmallesttrivialitiesofsen-sationthanMontaigneandYorik.Theyhaveworkedonthehygrometryofhumanity;othersmustprovidethephotometryandthedynamicsofhumansouls.Shakespeare,Ibelieve,givesexamplesofeverything..Likeindividualhumanbeings,similarlyfamiliesandpeoplesaredif-ferentfromeachother,andstillmoreso;accordingtothecircleoftheirmannerofsensation,theirmannerofthoughtorientsitselfaswell.SonsofasingletribalfatherwhoshareamoreidenticalorganizationinoneYorikisthefictionalnarratorofSterne’sSentimentalJourney.Herder’sdraftexplainsthehygrometryinquestionasconcernedwith“thewetfireofourdiverselittleirritationsandaversions”andthephotometryinquestionasconcernedwith“howclear,howbright,howstrong,howabidingthelightcouldbecome.”InHerder’sdraftwefindaversionofthisparagraph(minusthereferencetoShakespeare)setinthecontextofanavowalofaformofdeterminism.Thusimmediatelyaftertheparagraph,Herderwrites:“Thedeeperahumanbeinghascomeincognitionofhimself,thenthemoreheseeslittlebonds,thepsychologicalandmoralservitudeofhiscognitionsandexecutions...Free,i.e.lawless,blindlychoosing,wecanneverbecome;butwebecomeserfsofpurersensations,ofahigherorder–creaturesofapurer,moreencompassinguniverse.Herethesoulswungitselfonhighwithinnerelasticity;thecloserandmoresimilartoGod,thenthefreer.”By“organization”Herderoftenmeansphysiologicalorganization.\nPhilosophyofMindsortofworldandclimateinevitablythinkmoresimilarlytoeachotherthanantipodesinethicsandsensation.Peoplehavealwaysfoundsavage,terrible,andastonishingthereligionandmoralsofpeopleswholiveinroughterritories,betweenmountainsandrockyravines,onafire-spitting,oftquakingearth,orbyterribleseas,andoftennationswhichobviouslyshareasingleorigin,closebyeachother,exhibitthestrangestdifferencesinthisrespect.Laws,government,manneroflifecountforstillmore,andinthiswayapeople’smannerofthought,adaughterofthewhole,becomesalsothewitnessofthewhole.Iprefernottociteanyexamplesbecausethewholesphereoftheearthisawitnesstothisfact,andwealreadyhaveseveralgoodcollectionsaboutthedifferentmindsofthepeo-plesbasedontheircirclesofsensationandoflife.Iwishwehadonewithoutanyhypotheses,andasfaraspossiblefulloftestedtruth.Towanttofoistanewdoctrineandmannerofthoughtuponthequiteunalteredstemofanation’ssensationswithoutthenationmixingwiththisnewdoctrineandmannerofthoughtintheslightestisforthemostpartuselessandoftenalsoharmful.Apeople’smannerofthoughtisthebloomofitsmannerofsensation;onemustinfluencethelatterortheformerwilts.Suddenlyloadinguponasavagepeopletheresultofthesubtlestabstractions,forwhichithasneitherheadnorheart,neitherananalogyinmodeoflifenorlanguage,alwaysturnsintoamarvelousmishmash.WhatbecameofAristotleinthehandsoftheArabs?WhatdidpapacybecomeinChina?TheformeraMuslim,thelatteralivingConfucianism.WhenmissionariesgotoIndiaandsmellofanimalbloodwhichcausestheBrahmintoshudderwithhorror,howmuchthepoorIndianhastoovercomebeforehecanhearwhatiswantedofhim!Andwhensimple,ThisparagraphisincertainwaysclearerinHerder’sdraft(acontrastwhichcanalsoservetoillustratethewayinwhichHerderthroughoutintentionally“roughedup”hiswritingbetweenthedraftandthepublishedversionof).Inthedraftthefirstpartoftheparagraphreadsasfollows:“.Ourspeciesfallsintoheaps:peoples,cities,families,whichallcertainlylivecloserinasinglecircleofsensation,asingleregion,asinglemodeoflife.Sonsofasingletribalfatherofmoreidenticalorganizations,hencealsoofmoresimilarmannersofthought.HowdifferentistheworldinwhichtheArabandtheGreenlander,thesoftIndianandtherock-hardEskimo,live!Howdifferenttheircivilization,food,education,thefirstimpressionsthattheyreceive,theirinnerstructureofsensation!Andonthisstructurereststhestructureoftheirthoughts,andtheoffprintofboth,theirlanguage.Peoplehavealwaysfoundsavageandastonishingthereligionandmoralsofpeopleswholiveinroughterritoriesbetweenrocks,ravines,earthquakes,byterribleseasandvolcanoes–offprintoftheirsensationsandofthethoughtscorrespondingtothem.WhatamodeoflifeandsensationinJapancomparedtoneighboringChina!Theformerpeople’smannerofthoughtisasreallythedaughterandwitnessoftheirskyandtheirearth,theirmodeoflifeandtheirgovernment,theirmountainsandtheirsea,astheChineselanguageandwisdomisthedaughterofstrictreinsandrules.”(Herderatthispointgoesontogivefurtherempiricalexamples.)\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulnobleChristianity(certainlythereligionforallpeoplesoftheearth!)evenappearstotheminthehazeofanarrowsectandscholar’sstudy,howisthatsupposedtoreconcileitselfwiththeirpoorbrains?Providenceitselfisthebestconverterofpeoples;itchangestimes,mannersofthought,ethics,justasitchangesheavenandearth,circlesofsensationsandcircumstances.LetGermanybecomparedwithwhatitwasinCharlemagne’sorHermann’stimes.Wouldtheyrecognizeitiftheyweretoreappear?Thegreatestchangeintheworldis“thisprogressandcycleintherealmofmindsinaccordancewithchangedsensations,needs,andsituations.”Thehistoryofpeoplesresearchesintoit,butwhoknows,giventhecomplicatedcoursesoffate,thepurposeandgoal?Since,though,Providenceneveractswithoutmeans,humanbeingsarepreciselythenoblesttoolsforthis“transformationofcognitionsthroughsensations”also.Thosemenwhoachievedthemostintheworldneverstoppedshortatthebloomofsuchandsuchopinionsbutventuredtotherootofsensation,theheart,themodeoflife.Poetsorwisemen,lawgiversorgenerals,foundersofreligionsordemagogues,theyimpactedtheheartandtherebydidtheytakeeffectonideas.Baconsetasidedivisionsandscholasticspeculationsandwentforfirstconcepts,things,nature.Likethosebrothers,hedugforthetreasureandtherichharvestontheturnedfieldgrewofitself.Thegreatesttruths,liketheworstlies,themostsublimecognitionsandthemostawfulerrors,ofapeopleusuallygrowfromseedsthatarenotrecognizedassuch,theygetenlivenedbyinfluencesthatareoftentakentobetheexactoppositeofwhattheyare.Soletthedoctorwhowantstocureillsseektheminthebasis;butpreciselywhenheseekstherewillthechildorthesickcenturygivehimpoorthanks.Ifhecondescendstoitsdearinfirmityandseekstoweaveafabricofhealthoverit,whoisgreaterandmorewelcomethanhe!–thepillarofallscienceandallrenown.Butnowhelungesforourheart,forourpetsensationsandweaknesses,withwhichwefeltsocomfortable–awaywithhim,thebetrayerofhumanity,themurdererofourbestcognitionsandjoys!Wewerewillingtoformanalliancewithhimtoremainupinthetreeandwerewillingtoservehimwellforthat,butnowhedigsattherootandslitsopenthesmoothbark–theingrate!InAesop’sfable“TheFarmerandHisChildren”(Aesop,TheCompleteFables,Penguin,,no.).\nPhilosophyofMindSocratesbeforehisjudgescomparedthewisecityofAthenswithacommunityofchildrenfromwhomhewantedtotakeawaytheirsweetsandwhowereconsequentlyallhisenemies.Socratesdied,notasthethiefofAtheniansweets,butasacorrupterofyouthandatheist.Thesophistsofhistime,thosefaithlessdoctorswhomixedsweetpoison,allworkedontheflourishingoftheircitizens’scienceandhappiness.Thebestblessingthatafathercanleavebehindforhisphilosophizing,administering(andhoweveronewantstocontinuethis-ingfurther)sonisthis:“Dearlittleson,caressthecheeksofyourbusiness,andlettheulcereatandconsumewithin.Takecareofthetreeatitscrownandcutitaccordingtothelatestshapeforexample;butdon’tworryabouttherootandstem.”Thisispreciselythefather’sblessinginGellert’sfable,onlywithfinerwords.Itisanold,eternalobservationthattheworthiestenlightenersandimproversoftheworlddidnottakeeffectimmediately,oftenwentunre-cognizedtheirwholelives,andonlyaftercenturiesdidtheirrenownbloomforth.Why?Thesphereoftheirthoughtsorsensationswastoodistantfrom,andtoohighfor,theircentury.“Whatdoesthislumpofstonemeantosay?”theysaidatthefootofthestatue(fortheirviewdidnotreachhigherup)andthrewfilthonthepoorpedestal(notthestatue,towhichtheirhandsfullofdungdidnotreach).Aftercenturies,whenthedaywasbrighter,natureemergedfromthemist,andnowitbecameclearthatalreadyatthatearliertimeinthedarkaswellmanyathinghadtakeneffectandmaderoomforabetterage.Ingeneral,atruethoughtoragoodsensa-tionwasneverlost.Whatistrueandgoodisboundupwiththesensoriumofthecreation,thegreatspiritonwhoserobenothingcomestogrief.Thealoeplantbloomslatebutsplendidly:awholegardeninasingletree!.Justasthereisauniversalhumansensation,theremustalsobeauniversalhumanmannerofthought(sensuscommunis)–butwithnotermdothemoral-philosophicalphilistinestradeinworsecontrabandthanwiththis.Wheneachpersonimmediatelyappealstouniversalhumanunderstandingandhumansensationwherevertheshoepresseshiscorn,thentrulyhedoesnothonorthegeniusofhumanity,whichhechangesintohiscorn,andheshowseverysmartpersonnothingmorethanthatSeePlato,Gorgias,a,e–a.C.F.Gellert(–),“DersterbendeVater”[“TheDyingFather”].InhisdraftHerdersumsupthedyingfather’smessageinthefableasfollows:“Son,bestupid!Thusareyouthecleverest!”\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulthesufferinggentlemancanthinkofnothingbettertoconsolehimselfwith.Allrespectforhumanreasonanduniversalhumanunderstandingandhumansensation–but,dearfriend,thesethingsaresomethingotherthanyourlordship’s[eure]nightcap.Icouldtellmanyafairytalehereabouttheuniversalhumanunder-standing,forexampleofthatclevermanwhobelievedalltheshipsintheharboratAthenshisandfeltverygoodaboutit.OrofthatArabwhoalwayscallsuponallhisbrothersofthedeserttobehisguestsalthoughhehasnothingforthemandwellknowsthatformilesaroundthereisnoliv-ingsoul.OrofthatMoorishkingwhoallowsallthepotentatesoftheearthtoeatnowthathehaseaten.Or–or–Iamafraid,though,thatuniversalhumanreasonandhumanloveandhumantoleranceandhuman∗∗∗mightturnagainstme,theinhumanone,first;so,satissuperque!Tobesuretheremustbeauniversalhumanunderstanding,justas[thereisauniversal]angels’understanding,lions’understanding,andbeasts’understanding;butIfearthatanindividualmemberofthespecies,especiallyanailingandinfirmone,couldhardlygiveinformationaboutit,andsketchitsheight,depth,breadth,andlength.Asmuchaswegoonaboutuniversalreason,justaslittlehaveweyetexplainedwhatthisactuallyis,andwhereitresides,whenceourreasonhasunfoldeditself,wherepeoplesdivergeandwhereallcometogether.Universalhumanreason,aswewouldliketounderstandtheterm,isacoverforourfavoritewhims,idolatry,blindness,andlaziness.Andwhattruehumanreason,humansensation,andhumanneedisandwillbeeternally–weshutoureyesandearstothat.–Butagainenough,andonwardstotheotherbrightsplendidquestion:.Whateffectdoesourthinkinghaveonsensation?AndifIshouldalsoherewritemyfirstsensationasmyanswer,thenImustsay:Presentlyverylittle!Whatdoesourcenturynotknow!Howdoesitnotpracticeinthinking,cognizing,yesevenexprofessoinsensation!Andifthetreeisonlyknownfromitsfruits,whereisthefruitfromthisthinkingandsentimentalizing?Iamtakingeurehereasan(ironically)ultra-politesingular,hencethetranslation“yourlordship’s.”Alternatively,itmightsimplybeaplural“your.”PresumablytheomittedwordisScheiße:crap.Enoughandmorethanenough.Declaredly.\nPhilosophyofMind“Doubtlessitmustthereforenotbetherightthinking,therightsensation!”–andthatItoobelieve.Merespeculatingandsentimen-talizingdoesnogood;theformerdullsthesoulasthelattertheheart.Theheadturnsintoaburiedgranaryfloorwherenothingsprouts,theheartintoawashed-out,shreddedragthatintheendisgoodfornothingbutbecomingcompost.Theevilbeginsearly,oftenalreadyinthewomb.Asweare,soareourchildren;noonecangiveanythingbettertoposteritythanhimself.Life-spiritsexhaustedtooearly,fiberswitheredbysoftness,luxury,andidlenessreproducethemselves–fornodescendedstreamleapshigherthanitssource.Themostfamousspeculatorsandsentimentalizersarehencealreadybornthatway.Whatcanbeimpressedonthistoughmarrow,onthismeltingwax,thatwouldremainthere,thatwouldcontinuetohaveeffect?Thecreatureslipsawayfromthehandsthatwouldmolditlikeslimeorjelly.Asitisraised,sodoesitgrowup.Theteachersallactasthoughwhattheysaytoitwerenottrue;andusuallyitisnottrueforthem,fortheyhavelearneditinjustthesamewayandhavenotdetectedorsensedanythingofitintheirlives.Thisishowparentsandteachers,pulpitsandacademicrostrums,are;thechildandboyeverywherehearstalk,lies,whereitalmostreachesthepointthatapersonstopsinthemiddleofspeakingandsayswhatthatmansaidaboutthepunishmentsofhell:“Don’tbeafraid,dearchild,Imerelyhavetosaythattoyou.Believenothingofit,forImyselfbelievenothing,asyousee.”Thegreatvoiceofexamplesaysthistothemloudlyandconstantly.Raisedinthiswayamongpureword-mongeryandactivelies,theboylearnstorecognizeonlyasingletruth,whichhealsobelieveswithallhisheart,namely:“Creepthroughlifelikethosewhoarebeforeyou,enjoyandtalkalot,butdolittle,everythingonlyforyourself,sothatyoudepriveyourselfofnothing,andbeaslavetoyourdesires.”Thisdoctrinescentsandwaftstowardshimoutofeachsoft,badhabit,outofeachspicy,sweetcupandwarmbowl,fromeachheavingbreastandflirting,pleasantface;hepracticesitearlyandhewillpracticeithiswholelifelong.Nowhowdoesthatyieldsubtlesensationsandspeculations?Youwarmrooms,yousoftpillows,youpleasantparties,andyoulovelyeaseofsilentandloudsins,whatwildpassionsyouhavedestroyed,towhatfairnovelsofThesourceofthestoryisunclear.J.O.Thieß(–)recountsasimilarstoryofhimselfinhisGeschichteseinesLebensundseinerSchriften,butthiswasonlypublished/.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulsensationsandspeculationsyouhavegivenbirth!Theeyeisextinguished,thebodywithered,theviewunsteady,thebrainself-devouring.Itwellsupandsinksdown;noimpressionsstick,neitherbelovednorfriend.Notasteforthereal,nolongeranyhopeoranyforceforenjoyment;allthemoreromanticdreamsandplansintheclouds.Sensations,systems,speculationswithacharmingtransienceandsubtlety,inwhichnohumanbeingbelieveslessthantheirauthor.Andhowshouldhe?Hecannolongerbelieveinanything,thoroughlycognizeanything,havefullsensationofanything.Mayyoufarewell,innocentyouth,onachastestem,fromanobleseed,youahealthy,firmlyshutbud.Notbloomingandunfoldedtooearly,soassoontowither,notrockingluxuriouslyinthebreathofmildzephyrs;preferably,shakenbyroughwinds,grownupindistress,danger,andpoverty,thatyourcognitionsmightbecomedeed,yourstupid,chaste,shut-upsensationstruth,truthforyourwholelife–multatulitfecitquepuer,sudavitetalsitabstinuitVenereetvino–cuiexmeliori–luto–finxitpraecordiaTitan.Howwellthefatherofhumankindhasprovidedforthegreatestpartofhisrace,inthatheletitbebornfarfromtheseoverfillingcognitionsandspoilingsensations.Thecommonmanandcountrymancognizesandsensesmuchmorehealthilythanthetoffandscholar,themoralsavagemuchmorehealthilythantheimmoralEuropean,themanofobservationandactivitybetterthantheidle,half-insanegenius.Irritationandsaltarerequiredforlife;butlikeallspices,theymustbeusedinmoderation,otherwisetheyeatawayinsteadofnourishing.Whenonebeholdsthefaithfulhumankindwhichknowslittlebutsensesandpracticesthatlittlefully,andthenperceivestheotherpartofhumanitywherecognitiondestroyssensationandviceversa,sothatnothingcomesofeitherofthem,oughtonenottothinkthatspeculationandsentimentalizinghavebeengivenusasthemostbitterofcurses?Whoremainedmorefaithfultohiscalling?Whoseforcesaremoreinbalanceandorder?Whoenjoysmoreblissandtranquillity?Neithercognitionnorsensationalonecanprovidethem,withoutbothsupporting,raising,andstrengtheningeachother.Muchdidhebearanddoasaboy,sweatedandfroze,abstainedfromloveandwine–whosehearttheTitanmadefromsuperiorstuff(Horace).\nPhilosophyofMindThehealthiesthumanbeingsofalltimehadnothingexclusiveaboutthem:inthemcognitionandsensationflowedtogetherforhumanlife,foraction,forhappiness.Eventhemostabstractsciencehasitsobservation,andforthemostparteveninitthehappiestinsightwasonlybornindailybusiness,action,deed.ThusBacon,Sarpi,Grotius,andalmostalwayseverybestmaninhiskind.Hecametoscienceasafriend,asafavorite,notasaserfandslave;thatiswhyhefoundfavorandapproval.IfHomerandSophocles,OssianandShakespeare,MiltonandDante,hadbeenprofessorsofpoetry,oriftheyhadbeenpaidbyprincesfortheirsong,theywouldhardlyhavebecomewhattheyare.Cognitionandsensationliveonlyinaction,intruth.Religionhasdiedoutinacirclewhereitdoesnotliveinparagons;deadconfession,cus-toms,formula-learning,andquibbling,evenifitdiditsworkintheoriginallanguagesandonthelipsofthe[religion’s]founders,canneitherrepre-sentnorsubstituteforthatdaughterofheaven,whomustliveinhumanbeings–orsheexistsnolonger,shehasturnedbacktoherfatherlandlikeAstraea.Henceintimeswheneverythingwasstillclosertogetherandthethreadsofhumandestiny,gifts,andforceshadnotyetbeensounwoundandtuggedoutoftheircomplexball,intimeswhenasinglehumanbeingwasmorethansingleandeachwaseverythingthathecouldbe–historyshowsclearlythatgreat,active,goodhumanbeingswerelessrarethenthaninageswheneverythingisseparated,eachissupposedtoservewithonlyasingleforceorasingleforceletofhissoul,andfortherestgroansunderamiserablemechanism.ItaketheGreeksintheirfairesttimesasanexample.Whatmightamanthenbe!,andwhatwashe!Aeschylus,Sophocles,Xenophon,Plato:hereoneforcesupportedtheother,andeverythingremainedinaforcefulnaturalplay.Since,withclasses,rank,andmodesoflife,alas!,theabilitieshaveseparatedaswell;sincetherestandswrittenonourchairs“whathewhositsthereissupposedtobe,”andhetherefore,likethePythia,doubtlesslearnsitfrombeneath;sincediplomas,appointments,andexclusivechartersmakeofeachpersonP.Sarpi(–),Italianscholar.Accordingtomyth,Astraea,daughterofZeusandThemis,spreadthesenseforjusticeandvirtueamonghumankindintheGoldenAge,butwhenhumankindlostitsidealsandsuccumbedtowickednessshereturnedtoheavenandbecameastarintheconstellationVirgo.ThePythia,orpriestessoftheDelphicoracle,wassaidtoreceiveherinspirationfromfumesemittedthroughafissureintherocksbeneathhertripod.Herderismakingarudejoke.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSouleverythingthatanapewouldwant–sincethen,onepersononlythinks,hedoesnotsee,investigate,sense,act,onlycallsallthetime,likethatlocked-upbirdthatdidnotknowhowtosayanything,“Ithink!”;anotherpersonissupposedtoactanddirectwithoutusinghishead;noindividualmemberanylongersharesinthewhole,which,bycontrast,inthedearhumanbody,thefirstexemplaroftherepublicofmanyforces,eventhehairandthetoedo.Andsothisiswhythereexiststhatmassofdryorrottenprotuberances,excrescences,andnails,accumulatedpilesofoyster-shellswhich,nailedupinrowsorgroundtopowder,areverydecorativeandornamental.Speculatorswithouthandsoreyes,talkerswithoutfeeling,rule-giverswithoutanyartorpractice,parrots,ravensandcritics,miserablehalf-thinkersandhalf-sensers.Hardlythendoesanewboiloratinypockshootupontheskinanywhereonthesick,dried-out,worn-outbody,buteveryonerunsandpilgrimagestoit,isastonished,andwondersathowmuchforceandsaptheblessedbodystillhas.“Poor,sorrylady,Philosophy,”saysShaftesbury,“sheislockedupbehindobscurewalls,faculties,andschool-prisons,andpondersandthinks”–dissectswhatshedoesnothave,doesnotenjoy,andthinksthatofandaboutwhichshehasnosensation.Whatwasthescholasticspeculationofthemiddleages,limitedtodeadAristotle,whompeopledidnotunderstandandthatmuchmoredissected?Andwhataretheemptyconcepts,wordwreaths,andabstractions,thatlegionofmoral-politicalsystems,thatboardgameofphilosophicallanguageinwhicheverythingisdesecrated,inwhichnooneanylongerthinksorhasanypurpose,neitherauthornorreader?Wordidols.Andtheygetthatmuchmoreworshipedbecausetheyaresupposedtoeffectnothingandeffectnothing.NomurderismoredestructivethanthatofGod’sthreenoblegifts:reason,sensation,language.Theyouthissupposedtolearntoabstractandspeculate.Ifhelearnstodoso,hebecomesmiserable–ayoungReadingnurfornun.ThecounterparttothissentenceinHerder’sdraftislesswhollynegativeinitsassessmentofmodernconditions:“Howafterwardswithclassesandmodesoflifeabilitiesdividedtoo,andtheonepersonreceivedthecallingtothink,whiletheotherwassupposedtosenseandact,andthebodyofstatehenceseparatedintolimbsthatwerecalledeyeandear,headandbreast,handandfoot!Howtherebyscienceandthelifeofthewholewon,aftertheforcesandtheofficesoftheindividualshaddivided;buttherebyalsosimultaneouslyallthoseflawswereproducedwhichoppressourworldwhentheindividuallimbisseparatedoffanddoesnotdeeplyparticipateinitswayinthelifeofthewhole!”ThisisafreerenditionoflinesfromShaftesbury,TheMoralists().ItisheretranslatedfromHerder’sGerman.\nPhilosophyofMindancient,ahollowvessel,which,however,resoundsallthemoreloudly.Ifhedoesnotlearntodoso,andkicksthecobwebwithhisfeet,howmuchthatisgoodgetskickedtobitsalongwithit!WhohascausedthegreatDianaofGermanEphesians,Philosophy,tobenowsode-criedandignoblydespisedbut,ofold!,herdearworshipers,thebuilders,notofgoldandsilvershrines,butofwoodencompendia,theories,andsystems.Inoppositiontothem,thesectofthesentimentalizershasbecomelarge–thesectofsmallgiantswithhighchests,strongpassion,andforceforaction.“HasnottheformergreatHelv´etiusprovedthatgeniusandvirtuebelongtogetherlikecatanddog,andaremoralhumanbeingsnottheweakest,mostpitifulunderthesun?Greatwill,strongindependenceandautonomy,aperpetualstrugglewithgodsanddemons–thatiswhatproducesheroes,nephilim,lions.”Iftherewerepeoplewhoseriouslythoughtlikethat,then,Ibelieve,littlehappinesswouldlieinheroism;forMilton’sdevil,whobuiltthePandemoniumandevenabridgeoverChaos,alwaysremainedanunhappydevil.WallensteinandCromwellwereintheendunhappyhumanbeings,andthelionthattheyhadtodealwithprobablyhaditsclawsmostdeeplyintheirownfaces.Likemonstersandwildanimals,humanbeingsofthatsorttoocanbeofusetoacorruptedtimeandpoliticalconstitution;oftentheyareratpoisonandbroomstosweepthehallclean.Justasoften,though,thebest,mostethical,andreallygreatesthumanbeingsalsogetdecriedunderimagesofthatsortbecause,forexample,theyassociatedtoocloselywithanoppressorandabuserofmen,orbecauseratsandfrogsrevoltedagainstthem.Nooneatallcanaddeitheradramorayardtohisstrengthandstature;andtheshoutingoftheboysonstiltsbehindthegiantwhogoesaheadofthem,orthebrayingofthelittledonkeysinlions’Herder’sdraftcontainsasomewhatlongeranddifferentattackonspeculative,abstractphilosophy.Particularlyinteresting,perhaps,isitsdescriptionofsuchphilosophyassomethingpathological:“[Speculators]areweaklingseitherthroughnatureorthroughpractice.Iftheyre-ceivedfromnatureweakorgans,weakirritations,aseverythingweakissimultaneouslysubtle,theywerepreciselytherebydeterminedtoserveholyabstraction...Ortheymutilatedthemselves,inthatthroughabstractiontheyconstantlyweakenedsensationsuntilintheendtheywerenolongercapableofanywholesensation...Inbothcases,onecanseethatoneisdealingwithsickpeo-ple...Aweakbrainthatcannolongerobserveduetopurespeculation,nolongerbelieveandactduetopureabstraction,weavescobwebsinsteadofthesilkoftruth.”AraceofgiantsreferredtointheOldTestament.A.W.E.vonWallenstein(–),generalandstatesman.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulskins,soongetsbetrayed.Thismuchiscertain:everygreatandstrongsoulalsohasthecapacitytobecomethemostvirtuous.Wherethispassionwaspossible,anotherthatcounterbalanceditwaspossibleaswell.Andingeneral,whatpassionandsensationmustbeappliedtobad,then,inordertopreventapersonfrombeingabletodootherwise?Perhapshumanbeingswithstrongsoulshavemoredifficultyinovercomingthemselves,buttheyalsohavemoreforce,andonlywhentheyhavecompletedthevictoryshouldonecallthemgreathumanbeings–thatis,whentheyhavebecomegoodhumanbeings.Andthenitissurelyreallybeyonddoubtthatashipthattravelswithgreatwindsandwell-setsailsgetsfurtherthanthelazy,leakingbarkthereattheflat,shallowbank.Deepsensationsmustalwaysbeabletopermitdeepcognitionsaswellwhichruleoverthem,andhencethestrongestpassionsanddrives,wellordered,areonlythesensuousschemaofthestrongreasonthatiseffectiveinthem.Eveneverybotchedgreatsoulprovesthisinitsbetterhappyhours.Whenitcomestoitssensesafterexcessesandinsanities,whenregretandthegoodnaturewithinitreturn,howmuchmoredeeplyitthenfeelsthegoodandbadthatithasdonethanthoseloquacioustalkers,thoseshallowheadsandhearts!Itwouldliketocrytearsofblood,andthe,evenlate,bettercognitionwillcertainlysubsequentlydigdeeperinit,takeeffectmorequietlyandmore,thanthebubblingtalkofallsophistshastakeneffectintheirowndearselves,letaloneinothers.Iknowinhistorynofallengreatmaninwhosecaseonewouldnotstilleveninthedebrishavetoadmirethetempleandsigh:Noblepalace,howdidyoubecomeamurderer’sden?∗IthinkthatIprobablyneednotcontinuetheseobservationsfurthersince,ofcourse,itisnotthestrongsensationsbuttheweak,subtle,anddelicateoneswhicharethefavoritestringsofourinstrument,andweconsidertheformeronlyfanciful.Thestreamoftheagesflowsstrangelybetweenitsbanks;itmeanders,likeallstreamsandeventhegreatseaoftheworld,thiswayandthatinopposingcorners.Nowtheearthisfavorabletocognition,nowtosensation,andhencealwaysthoseplantsbloombestwhichsproutfromthenaturalearthofthispeople,ofthisage.InoneThisisanallusiontoAesop’sfable“TheAssClothedintheSkinofaLionandtheFox”(Aesop,TheCompleteFables,no.).\nPhilosophyofMindageallthewisemengapeupwards,looktowardstheskyandcountthestars,andarefortherestnowherelessathomethanintheirfatherland,intheircity.Atanothertimepeopleconductcrusadesafterthegoldenfleeceoftolerance,universalreligion,andloveofhumankind–perhapsjustasfancifullyasthecrusadersseekingtheholygraveandthesystemofforeignworlds.Thispersonworkstomakethehumanspeciesintothatimagewithagoldenhead,whichrestsonfeetofclayhowever;foranotherpersonthehumanspeciesshouldbecomeamonster,griffinandsphinx.Thedeityletsthemwork,andknowshowtosteeronescaleofthebalancethroughtheother:sensationthroughbettercognitions,cognitionthroughsensation.Howmanyprejudiceswehavereallygotbeyondbeforewhichanotheragebentitsknees!Afewgentleraysoflightfromthenoblersoulsofdi-vinehumanbeingsshowedthemselves,initiallyshimmering,inadawn.Darknessarmeditselfandfoughtlong;butthenthesplendidsunroseandthedarknighthadtorollaway.–Losenotheart,dearmorningstar,oryoufair,individualraysofrosydawn;youdonotyetconstitutemidday,butbehindyouisthetorchoftheAlmighty;irresistiblyitwillbeginandenditscourse.Lightwasthebeginningofcreation,andthereisnonoblerfateintheworldthantoilluminate,ifthelightisoftherightsort.EventheSonofGodcoulddonothingbetterhereonearththanteachtruth;buthislightwaswarmth,histrutheternallife.Thesayingisrecordedthathumanbeingsonlyhatetruthandlovedarknessmorethanlightbecausetheirworksareinadequate,butthatinthissecretandoftenveryprettifiedhatetherealsoliesthegreatestcourtofjudgment.TheSonofGoddidnotgrowtiredofteachingtruthandevenofdyingasakingoftruth.Hereturnedwhencehehadcomeandleftbehindhisfootsteptheblessingthatlightmusteternallyremainlight,mustaccordingtoitsnaturealwaysconquerdarkness,andthateverythingdoneinitwillcometoGod.Thephrase“crusadersseeking...thesystemofforeignworlds”referstoatraditionthatbeganwithBrunoandwasparadigmaticallyexemplifiedbyFontenelle,Entretienssurlapluralit´edesmondes[ConversationsonthePluralityofWorlds]().Daniel:–.Herder’soptimisticpicturehereisamplifiedandmadealittleclearerinhisdraftwhereheconcludeshishistoricalpointswiththeremark:“untilfinally–onwhatlevel,inwhatfavoritemixtureofcognitionsandsensations,wemightstand.”Readingsichforsie.John:–.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulItseemstomethatthisflightwillseemsohightomanyreadersthatitisprobablybesttobreakoffandtreataquestionwhichismorewithinthefieldofvision,andinaccordancewiththepleasure,ofourage..Whateffectdoesthediversecognitionandsensationhaveonthediversegeniuses,characters,orwhateverthesemagicalnamesare?ButhereIamcompletelydry,becauseIknownothinglessintheworldthanwhatgeniusis–whetheritsgenderbemasculine,feminine,orneuter.Noonehasknownmoreaboutitthanthegenius-richFrench,especiallyThecorrespondingsectioninHerder’sdraftisbothlongerandconsiderablylessdismissiveofthenotionofgeniusthanwhatfollowshere.EspeciallyinterestingaresomeofitsopeningremarksinwhichHerderattemptstoexplainthephenomenonofindividualgeniusinaccordancewiththephysiologicaltheoryofthemindthatismorestressedanddevelopedinthedraftthaninthepublishedversionoftheessay:“Notwothingsintheworldareidenticaltoeachother,letalonesuchanartful,infinitelymanifoldstructureasthehumanbeingis,letaloneeachlivingwheelofthisstructurewithitsproduct,theirritation,thevaporofsensation,thementalwateroflife,letalonetheeternalconfluenceandthemixingofthesevaporsinalltheirportals,paths,anddrives,letalone,finally,theomnipresent,inwardlylivingI,theimageoftheCreatorthattakeseffectback[onthese]fromoutofitself.Ifnodissectorhasyetfoundtwoidenticalarteries,glands,muscles,canalsintwobodies,thenmultiplyandpursuetheproductsofthisdifferencethrougheachplayofeachirritationandeachsensationuptotheinnermostworkshopofconsciousness–amassforwhichallnumbersaretoosmall!Infinity!Abyss!Similarities,classes,orders,andlevelsarethereforeonlyboardedwallsofnecessityorcard-housesofplay.TheCreatorofallthingsdoesnotseeasahumanbeingsees;Heknowsofnoclasses,eachthingisonlyidenticaltoitself...Thevaporoftheirritationcanbedifferentinstrengthandweakness;andwithasingledegreeofstrength,ininnerardorandextension.Thefibercanbeeasilystirred,andevenbythelight-ray;butthesubtlerthestirringis(mayIbepermittedthesecrudeelasticexpressions),thenthequickerthevibrations,themoretheypressonanddisplaceeachother,themorelivelyandtransientthesensationis.Orthefiberisstirredwithdifficulty,butstronglyanddeeply;thenthelongerdoestheimpressionlast,itmovesandresoundsinthemarrow.Allphenomenaofinnerardorandextension,ofquicklivelinessandslowstrength,thataretrueinthelevelsoftemperamentflowfromthissource;onlyitsstreamingforth,mixing,andcrossingisinfinite.Eachrayoflightcontainsallcolors,eachsoundallpitches,initself;buthowdifferentlycoloredarethethingsoftheworld,howdifferentlydobodiessound!Likewise,thehumanbeingisaworldofallcolors,pitches,vapors,fromthelowestseedoflifeofwhichhewascapableuptothehighest;andallareorderedbythenatureinthemandforthegreatwholetowhichthehumanbeingbelongsintoasingleimage,intoasinglestring-play.Heisastring-play,butinanotherregardonlyastring,thepitchofonestring–thoughsimultaneouslythefreeplayerofhisownstring-play.Ifwesawintothesecretofahumanconception,ifwesawinthemomentofbecomingtheconfluenceofallirritations,forces,life,thevictoryanddominationofthisorthatpitchinthestruggle–beholdtheretheimpressofthiscreaturefromthehandofitsCreator!,thepitchwhichitisdestinedtosoundforthforthestring-playofitsspeciesanduniverse,intherealsenseoftheword,itsgenius,itscharacter.ItisGod’ssealonthebrowofaconceivedbeing;thestringwillsoundthispitchitswholelifelong.”ThisisanallusiontothestillunsettledgenderofthewordinHerder’sday.\nPhilosophyofMindthedeepspeculator,thelateHelv´etius.Hehas,itseemstome,verysubtlyandwiselydistinguishedhavinggenius,beingagenius,beingamanofgeniusandnotbeingamanofgenius;andhehasalsoincontrovertiblyprovedthattherereallyexistsnogenius(congenitalnaturalmanner)atall,butthatweallappearintheworldasequalflatheads,andthateverythingdependsonhowwegettrained,andwhatfodderwegetholdofforbecominggeniuses.Vaucansongothisgeniusfromaclockintheanteroomwherehehadtowaitonetime,etc.WeGermanstoohavetheninthemostrecenttimesfollowedthisfairanddeeptrack.Ourphilosophyandlanguagelackedsomuchwhenneitheryetknewanythingabout“Schenie”;suddenlytherewastrea-tiseupontreatise,essayafteressay,aboutitandweprobablystillhaveatask“aboutgenius”tolookforwardtofromoneoranothermetaphysicalacademyinDenmark,Holland,Germany,orItaly:“Whatisgenius?Whatcomponentsdoesitconsistof,andcanitnaturallybedecomposedintoagain?Howdoesonearriveatitandloseit?Andsoforth.”ThemodestGerman,saysKlopstock,thankfullycallsitgiftedness,andIhavenofurtherconceptorexplanationofit.Geniusandcharacterare–“theindividualhumannatureethatGodhasgiventosomeone,”neithermorenorless.Nowthereareasmanygiftednessesastherearehumanbeingsonearth,andinallhumanbeingsthereistoanextentalsoonlyasinglegiftedness,cognitionandsensation,thatis,innerlifeofapperceptionandelasticityofthesoul.Wherethisispresentthereisgenius,andthereismoregeniuswhereitismoreandlesswhereitisless,etc.Onlythisinnerlifeofthesoulgivestoimagination,memory,wit,intelligence,andhoweveronecountsfurther,extension,depth,energy,truth.Letonegeniustakeonbrightercolorsthanthepeacockwithitstail,letthat[other]geniusbemoreimaginativethanBellerophon’snag,letthisonedistinguishthingsfinerthanacobweb–butseparatefromtheirworksandundertakingsunderstanding,feelingfortruth,innerhumanlife,thentheseareonlyanimalforcesinwhichafarmeGenius,ingenium,indoles,visanimae,characterhavethismeaninginalllanguages.C.-A.Helvetius(´–),Del’esprit[OntheMind]()andDel’homme,desesfacult´esintel-lectuelles,etdeson´education,ouvrageposthume[OnMan,onHisIntellectualFaculties,andonHisEducation,PosthumousWork]().TheexampleofVaucansonisdiscussedbyHelvetiusinthesecondofthetwoworkscitedinthe´precedingnote.Herderisheremockingthisspelling,preferredoverAbbt’s,andthemodern,spellingGeniebyJ.M.Heinze.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulanimaldefeatsthemineachcase.Theoratorbecomesasyllable-counter,thepoetaversifierormadman,thegrammarianaword-merchant,assoonasheavenhasdeniedhimthatlivingsourceorthelatterdriesupforhim.Inthissensenatureisthereforenotasunfecundingeniusesasweima-ginewhenwemerelyconsiderassuchbook-geniusesandpaper-moths.Everyhumanbeingofnoble,livingforcesisageniusinhisplace,inhiswork,forhisvocation,andtruly,thebestgeniusesareoutsidethestudy.Itissimple-mindedwhentheeducatedGrayinhisElegy[Written]ina[Country]Church-Yardtherepitiestheyoungfarmerfellowfornothavingbecomeageniuslikehe;hewouldprobablyhavebecomeagreateronethanGray,butinneitherhisownnortheworld’sbestinterest.Also,theeternalquestionsastowhynatureproducesfewergreatpoetsthangreatlegislators,generals,andsofortharedeeplyonesidedandsimple-minded,andalso,asthatlionsaidwhenhesawhisslaughteredbrotheronthetapestry,usuallygetanswered,proudlyorverypiously,notbylionsbuthumanbeings,bywitnessesintheirowncause.Aslongasnaturehasnoshortageofhealthyseedsandbloomingtrees,itwillhavenoshortageofhumangeniuseseither–astherepellentidolatrousflatterersandfollowersofgreatpeoplealwaysfear.Mr.Thomasinhiseulogiestogreatmenisespeciallyrichinthissortofaffectedwitandbombast,doubtlessbecauseheishimselfagreatman.Naturehasnoshortageofnobleseeds,onlywefailtorecognizethemandtreadthemtobitswithourfeetbecauseweusuallyestimategeniusaccordingtodeformity,accordingtoprematureripenessorexaggeratedgrowth.Awell-formed,healthy,forcefulhumanbeing,livinginhisplaceandfunctioningveryintenselythere,doesnotdrawourattentiontohim-selfasmuchasthatotherpersonwithasingleexaggerated,trainedtraitthatnaturebestowedonhim(ingraceorinanger?)andthatthither-flowing,superfluoussapsnourishedfromyouthup.Justaswhenoneeyeismissingtheotherseessomewhatmoresharply,justasinthewoodcutterandburden-carrierhisworkingmusclesgrowstrongest,andfinally,justastherearediseasesinwhichamember,theheadforexample,swellsupandgrowsmonstrouswhiletheothermemberswither,soitiswithwhatthelanguageoftheriff-raffcallsgenius.HereanexaggeratedwitwithoutReadingsagteforsagt.HerderisherealludingtoafablethatultimatelygoesbacktoAesop,“TheManandtheLionTravelingTogether”(Aesop,TheCompleteFables,no.).A.-L.Thomas(–),Frenchscholarandauthorwhowonprizesforhiseulogies.\nPhilosophyofMindhealthyunderstandingorfaithfulnessofheart;thereaflyingsun-steedwhoscorchestheearth;hereaspeculatorwithouttheslightestobserva-tionoraction,whoplayswiththemostimportantthingsasthoughwithmeaninglessnumbers;aherowithpassionreachingclosetomadness;finally,agoodhead,aspeoplecallit,thatis,abubblerandtalkeraboutthingsofwhichheunderstandsnotaword,butaboutwhichheplayswiththefashionableformulas.–Ifthatisgenius,thenhowyouhavefallenfromheaven,youfairmorningstar,andweaveanddancelikeawill-o’-the-wisponmarshymeadows,orrollonasaharmfulcomet,beforeyouhorrorandafteryouplagueandcorpses.Ifthatisgenius,whowouldwantit?Whowouldnotratherwishthatnatureformedsuchhumpsandmonstersex-traordinarilyrarely!Andnaturedoesformthemmorerarelythanourhumansociety.Wheninourhumansocietyallclasses,offices,profes-sionaloccupations,andreasonstofunctionaresodividedandaremostlyjustlittlenumeratorsforasingledenominatorthatnohumanbeingdarestoexpress,theneachruinedproudLiliputiandesirestobecomeagiantinhisplace,tobedistinguishedaheadofathousandothersinhissphere.Heforcesthestreamofhiscognitionsandsensationstowardsasinglepointthatitmayroarsplendidlythere,seekstobecomeanindividualinhiskindthroughthegreatestexaggeration–heiscalledagenius!Thanksbetonaturethatsuchweedsdonotgrowonallfences.Beforeeveryflock,saysHuarte,thereshouldbeonlyasinglebilly-goat,otherwisetheywouldallrunastray.Letoneonlyreadthelivesofsuchpeopleandtheyareaproofinstrokesofflameoftheunhappinessoftheirfate.Wheredoesmoreunrest,envy,misanthropy,jealousy,andthirstforrevenge,or,incaseswhentheyhadstillbaserpurposes,moregreed,vanity,orlust,ragethanwithsuchafterbirthsandbastardsofhumanity?Hencewiththispersonthatgodlessindustrythatdriesalltheoiloutofhislife-lamp,withthatpersonagnawinghungerforscienceanddominatingpowersuchthathestandstherelikeaghostlyskeletonwithglowingeyesorlikealivingnight-lamp.Thispersonisanabstractionputtogetherfrombones,thatpersonaflappingstorkonthetopofatowerinanestfullofstolensnakesandtoads.Thefirstgeniuswhostolethesparkfromheavengotgnawedonbythevulture,andthosegeniuseswhowantedtogoasfarastostormheavenliebeneathEtnaandothermountains.TheyeveninparthadaHuartedeSanJuan(approx.–),Spanishdoctorandphilosopher.I.e.Prometheus.I.e.theGiants.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulhundredhandsandsnakes’tails,liketheheaven-storminggeniusesandnewreligion-creatorsofourtimes,butfatherZeuswasstrongenoughforthem.Happyhewhomnatureearlyonpreservedfromsuchgenius-madness!,whomtheangelconfrontedingoodtimeandforwhomalso,whereneces-sary,whenhehithisbeast,theangelopeneditsmouthtoopposehisjourney,sothathedidnotprophesyaccordingtohisdesires,butpreservedhisheartandhiswaysininnocence.Letus–sinceIcannotbringmyselftopraisethisraceofhostilegeniusesofthehumanspeciesaccordingtoallthepredicamentsandattributesofinspiration;creativeforce;originality;heaven-aspiring,independentlyself-developingoriginalpower;andsoforth–ratherfoldourwingsandpraisethe“truegeniuswhodistinguisheshimselfonlythroughhismodesty,”alsodoingso,inaccordancewithhismodesty,moreonaccountofwhathedoesnotknowaboutthanonaccountofwhattheworldresoundswith.IwishfornothingbutthatthesestrokesthatIhavewrittendownmayfindreaderswhodonotcheertruthatthembutwithagentlybeatingheartfeelafterthemandaheadofthem.∗Everynoblehumannaturesleeps,likeallgoodseed,inthequietgerm–ispresentanddoesnotrecognizeitself.Whatiscalledgeniusinregardtoforcesofthesoulisinregardtowillandsensationcharacter.Whencedoesthepoorgermknow,andwhenceshoulditknow,whatirritations,forces,vaporsoflifefloweduponitinthemomentofitsbecoming?fGod’sseal,thecoverofcreation,restsuponit;itwasformedatthecenteroftheearth.Thismuchwecansee,thatachild,justasitbringswithittheformofitsbodyandface,alsobringswithitthetraitsofitsmannerofthinkingandsensing;itisaformed,entirehumanbeing,althoughinmicrocosm.Youcannotaddalimbthatitlacks,removeapassion,amaintraitthatispresent.Whoeverknowshowtoeavesdroponthedelicatestring-playofyoungchildrenandboys,whoeveronlyknowshowtoreadtheirfaces–whatobservationsofgeniusandcharacter,thatis,ofindividualhumannature,hewillmake!Theresoundsoftnotesthatseemtocomefromanotherworld,fEllasisedea/umileintantagloria/covertadell’amorosonembo:/qualfiorcadeasullembo/qualsuletreccebionde/qualsiposavainterraequalsul’onde.–Petrarch.[Shesathumbleinsuchglory,wrappedinalovelycloud;aflowerfellonherseam,oneonherblondbraids,onefelldowntothegroundandanotherontothewaves.]TheallusionhereistothestoryofBalaam’sass,Numbers:ff.\nPhilosophyofMindsotospeak;hereandtherestirsatraitofreflection,passion,sensationthatprophesiesawholeworldofsleepingforces,anentirelivinghumanbeing,anditis,Ithink,themostflat-footedopinionthateverenteredasuperficialheadthatallhumansoulsarealike,thattheyallcomeintotheworldasflat,emptytablets.Notwograinsofsandarelikeeachother,letalonesuchrichgermsandabyssesofforcesastwohumansouls–orIhavenograspatalloftheterm‘humansoul.’EvenLeibniz’simileofblocksofmarbleinwhichtheoutlineforthefuturestatuealreadyliespresentstillseemstomeinsufficient,atleasttoodead.Inthechildthereisafountofdiverselife,onlystillcoveredwithvaporandfog.Abudinwhichthewholetree,thewholeflower,bloomsenclosed.Donottearitopentooearly,thisbudpregnantwithlife,letithideitselfinthefoliageofmodestyandoftendullness(aswecallit).Itisanirremediableharmifoneopensthedearvirginalflowersothatitwithersitswholelifelong.Doyounotfeelthejoysofrosydawn,itsdearfirsttwilightray?Wait!,thegreatsunwillcertainlystepforth.Inourage,wheneverythingripensearly,peoplecannothastenenoughwiththeraisingofyounghumanplantseither.Theretheystand,theseyoungmen,thesehundred-year-oldchildren,sothatonebeholdsandshudders.Theconfusedemotionthat,asWinckelmannsays,firstbetraysitselfthroughapassingirritationmustbedefinedimmediately,experi-encesandcognitionsthatshouldonlybethefruitsofadultyearsmustbeforcedinwithviolence,sothatinashorttimeyouthsevenlosethedesiretolive,thegenuinejoysofyoungyearsbecomeeverrarer,andarrogance,forwardness,rashness,andexcessalternatewithmiserableweaknessandexhaustionorendwiththem.Ifamanbeforetheflood,apatriarch,orevenjust(tospeakveryunidealistically)anoldhonestfarmerhadtheideaofjudgingtheclamorandtheshamelessshriekingofouryounggeniuses–poorhumanity,howhewouldpityyou!Ifgeniusandcharacterareonlylivinghumannature,nothingmoreandnothingless,thenobservethis,nourishtheinnersource,traintheactivityandelasticityofthesoul,butonlyasitwantstobetrained.Word-memory,shellswithoutnuts,andbodieswithoutsoulsareuseless,foreventhesmallestchildisalivinghumanbeingandhadallhumanforcesofthesoul,notmerely,asyouimagine,thenoblegiftofmemorizing.Butjustasnaturemakeseverythinggrow,itsnoblestplanttoo,thehumancreature,J.J.Winckelmann(–),AbhandlungvonderF¨ahigkeitderEmpfindungdesSch¨oneninderKunst[TreatiseontheCapacityfortheSensationoftheBeautifulinArt]().\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulmustgrowincoverings;woeuntohimwhodestroysandcorrupts,perhapsforever,oneoftheinnocentthroughhisprecocityandorderlessethicalwisdom!Theawakeningyouthfindshimselfattheforkofhislifewhenboyhoodandyouthpartways.Oftenhisgeniusappearstohimthereandshowshimthepathandheightsofhisfuture,butonly–inanobscuredream.Meanwhile,foranoldmantoo,onthelastdayofhislife,thedreamofyouth,thefirstpulseofhiswholefuturelife,ispropheticrapture.Whoeverneedsonlyalittledevelopmentforhisfutureworkandman-nerofbeingalsofindshisdevelopereasily.SomewereawakenedbyaEuclid,aclock,apainting,apageofunknownfigures,asthoughitwereApollohimselfwithhislyre;forothersmuchdanger,experience,oftenaRubicon,isnecessary.–CaesarcryingatAlexander’sstatue,AlexandercryingatAchilles’grave–whataprophetic,movingsight!Thereitsleepsinthesoul,orratheritnolongersleepsbutcannowonlycomeoutintears;sometimeinthefutureitwillstreamoutotherwise.Heretooonlyasouldiscoversthesoul;onlyaperson’sowngoodhumannaturecanunderstand,console,andintuitanalienhumannature.Oftenitisanexperience-rich,quiet,envylessoldmanwhonoticestheyouthlostinhimselfandsaystohimawordthatresoundsinhissoulhiswholelifelong.Orthesameoldmancastsamereglance,sign,emberdowncasuallybesidehim;theyouthpickeditup,itwaslongsincedeadandforgotten,andthenitglowsagain,preciselynow,intheperiodofthisdemoralization,gloom,andcold;hewarmshisheartwithitasifitjustnowcamefromthealtarofloveandwisdom.Oftenfortheyoungsailor,alreadybeneathrosydawn’svisage,stormsareordained.Hegoesastray,comesintothelandofmonstersandgiants,orfindshiswayintothegardensofArmida.Fortunately,ifthegoddesswiththemirroroftruthappearedtohimsoon,thathemightseehimselfandtakecourageagain!Then,ifhegetsawayearlyenough,thestormsandpilgrimagesthattrainedhisuntriedshipwereveryusefultohim.Everynobleresistance,everydeepandquietsuffering,imprintsexcellenttraitsonourfacesandsouls;thefirsttriumphsofouryouthbecomethepunctumsaliensofourwholesufferinglife.Lamentations,though,iftheyouthsuccumbs,ifhedwellstooclosetodepressingorseducingobjects!Hebecomesdeformed,becomeshardanddry,orsoftandlecherous,andAnenchantressinTasso’sGerusalemmeliberata.Literally:jumpingpoint.\nPhilosophyofMindlightlybreathesawayhislifeintheprimeofhisyears.Spoiledtooearly,hespoilsinhisturn,andknowsnobetter.Exposedtoenmitytooearlyandtoolong,hecoverseverythingwithmisanthropyandbile–manygoodhumanbeingsareentirelyorhalflostinthisway.Itiswellknownthatanoakgrowslongandslowly,whereasthetoadstoolshootsupinasinglenight.Thisoftenhappenswiththosehumanbeingswhoaremostspecialanddestinedforthegreatestthingsaswell.Brutustheyoungerlongremainedbrutus;Ximeneslongwentroundwithhisbeggar’sbag,whichdidnotwellsuithim;andCorreggiowasnolongeryoungwhenhecriedouthisiosonpittore.Thenoblehumanbeinghaswithinhimtheheaven’sladderwhichhemustfirstsurmountbeforeasinglewordescapeshim;theeverydaytalker,thatis,thegoodhead,thetalkativehumanbeingwiththeeasylip,isalwaysattheend,evenbeforehehasstarted.Hehas,aspeoplesay,animmediateanswerforeverything.Hecanswilltheoceandrywithanopenednutshellfordessert.Oyouholy,dearquietnessofdelicate,modesthearts,howbeneficialyouare!Youarebeneficialforhimwhoenjoysyou;hespareshimselfahundredreproaches,illusions,astonishments,questions,anddoubts;hesparesothersthesightofeffort,andaffordsaction.Newtontheyouthhadallthetheoriesthatimmortalizedhislifeready,anddidnotknowthathehadthem.Thefallofanappleunderthetreetaughthimthesystemoftheworlds,andforhiswholelifeheremainedthemodest,quiet,chasteman,thetrueworshiperofGod.LookatShakespeare’sface,[andsay]whetherthereonitsgentle,quietsurfaceinwhichallobjects,actions,andcharactersintheworldwereabletobereflectedtheape-wit,thegrinningmalice,theYahoothatdistinguishesothergeniusesgoverned.Hewasandremainedanactorwhoneverevenraisedhimselftothefirstroles.Bacon’sbrightsoulhadmuchsimilaritywiththeheavenlybodyatwhosedarkeninghealwaysfellintoaswoon;hedoesnotburn,butheshinesgentlyandilluminates.WhatalovingsingerofhumanbeingsHomermusthavebeen,whenoneglidesdowntheeverlevelandgentlestreamofhissongs!Whatquiet,envylessmenVirgilandHorace,PetrarchandLaFontaine,CopernicusandKepler,MontaigneandSarpi.Themysticbrutus:clumsy,stupid.F.J.deC.Ximenes(–)becamearchbishopofToledoandwasofpoororigin.“Iamapainter[too].”I.e.themoon.J.deLaFontaine(–),Frenchpoet.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulMalebrancheallowedhimselftobetorturedwithcriticismbyR.SimonforalongtimebeforehefoundhisDescartes.Lutherstruggledforalongtimewithhimselfbeforehebegantostrugglewiththeworld,and,despiteironhardnessandstrengthintheworkofhiscalling,alwaysremainedinprivatelifethegentlestandmosthonestman,whowrestledmorewithhimselfthansomebelieveofhim.Generally,whatpeopletheorizeonandonconcerningcongenitalinspiration,theclear,everstreaming,andself-rewardingsourceofgenius,ispuerilehysteria.ThetruemanofGodratherfeelshisweak-nessesandlimitationsthanthathebatheswithmoonandsuninthedeepabyssofhis“positiveforce.”Hestrivesandhencemustnotyethave;oftenknockshimselfsoreonthecoverthatsurroundshim,ontheshellthatencloseshim,sofarfromfeelinghimselfalwaysintheempyreanofhisperfectblessedness.Theraythatfromtimetotimepenetratesdeepinsidehim[saying]whatheisandwhatnooneelseshouldbeforhimisforthemostpartonlyaconsolingsight,onlyacupoffortificationfornewstrivingahead.Themoreinfiniteisthemedium,thesideoftheworld,forwhichhehasasenseimmediatelybehindhisownclodofearth,themorehewillfeelpowerlessness,desert,exile,andthirstfornewsap,forahigherflight,andthecompletionofhiswork.Icouldcontinueforalongtimesketchingstrokesofthissort–which,tobesure,onlystandhereforthepersonwithunderstanding,andshouldseemnonsensetothegreatmassofpeople–butwhatgoodwoulditdo?Tothemanwhohasgeniusandcharacter,thatis,agoodindividualnature,asGodgaveittohimandhebelieveshimselfnottohavereceivedinvain,suchlinessayinfinitelylessthanhehimselfknows.Andsincetheywithoutdoubtmeannothingtothemassofcrows,sparrows,andmagpies,thereforerest,dearfeather!,rathergivethemadefinitionofSchenieanditsdiversekinds,theuniversalandparticular,philosophicalandaesthetic,historicalandpsittaco-criticalgenius,etc.∗Butunfortunately!Icannotreceivethatfrommygoose-feather.Itcacklestomethatofcoursethosearenodistinctionsofnaturebutofhumanguildsandbooks,butthatnaturedoesnotmakeitsdivisionsaccordingtotheHerderisagainmockingthisspellingpreferredbysomeofhiscontemporaries.TheGreekwordpsittakosmeansaparrot.\nPhilosophyofMindcompartmentsofourbookshelvesandthedoctoralcapsofouracademicfaculties.Ithasthegoose-geniusandthegoose-charactertosayaloudthatinthesecellsanddistrictsthehealthyhumanunderstandingandhumancharacterwhicharethesoletruegeniusoftenstops;indeed,itwouldalmostprefertocacklethroughthestreetsofthecobblersandtailors,rag-and-bone-menandlinen-weavers,page-boys[J¨ager]andhackney-cabdrivers,andtocluckattheirdiverseSchenie’s.–Youareright,dearfeather!,fornogardenerhaseveryetnamedhisplantsaccordingtotheblueorredpotintowhichhehappenedtoputthem,letalonehasabotanistregardedmerelythoseplantsthatgrowondung-bedsandingreenhousesasallthelivingflora.Onewouldthereforehaveeithertocharacterizefromoutofthesoulortogothroughallthepositions,forms,andvocationsinandforwhichnatureevermoldsitshumanbeings.Butwhocandothat?Andwhothereforecanmakeadivisionof,andcharacterize,geniuses?–However,letusatleastattemptasingledivision!Ineverythingthatisforce,intensity[Innigkeit]andextensioncanbedistinguished.Itmustalsobethatwayinthecaseofhumannature,andthatwouldperhapsbeadivision.Ahumanbeingwhoisstronginhimselffeelshimselfintoonlylittle,butverydeeply,andcanalmostlivehislifeinasinglething.Thesearehumanbeingsofstrongsense,ofdeepcognitionandsensation,andmothernaturehasalreadyherselfmarkedoutthisspeciesofherchildren.Oneseesnounsteadylook;nosmalltransientfire;noconfused,semi-sketchedtraits–whattheirformationsaysitsaysentirely,simply,andwithdeepeffect.Ahumanbeingwhofeltthusstrong,healthy,andwellthroughallmembersandpassions,howfaithfullyhemustreceiveandgiveeverything!,howmanydistractions,prejudices,andsemi-judgmentshemustbefreeof!–amortalimageofdivinestrengthandsimplicity.Armedagainsttensmallvices,despisingmanysmallmotives,hepreferstoactfromasinglegreatmotive,paysnoheedtoothersbecausehefeelshisownself,etc.–Anotherspeciesofforcecompensatesthroughextension,throughlivelinessandspeed,forwhatitlacksindeepintensity.Thesearetheesprits,spirits,allcolorsinplay.Naturehasensouledtheirformation,giventheminclinationsthatarenotThisisaratherstrikingexampleofhendiadysorthePindaricconstruction.J¨ager,literally“hunters,”buthereevidentlyused,asitsFrenchequivalent,chasseurs,oftenis,torefertopage-boysandthelike.esprits:minds,spirits,wits.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulaglowingbutashimmeringofraysfararoundthem.Fullofimagination,flight,talent,easeinplanning,inannouncing,inshowing,butlittleofpersistence,action,endurance.–Icouldmakeadivisioninthiswayandmakemuchplayofhow,then,Mr.UnderstandingandMrs.Sensationrelatetoeachotherinthisconnection;howthesetwoclassesofthinkersandsensersarenecessarycomplementstoeachother,inordertolimit,strengthen,andraiseeachother;thatintensityisthecenterandextensiontheradius,etc.–Butbehindallthisplaywhatdeterminatewouldhavebeensaid,then?Andwouldnotthelevelsofintensityandextensionstillendlesslybreakintoandapartfromeachother?NowIcouldgothroughtheforcesofthesoulalphabeticallyandshow:thatinthesoul,whilememoryprevailsthesolidpow’rofunderstandingfails,wherebeamsofbrightimaginationplaythememory’ssoftfiguresmeltaway–asthewisePopechosetoputit.OrIcouldwithBacondividethedry,coldmakersofdistinctionsfromthewarm,sublimepairersofnewthoughtsandimages–adivisionwhichcertainlycontainsmoredeepandmodesttruththanthatjingleofPope’s.OrwithPascalthedeuxsortesd’esprits,l’undepen´etrervivementetprofond´ementlescons´equencesdesprincipes–´l’espritdejustesse;l’autredecomprendreungrandnombredesprincipessanslesconfondre,l’espritdegeom´etrie´–whichforthemostpartboilsdowntomyfirstdivisionbetweentheintensityandtheextensionofthementalgift.–Icouldpursuethesetwosortesd’espritsandevenwithHuarteorderthefourcompartmentsofthebraininaccordancewiththem–butenough!,dropeverythinguntilwegetthetasksetbysomeEuropeansocietyorotherthatwouldliketoknowwhatgeniusisandhowmanytypesofgeniusthereare.Thebodyofuniversalhumannatureismightilylarge,andwhoknowswhoisafiberofitseyeorapartofitsheartmuscle,anailonitsfootorapieceofskinbelongingtoitsfingertip“thatonesmoothsoffinordertohavesubtlersensations,”asthemostrecenttheoristofallThetwosortsofspirits,theoneofpenetratinginalivelyandprofoundwaytheconsequencesofprinciples,thespiritofjustice;theotherofunderstandingalargenumberofprincipleswithoutconfusingthem,thespiritofgeometry.Sortsofspirits.\nPhilosophyofMindlearnedgeniuses–thesentimentalizersandmysticsnotexcepted–hasremarked?∗Iprefertoconcludethewholeofmylongtreatisewithafewgeneralnotes:.Ifanythinginitistrue,howfineisthemarriagethatGodhasmadeinournaturebetweensensationandthinking!Afineweb,onlyseparableintothetwothroughverbalformulas.Thehighestcreatureseemstosharewithusasinglefate,tohavetosenseifitdoesnotcallforththewholefromoutofitselfand[yet]thinks.Andwhatcreaturecandothat?Noneexceptourphilosophers,theteachersandapprenticesonthehightreeofwisdom..Allso-calledpurethinkingintothedeityisdeceptionandgame,theworstmysticism,whichonlyfailstorecognizeitselfassuch.Allourthinkingarosefromandthroughsensation,andalsostillbears,despitealldistillation,richtracesofit.Theso-calledpureconceptsareforthemostpartnumerals[Ziffern]andzerosfromthemathematicaltable,and,appliedflat-footedlyandclumsilytonaturalthingsofoursocompositehumanity,alsohavethevalueofciphers[Ziffernwert].Forthatmanwhoseeksoutandgetsridoftheselittleghostsinthewholeofmodernmetaphysics,forhimwaitmorethanfortheghost-heroThomasiuswreathsofhonor.Onlyhemustalsonotbefrightenedbymanyanemptyscare,andbylungesthattheselittleghostsmakeathisface..Towanttoescapeafewoppressivesensationsbyshakingofftheburdenofthislifeisadangerousstep,fordreams,asHamletsays,oraswesaid,sensationsandthoughts,mustcomeagain.Andnow,whichsensations?Whichthoughts?Letoneapproachasuicide,andaskwhyhedidit,howsmallthecauseswere,howeasytodealwithifonlysomeonehadpaidheedtohisinnerstate–andasthingsare,heclosedhimselfup,J.A.EberhardhadremarkedinhisAllgemeineTheoriedesDenkensundEmpfindens()concerningsubtletyoffeeling:“Thosewhofileofftheupperskinontheirfingertipswanttoprovidethemselveswithamoreexactsenseoffeeling,andtoperceivetheotherwiseimperceptibleunevennessofasurface”(p.).Herderispunninghere,inawayimpossibletoreproduceinEnglish,ontwodifferentmeaningsofthewordZiffer:()anumeral,()acipher,i.e.anarithmeticalsymbolpossessingnointrinsicvalue(thoughmultiplyingwhatevernumberitisplacedafter).Hispointisevidentlythat,whengiventhesortofineptapplicationwhichhementions,theso-calledpureconceptshavenovalue.ThisispresumablyanallusiontothecampaignbyC.Thomasius(–)againsttheperse-cutionofwitches.Hamlet,act,sc.,ll.ff.\nOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulthetreegatheredallitsviolenceinordertouprootitself–thereitlies.Withered,buttherootsandtwigsareonit.AndwhereistheDryadthatgavelifetothiswholetree?Whereisshe?.Theimmortalityofametaphysicalmonadisnothingbutmeta-physicalimmortality,whosephysicalsidedoesnotconvinceme.Ifsouliswhatwefeel,whatallpeoplesandhumanbeingsknowabout,whatitsnamesaystoo,namely,thatwhichensoulsus,originalsourceandepitomeofourthoughts,sensations,andforces,thennodemonstrationofitsim-mortalityfromoutofitselfispossible.Weenfoldinwordswhatwewanttounfold,presupposewhatnohumanbeingcanproveorevenjustcom-prehendsorunderstands,andonecanhenceinferwhateveronewants.Thetransitionofourlifeintoahigherlife,theremainingandwaitingofourinnerhumanbeingforthedayofjudgment,theresurrectionofourbodytoanewheavenandanewearth,cannotbedemonstratedfromoutofourmonad..Itisaninnercharacteristicmarkofthetruthofreligionthatitisentirelyhuman,thatitneithersentimentalizesnortheoreticallyponders,butthinksandacts,lendsforceandresourcesforthinkingandacting.Itscognitionisliving,theepitomeofallcognitionandsensations,eternallife.Ifthereisauniversalhumanreasonandsensation,itisinreligion,andpreciselythisisitsmostunrecognizedside.\n\nPartIVPhilosophyofHistory\n\nOntheChangeofTaste()OnthediversityoftasteandofmannerofthoughtamonghumanbeingsAssoonasIfindsomethingtrueorbeautiful,assoonasIcanconvincemyselfbymeansofreasonsthatsomethingistrueorbeautiful,thennothingismorenaturalthantheexpectationthateveryhumanbeingwillhavethesamefeeling,thesameopinion,withme.Otherwise,ofcourse,therewouldbenobasicruleoftruthandnofirmbasisfortaste.AssoonasitisshownthatwhatIonthebasisofreasonstaketobetrue,beautiful,good,pleasantcanlikewiseonthebasisofreasonsberegardedbyanotherasfalse,ugly,bad,unpleasant,thentruth,beauty,andmoralvalueisaphantomthatappearstoeachpersoninanotherway,inanothershape:atrueProteuswhobymeansofamagicmirroreverchanges,andnevershowshimselfasthesame.Thatthiscontradictionhasrealweightandnotmerelysuperficialsparkle:Letusobservehowannoyedanddismayedthosepeoplebe-cometowhomitsuddenlypresentsitselfinanunusuallight.Agood,honestmanwhoonlyknowstheworldfromthemarket-place,fromthecoffeehouse,andatmostoutoftheHamburgCorrespondentisasamazedwhenhecomesuponastoryanddiscoversthatmannerofthoughtandtastechangewithclimate,withregionsoftheearth,andwithcountries–Isay,heisasamazedasPariscaneverbeastonishedatthearrivalofanIndianprince.Hisastonishmentintheenddissolvesintolaughter:IretainthistitleusedbyHerder’sGermaneditors.However,aswillbeseenfromtheessay’scontents,itismisleadinglynarrow;Herderisbynomeansexclusivelyconcernedwithaestheticjudgments.\nPhilosophyofHistory“Butwhatsortoffancifulstuff”heexclaims“istherenotinbooks!Whowilleverbelievethis?”Orhetakesallthesenationstobefools,eachinitsownway.Why?Becausetheyhaveanothermannerofthoughtandtastethanhisladymother,hisdearnurse,andhiswiseschoolmatesimplantedinhim.–Dowenotoftenmakeourselvesparticipantsinthiserrorwhenweimmediatelydeclarethemannerofthoughtandtasteofsavagestobefancifulorfoolishbecauseitdeviatesfromours?–AndyetwelaughattheChinesewhotooktheircountrytobetherectangleoftheworldandpainteduspoorinhabitantsoftheentirerestoftheworldasgargoylesandmonstersintothefourcornersofthisrectangle.Why?Theydidnotknowus,andtheytookthemselvestobethemonopolistsofinsightandtaste!HowoftenonemustthinkoneisinChinawhenincommonlifeonedailyhearssuchChinesejudgmentswhichoutofignoranceandpride(twodearsisterswhoneverleaveeachother’sside)rejecteverythingthatcontradictstheirmannerofthoughtandcomprehension.TheyaresostubborninsupportoftheiropinionsandsensationsthattheyareasreadywiththenamesdumbandfoolishastheGreeksandRomans[were]withthetitlebarbarian,whichwithsovereignmajestytheyconferredonallpeopleswhowerenot–GreeksandRomans.–NowsincethewordsdumbandfoolishoccurinnoLogicamongthereasonsaptforconvincing,theotherpartysupportshisopinionandhistastewithstillfirmerstubbornness–andthusdoweseeamongnationsandprivateindividualsacontentionofviewpointswhichperplexesawisemanandmakeshimuncertainwhether,then,allthesefanaticalpeopleknowwhattheyarecontendingabout.Manyofthedoubting[sortof]philosophershavethereforetiedallthesescruplestogetherintoaknotwhichtheyhavetakentobebeyonduntying:“Ifoneweretoconsiderthegreatdiversitythatholdsswaybetweenopinionandopinion,tasteandtaste,viewpointandviewpointamongnationsandindividualpeople,thenonewouldalmosthavetodoubtoneself.”Is,then,evenwhatItaketobetruetrue,sincehundredswhohaveanequallygoodhumanunderstandingtakeittobefalse?Is,then,eventhatbeautifulwhichIimagineso?CanItrustmyself?–Amongtheancients,thePyrrhonistsandtheAcademicsectareknownforthesedoubts.Amongthemoderns,LaMotheleVayer,Montaigne,andHumehaveespeciallyoccupiedthemselveswiththeaforementionedtypeofscruple.IdonotbelievethatIamwritingthispagefordoubters;soIshallletalltheaforementionedmenrestinpeace.Imerelywanttogatherhistorical\nOntheChangeofTasteexamplesofhowfarthediversityofhumanbeingscanextend,tobringitintocategories,andthentotrytoexplainit.Ishallleadmyreadersontoaknollandshowthemhowinthevalleyandontheplaincreaturesstrayaboutthataresodiversethattheyhardlyhaveacommonnameleft;however,theyareourfellowbrothers,andtheirhistoryisthehistoryofournature.–Ithereforehopethatthisviewwillbeentertainingandinstructive;instructivebecauseitadvisesustogainforourselvesfirmnessinopinionsandtaste,andpleasantbecauseitsummonspastoureyesaveryvarioustrainofimagesandplay-acts–adramawhichLucretiusdrawswiththefollowingmagnificentcolors:Suave,marimagnoturbantibusaequoraventis,Eterramagnumalteriusspectarelaborem––SuaveetiambellicertaminamagnatueriPercamposinstructa––Sednihildulciusest,benequammunitatenereEditadoctrinasapientumtemplaserena:Despicereundequeasalios,passimquevidereErrare,atqueviampalantesquaererevitae,Certareingenio,contenderenobilitate.––Firstsection:Arehumanbeingsdiverseinrelationtothejudgmentsofthesenses?Itisindeedtruethatinmoderntimesthegreatdifferencesinbodythatwereinventedaboutwholenationsintheoldcosmographiesandtraveldescriptionshavedisappeared;therearenolongerpeoplewhohavetheirheadsontheirchests,theirmouthsintheregionoftheirnavels,whohaveafootwithwhosebladetheyprovidethemselveswithshadeagainsttheheatofthesun;thenationsofPygmiesandPatagonians,ofdwarfsandgiants,havebecomemoreorlessimperceptible;themenwithapes’tailsonBorneohavenotbeenconfirmed,althoughMaupertiusstillventuresatreatiseonaccountoftheirtails,devotedtojustifyingthemasanextendedItissweet,whenonthehighseathewindsstirupthewaves,toobservefromlandthegreattoilofanother...Itissweettootobeholdthegreatstrugglesofwararrayedthroughtheplains...Butnothingispleasanterthantooccupyaserenetemplewellfortifiedbytheestablisheddoctrineofthewise,whencetolookdownonothers,andtoseethemstrayineverydirection,andwanderingseeklife’sway,competeforgeniusandcontendfornobility.(Lucretius,DeRerumNatura[OntheNatureofThings],bk.,ll.–.)\nPhilosophyofHistoryvertebra;allthesenationsbelongwiththeCacklogallinians,Liliputians,andHouyhnhnmsintheworldthatSwiftcreated.Butdespitethat,therearestillgreatdiversitiesinrelationtothestruc-tureofthehumanbody:insizeandshape,incolorandlineaments,intheproportionandthevaryingfirmnessoftheparts.Buffonhasatreatiseinthethirdpartofhisnaturalhistoryaboutthediversetypesofhumanbeingsinrelationtotheformationofthebodywhichcollectstogetherwhatismostnoteworthy,albeitveryincompletely,andtowhichIrefer[thereader].Thusoneknowsthatthenegroes(whoaredistinguishedfromtheactualMoorsorMauritanians)gettheircoal-blackcolornotfromthesurfaceofasunburnedskin,butfromglandswhichliebeneaththeirspongy,fattyskinandarefullofablack,ink-coloredfluid.Sincethisstructureofthebodycannotsimplybederivedfromtheheatofthesun,somehavebeencompelledtoassumeadivinepunishmentonthesonsofHam,andyetothersevenablackAdam,becausethediversitybetweenthemandthewhiteswastooextensive;others,bycontrast,havewantedtoexplainitfromtheoverflowedbileofthetribalfatherofthisnation;mean-while,thedifferencecertainlystillremainsanoteworthyphenomenon.–Likewiseitisamazingthatcertainpeopleshaveacurlywoolontheirwholebodyinsteadofhair,asinthecaseofallgenuinenegronationsinAfrica,andthatingreatregionsoftheearth,forexampleNorthAmericaandLapland,beardsareasmuchforeigntothemenas[itisthecasethat]weforourpartgiveourselvesthegreatesttroubletwiceorthriceweeklytogetridofthisburdenandtobecomeelegantunderthehandsofabarber,i.e.togetafemininelysmoothchin.ButIdonotwanttotalkaboutthisformationofthebodyingeneral,butonlyinsofarasithasaninfluenceonthemannerofthought,andhereIamtalkingaboutthesenses,which,afterall,aresotospeakthedoorforallourconcepts,ortheopticalmediumthoughwhichtheideacomesinlikearayofsunlight.Nowiftheseinstrumentsareconstitutedinaspecialway,thenthemannerofthoughtarisingtherefrommustbeformedinaspecialwayaswell.Andthiscanthereforebethefirstsourceofthediversityinconceptsandinsensation.Virtuallyallanimalsandmostsavagesexcelusinfinitelyinthestrengthoftheirsensesbecauseinthecaseofourmoresubtleconstitutionthesoulgetsdevelopedforthoughtandtheinnersensecanonlybeeffectivetotheextentthatweabstractfromoutersensations;ourbodybecomesthatmuchdullerthemorewebecome,especiallyduringtheyearsofgrowthin\nOntheChangeofTastewhichthenervesaresupposedtodevelopthemselvesforsensation,sotospeakbetrothedtoabstraction.Bycontrast,thesavage,whosesensesgettrainedfromyouthupbyhuntingandfear,receivesfromthecompanionswithwhomhestandsinsucharelationofequalitysomethingoftheirsharpsensualityaswell:fromthebirdofpreyitshawk-andeagle-eye,fromthepursueddeeritsfinehearing,andfrombeastsofpreytheirsharpsenseofsmell.–AlltraveldescriptionsconfirmthataKaffirexcelstheEuropeaninthestrengthofthesensestosuchanextentthatitoftenseemsincredibletous.Buthumanbeingsareverydiversenotonlyinrespectofthestrengthandweaknessbutinrespectoftheveryconstitutionoftheirsensation.Ibeginwiththecrudestsense,thatoffeeling–inwhichcase,togobythefewtracesthatonecandiscover,theremustbethegreatestdiversity,exceptthatitprovesimpossibletoexpressthisdiversityofsensationverbally.Whatsoftnessorhardness,coldnessorwarmth,smoothnessorroughnessisweonlyknowthroughfeeling;apersonwhowasbornwithoutfeelinghasnoconceptionofalltheseideas,andnorcanhe(letoneattemptitsometimeinrelationtooneself),norcanhebegivenany.Thusalthoughallhumanbeingsaremoreorlessinagreementinwhattheycallsoftorhard,smoothorrough,stillIcanneversaywhethertheyareinfullagreementbecauseIhavenowayoftestingit.Sincethewholesensationdependsontheconstitutionofthenervespertainingtofeeling,nohumanbeingisquiteexactlyinagreementinfeelingwithanother,becauseitcannoteasilybethecasethatintwohumanbeingsthewholestructureofthenervesisentirelytunedinasingleway.Thisiswhysomanypeoplehaveastubbornlyidiosyncratic[eigensinniges]senseoffeelingwhichnoticeablydeviatesnowinthismatterandnowinthatfromthesensationofanotherperson.Thispersoncanneverlightlytouchvelvet,whereasthatpersonbycontrastfeelsavoluptuousthrillindoingso.Ihaveknownamanwhomadeafestivehourofrootingthroughallsortsoffineblondhair,forwhichhiscommercialofficewasastoragedepot,withgentlyshuteyes–apleasurewhichcertainlypresupposesaspecialstructureofhissensoryfibers.Howmanypeopletherearewhofeelashudderrunovertheirwholebodywhentheyhearanironstylusscratchoverstone,forwhomthecryofasingleanimalisunpleasant,asforthelionthecock’scrowing,andforthecameltheyelpingofdogs;ThisisanotherexampleofHerderusinganadiplosis.\nPhilosophyofHistoryhowmanywhofaintwhentheyencounterasmellwhichisneithertoostrongnorinitselfunpleasantmerelybecauseitisunpleasantforthem;howmanywhoexperienceanauseawhentheyencounteracertaintaste,eveniftheyonlyseethefoodinthedish;howmanywhoatthesightofacolororofsomethingelsewantto,sotospeak,jumpoutoftheirskinsduetoanatural,instinctiveshudder.Iwouldhavetocitemanymoreillustrationshere,exceptthatthismatteristooobvious,sothatexampleuponexamplemustoccurtoeachofmyreaders.–If,therefore,feelingdisplayssomanydeviationsanddifferencesassoonasitexpressesitselfinsensesinrelationtowhichwearemoreabletoexplainourselves,thenwhatismoreprobablethanthatitcanbejustasdiverseinitscoarserconsistency,exceptthatthisdiversitydoesnotexpressitself.IwouldneedtotakeonanotherbodyifIwantedtoexperiencewhethertwodifferenthumanbeingshaveacompletelysimilarsenseoffeeling.Woulditperhapsbepossibletopreventsuchastubbornlyidiosyncraticsortofsensation?Sinceinmostcasesitdependsonthestructureofthenerves–hardly!–Thatiswhyinmostsuchcasesthereisalsoacausewhichaffectedthem,eitherduringthemother’spregnancyorintheearliestperiodoftheirlives–exceptthatveryoftenthecauseremainsunknown.Theirfiber-webhassotospeakreceivedapitchthatispeculiartoitthroughacontingentevent,andeverysensationthatfightsagainstthispitchthroughacompletediscordcausesashudderingthatisasunnaturalasthatwhichoccursinthepartsofaglassthatgetsshatteredbyacry.–Andinthiscasealldisputingagainstwhattheotherpersonfeelsisuseless,“IwillnotallowmyselftobetalkedoutofwhatIfeel!”However,itisalsopossibleforanearlyapingofothersandalonghabituationtobringustothefancythatwecannotbearthisorthatsensation,whereasinfacttheaversionisnotnaturaltous.Inthiswaydoestheweaklychildwhowasraisedbehindtheovenbecomecowardly;hefallsintoaswoonwhenhesmellsgunpowderandisthunderstruckwhenheseesthedaggerflash;andfinallythepitiablecreatureformsthefancythathecannotbeartoseeadrawndaggerbecausehewasneglectedinhismother’swomb.Inthiswaydospoiledchildrenveryoftenfancythemselvestohaveanaturaldisgustforfoods,anaversioninnatetothemagainstthisorthat,aninsurmountablefearofvaultsandcoffinswhichtheyhavemerelyadoptedthroughabadeducationintheiryouth,throughthelittleghoststoriesoftheirnurses,andthroughbadcontingentevents.Thoseparentsearntheirchildren’seternalgratitude\nOntheChangeofTastewhowatchovertheminthisregardsothattheydonotinolderyears,whenhabithasturnedintosecondnatureforthem,whentheyaresickintheirimaginations,becomeaburdentothemselvesamongothers.Howoftenintheyearswhenwestilltakeinallimpressionslikesoftwaxcouldthatbedrivenoutofus,throughasmallreprimand,throughtwowordsofbetterinstruction,throughabitofseriouseffort,oratmostthroughalittleprescriptionofbirchtwigs,whichafterwardsturnsintodeeplyrootedstubbornidiosyncrasyinsensation.Thenonewouldnotsooftenhearthewords,[delivered]withasuperiorwrinklingofthenose,“Icannotdothat,Iwasnotbroughtupforthat!”Thenmanywouldnotneedtoarmthemselvesagainstthescentofthemasseswithmuchsolemndignitythroughaprisedecontenance.Wewouldhavethesamesensationsasothers.Why?Becausewewanttohavethesamesensationsasothers.However,Imakeherewithadeeprespectfulbowasmallexception:thattherecanbeacertainartificialstubbornidiosyncrasyofsensationwhichinthecaseofthefairsexalsoappearsfair.Whenafairwomanstartsback,herefromafrog,therefromaspider,andherefromalittlemouse(evenifitrunsaboutattachedtoathread),theninonewomanthisshowsafinedelicacyoffeeling,andinanotheritissupposedtoshowthat,andsheimitatesthisfairfright,thisdelicateshudder.Inthecaseofthelatterwomanitstillprovesafairtrait;inthecaseofanotherwomanitdoesperhapsindeedalreadyappearartificialbecauseshelacksthegracetoconferonitvalueandeffectiveness.Butifthereoccurs,totopitall,aneffeminatedandywhoaffectsthispeculiarityofsensationasahermaphrodite,thenheprovesapuppetofself-indulgentimagination[Einbildung]andanunbearablemalewoman.–[Textbreaksoff.]Onthechangeinnations’tastethroughthesequenceoftheages(afragment)Whenthatmansawtreesbeingplantedfordescendantshecriedout:“Wealwayshavetobedoingsomethingforourdescendants;Ireallywishthatourdescendantswoulddosomethingforustoo!”Thisfoolishman,whodidnotrememberthathewashimselfadescendant,thatheowedeverythingtohisancestors,andthatposteritywouldbeapartofhim,Adoptionofasuperiorattitude.ThisstoryseemstobebasedonasayingoftheRomanpoetStatiusaboutthevirtue“quaeseritarbores,utalteriseculoprosint[whichsowstreesthattheymightbenefitanothercentury].”\nPhilosophyofHistoryshouldhavemovedaheadseveralcenturiesinhisimaginationandputhimselfinthepositionofthedescendantswhowouldenjoythesetrees.Whatwerethesenowabletodoforhimastheirancestor?Thinkofhim!Butwhatweretheyabletodofortheirdescendants?Workforthem!Everyhumanbeingineveryagethusstandsinamiddle,sotospeak.Hecangatherabouthimtheextinguishedimagesofhisancestors,hecancallforththeirshadesand,sotospeak,makeafeastforhiseyeswhenhemakesthemrustlepastbeforehiseyes.Butcanhealsocastapropheticlookintothelatertimesbeyondhisowngraveand,sotospeak,seehischildrenandgrandchildrenwalkinguponhisashes?Historymakesthelookintothepastcertain;theprospectintothefutureismoreobscure–buteventhisshadowydarknesscausespleasure.Whenfromthisphilosophicalheightonecastsalookbeforeoneandbehindone,whenonecallsthespiritofadeadcenturyfromitsashes,sotospeak,whenonecomparesvarioussucceedingageswithoneanotherandbelievesthatoneglimpsesacontinuousthread,aconnectedwhole,thenwhatsortofconjectureismorenaturalthanthis:Isthischainofchangesthathasrunaroundmanycenturiesinsucharegularmannerdestinedtobreakoffwithus?Isitnotdestinedtocontinuerunningonafterus?Howso?Whenonetakestogethermanyalterationsofthepast,whenoneseeswhataforceforchangethearmoftimehas,andhowithasusedithitherto,isnottheboldviewthensomewhatforgivable:thesewillperhapsbetheconsequencesofchangebehindourbacks;every-thingbeforeushaschangedinthisway,everythingafteruswillchangeinthisway?However,evenifthispropheticviewwereillusory,stilltheprospectupontheworldofthepastremainsallthemoreuseful.Thespiritofchangesisthekernelofhistory,andwhoeverdoesnotmakeithismainfocustoseparateoutthisspirit,sotospeak,toputtogetherinimaginationthetasteandthecharacterofeachage,andtotravelthroughthevariousperiodsofworldeventswiththepenetratinglookofatravelerhungrytolearn,he,likethatblindman,seeshumanbeingsastrees,andconsumesinhistoryadishofhuskswithoutakernel,inordertoruinhisstomach.–Thegreatesthistorianshavethereforereachedtheirpeakbytakingnoteofthischangeoverthecourseoftime,bywhennarratingalsokeepinginmindthattheyareleadingtheirreaderaboutnotmerelyinorderMark:–.\nOntheChangeofTastetomakehimseebutalsoinordertomakehimlearn.IfVoltairehassomemeritasahistorian,thenitisintheviewpointofhisoftentellingremarksaboutthespiritofevents.Butthegreatestmaninthisregard,inmyopinion,isthehistorianofBritain,Hume,anauthorwhoknowsthedifficultartofapplyingthepragmatictechniquesofaTacitusandaPolybiusinaccordancewiththetasteofourownage.Myprefaceisadmittedlytoolongforthisonelittletreatise.Butifthistreatiseweretobewellreceivedbythepublic,thenitmightbemerelytheprecursorofsimilarobservationsaboutthespiritofthechangesinvariousages.Whenphilosophyisledbyhistoryandhistoryisenlivenedbyphilosophy,thenitbecomesdoublyentertaininganduseful.∗Peoplewho,ignorantabouthistory,knowonlytheirownagebelievethatthecurrenttasteistheonlyoneandsonecessarythatnothingbutitcanbeimagined.Theybelievethateverythingthattheyfindindispensablebecauseofhabituationandeducationhasbeenindispensableforallages,andtheydonotknowthatthemorecomfortablesomethingisforusthenthemorenovelitmustprobablybe.Generally,prideaccompaniesthisignoranceaswell(twosiblingswhoareasinseparableasenvyandstupidity);theirtimesarethebestbecausetheyliveinthemandotherageslackthehonoroftheiracquaintance.ThesepeoplearesimilartotheChinesewho,becausetheyknewnoonebutthemselves,consideredtheircountrytobetherectangleoftheearthandpaintedgargoylesandmonstersinthecornersofthisrectangle–aspacewhichwassupposedtogiveportraitsofuspoorinhabitantsoftherestoftheworld.WelaughabouttheseChinese,buthowoftendoesonenotthinkoneisinChinawhenonehearsjudgmentsfrompeoplewhoknowtheworldonlyaccordingtothecornerinwhichtheyfindthemselves,andaccordingtotheHamburgCorrespondent.Twolooksathistorydissolvethisprejudice.Timehaschangedevery-thingsomuchthatoneoftenneedsamagicmirrorinordertorecognizethesamecreaturebeneathsuchdiverseforms.Theformoftheearth,itssurface,itscondition,haschanged.Changedaretherace,themanneroflife,themannerofthought,theformofgovernment,thetasteofnations–justasfamiliesandindividualhumanbeingschange.AndifouroriginalancestorAdam,ifNoah,ifthetribalfathersofeachpeopleweretorisefromthedead–heaven!,whatasightthiswouldbeforthem!\nPhilosophyofHistoryNoneofthesechangesisasdifficulttoexplainasthealterationoftasteandmannerofthought.Coulditbethatwhatanationatonetimeconsidersgood,fair,useful,pleasant,trueitconsidersatanothertimebad,ugly,useless,unpleasant,false?–Andyetthishappens!Isnottruth,fairness,moralgoodnessthesameatalltimes?Yes,andyetoneobservesthatpropositionsforwhichatcertaintimeseachpersonwouldhavesacrificedhislastdropofbloodatothertimesgetdamnedtothefirebypreciselythesamenation;thatfashionswhichafewyearsagoeachpersonfoundfairsoonafterwardsgethissedoff;thatrulingcustoms,thatfavoriteconceptsofhonor,ofmerit,ofwhatisusefulcanblindanagewithamagicallight,thatatasteintheseandthosesciencescanconstitutethetoneofacentury,andyetallthisdieswiththecentury.–Thisskepticismshouldalmostputusofftrustingourowntasteandsensation.–[Textbreaksoff.]\nOlderCriticalForestlet(/)[excerptonhistory]TheplaninaccordancewithwhichHerrWinckelmannwantedtoexecutehisexcellenthistory[Geschichte]ofartisbyhisownadvertisementthis,andIconfessthatinamodernbooksuchanadvertisementhasseldombeensogreatlyexecuted:“Thehistoryoftheartofantiquityisnomerenarrationofthechronologicalsequenceandofthechangesinit,butIunderstandthewordhistory[Geschichte]inthebroadermeaningthatithasintheGreeklanguage,andmyintentionistosupplyanattemptatadoctrinalstructure[Lehrgeb¨aude].”Ishallleaveittocertainphilologistsofmynationtocollecttogetherthelociformanymeaningsfromseverallistsanddictionaries.Tokeepitniceandshort!,thewordhistory[Historie]canaccordingtoitsGreekoriginmean“observation,knowledge,science,”andahistoryisofcoursealsoacorrectnarrationofthingsthathavehappened.Butadoctrinalstructure?DidtheGreekswanttoconstructsuchathingintheirhistory[Geschichte]?Cansuchathingbeconstructedsothattheworkstillremainshistory?–Formypurposeitdoesnotyetmatterwhetherhistorybeanarrationofcomplicatedoccurrences[Begebenheiten]orofsimpleproductions,whetherofdataoroffacta.Evenahistoryofthethoughts,thescience,theartofapeople,orofmanypeoples,is,howeversimplethesubjectmattermaybe,stillahistoryofoccurrences,deeds,changes.AndsoifasinglehistorianmustbeabletosupplyadoctrinalAlthoughWinckelmannusestheGermanicwordGeschichtehere,heisthinkingoftheGreekwordhistoria,forwhichGermanhasthecognateHistorie,awordwhichHerdergoesontousemoreorlessinterchangeablyalongsideGeschichteinthismaterial.Literally:thingsgiven(cf.datainthecontinuationofthesentence).Literally:whetherofthingsgivenorofthingsdone/made.\nPhilosophyofHistorystructure,thenconsequentlyeveryhistorianmustbeabletodosoinhismanneraswell.Andwhyshouldhenotbeabletosupplyit?Everyoccurrence,everyfactumintheworldisinitsmannerawhole,awholethatcanberepre-sentedforinstruction.Sowhatissuchaclearrepresentation,acompletedescriptionconcerningitfortheinstructionofotherpeople,butahis-torical[historisches]doctrinalstructure?Everyoccurrence,everyfactum,intheworldhasitsgroundsandcauseswhich,sotospeak,produceditsnature;italsohasconsequencesofitsnature–andwhatelseisadescrip-tionofthisbutahistoricaldoctrinalstructure?Finally,everyoccurrenceismerelyalinkinachain,itiswovenintotheconnectionwithothers,itiseffectiveinthecomingtogetherofworldlythingsthroughattractionandrepulsion–andaplanofthisconnection,ofthisworld-systemofeffects,isthisnotahistoricaldoctrinalstructure?Isahistorianofthisscopenotaphilosopher?Notapragmaticsystematizer?Alltoogladly!Andamongallphilosophers,architectsofdoctrine,andsystematizerssuchaphilosopheroftheworldwouldformebethefirst,thegreatest,ifheexisted.ButpreciselyhisgreatnessmakesitthecasethatIamunabletoreachhisface;soIcastdownmyeyes,andprefertothink.Ifhistory[Geschichte]initssimplestsensewerenothingbutadescrip-tionofanoccurrence,ofaproduction,thenthefirstrequirementisthatthedescriptionbewhole,exhaustthesubject,showittousfromallsides.Eventheannalist,thewriterofmemoirs,isobligatedtothiscompleteness,andhenceconsequentlydutyboundtogivea“doctrinalstructure”inanindividualsense.Tobesure:inanindividualsense.Hereamerelyone-sidedviewpointiserroneous,aone-sidedsketchofituseless.Lethishistoricaldatumbeforhimastructurethathegoesaroundonallsides,thathesketchesfromallsides.ButIwouldliketoseethehistorianwhoevenmerelyinthiscouldachieveallcompleteness.Justasitisimpossibleforawholebodytobeperceived,representedonasurface,asitiswithoutprojectionfromaviewpoint,itisequallyimpossiblefortheannalistandthewriterofmemoirstomakeahistoricaldoctrinalstructureoutofasubject,evenifitwerethemostimportantofsubjects,andevenifhisaccountofthedetailwerenothinglessthan[nichtsminderals]ramblingLiterally:thingdone/made.TheGermanphrasenichtsminderalswouldmorecommonlymeanalmosttheoppositeofthis:anythingbut.ButforHerder’suseofit,ashere,inthesamesenseasitsEnglishlook-alike,cf.ThisTooaPhilosophyofHistoryfortheFormationofHumanity,G:.\nOlderCriticalForestletexcess.Onlyever,evenjustindividually,evenjustinexternalappearance,theattemptatadoctrinalstructure,andthatisalreadyenough!Enoughforusone-sidedlyseeinghumanbeings,butnotenoughforitsmany-sidedsubjectmatter;andhowmuchlessenoughforthissubjectmatter’sinneraspect,forthecausesofitsorigination,fortheconditionofitsnature!Herehistoricalseeingstopsandprophecybegins.SinceI[can]neverseecauseascauseandeffectaseffect,butmustalwaysinfer,conjecture,guess;sinceinthisartofinferencenothingbutthesimilaritybetweencasesismywitness,andhencemyintelligenceormywitforfindingthissimilaritybetweencases,thisconsequenceofonecasethroughanother,ismysoleguarantoroftruth;since,however,thisguarantorcanbenothingbutmyintelligence,mywit,andhencecanbeadeceptivewitness,andperhapsaprophetoftruthonlyformeandafewofmybrothers–onethereforeseesthatthehistorianandthephilosopherofhistorydonotfullystandoncommonground.Settwoobserverswiththesamekindoftelescopeinonespotandtheywillseemoreorlesssimilarly;butjudge,infer,conjectureaboutwhattheyhaveseen–nolongersocompletelysimilarly.Theoneofthemseeksthecausesoftheoccurrencewhoknowswhere,andhowdifferently–andthereandthusdifferentlydoeshefindthemaswell.Theoneofthemandtheother–eachaccordingtothestateofhishead,accordingtothedomesticconstitutionofhisintelligenceandwit.Finally,itiscompletelythecasethatnohumanbeingcanseetheefficacyofthediscoveredcause,themoreorlessofitsefficacy;thiseachpersonhastoinfer,suspect,guess.Itisnot,therefore,theactualhistorian,notthewitnessofwhathasbeenseen,whoindicatesandweighsthecauses–whysomethinghascomeaboutandtowhatextentithasdonesobecauseofthis–butnoneotherthantherationalizerabouthistory,who–moreorlesstruly,moreorlesscertainly,moreorlessprobably–seeksgrounds,andmeasuresoffandcontinuesforththebondbetweengroundandconsequence.Sothehistorianshouldthereforebenorationalizeror–whyputitsocontemptuously?–nophilosopherofhistory?Notsofast,myreader–wehavenotyetreachedthatpoint.Idonotmeantobeahistoricaldoubter,andIleavetoournewhistoricalsocietytheimportantinvestigation:“TowhatextentinmattersofhistoryisthesensuscommunisofjudgmentstilloneinkindinthecaseofhumanbeingsofdifferentclassesandmodesHerderisreferringtoahistoricalsocietyinGottingen.¨Commonsense.\nPhilosophyofHistoryoflife,butevenmorewithdifferentcompositionsoftheirsouls’forces,andaboveallwithdifferenteducationsandmodificationsofthoseforces?Howfarcanamind’swhimgoinseekingitsfavoriteprospectsandfavoritecauseseveninhistory?TowhatextentcanthiswhimcontributetomyalsofindinginwhatIsoughtwhatIwantedtofind,andfindingitthebetterthemoreIwantedtofindit?Towhatpointcanself-persuasioncontributetoconfusingexperienceandjudgment,tohavingfaithasthoughonesaw,andtorationalizingasthoughonehadsensationofwhatisreallyopinion?Howmuchcanthedistinctivecharacterofourthinkingbindustotheseorthoseprospectsandmakeacertainstateofthehistoricalsoulintothemostcomfortableone,thenintothenecessaryone,andfinallyintothesoleoneforus?Fromthis[follows]thedeterminationofhistoricalcertaintyandprobabilityinitspsychologicalmeasureandweight!Fromthisthedifferencebetween–andthislastfromthisisreallyforme–fromthisthedifferencebetweenhistoryandjudgment,historyanddoctrinalstructure.Historyonemustbelieve,butwhateverinitshouldbeonlydoctrinalstructure,investigate.”Butwhatinahistorycanbedoctrinalstructureisnotmerelythecon-nectionbetweenonecauseandeffect,theweighingupofeachindividualcauseandeffect,butfinally,thirdly,thewholeorderingtogetherofmanyoccurrencesintoaplan,intoavision[Absicht]–thatisdoctrinalstruc-ture.Buthowso?Withoutthisplan,withoutthisorderingtogetherofoccurrencesintoavision,canthereevenreallyexisthere,accordingtoourtheoryofhistory,atruehistorianparexcellence?Themerenarratorisanannalist,awriterofmemoirs,ofnewspapers;thereasonerabouttheindividualnarrationisahistoricalrationalizer;butthemanwhoorderstogethermanyoccurrencesintoaplan,intoavision–heis,ourhistoricalartsays,heisthetruehistoricalartist,thepainterofagreatpaintingofthemostexcellentcomposition;heisthehistoricalgenius,heisthetruecreatorofahistory!Andifthatisright,thenhistoryanddoctrinalstructureareoneandthesamething!Byallmeans!Creator,genius,painter,andartistofhistory.Butmysimpleunderstanding,whichhaslearnedfromSocratestotakeitstimefor[arrivingat]theconceptofathing,isstillsofarbehindthatthefirstquestionoccurstoitagain:thehistoricalcreatorwhoimaginedaworldofoccurrences,wovetogethertheirconnection,andcreatedahistoryThisisanotherexampleofHerderusinganadiplosis.\nOlderCriticalForestletaccordingtothisplan–towhatextentishestillahistorian?Itcanbeseen,IamthusagainatthegreatA.AndsinceIdonothaveenoughofamemorytobringtomymindallthehistoricalrulesfromLuciantoAbbtandGatterer,since,moreover,therewerereallyparagonsofhistoryearlierthanrulesofhistory,howwoulditbeifIweretotakeastrollouttoafewoftheoldestparagons,andtoinvestigatetheextenttowhichtheirhistorywasadoctrinalstructure.Thusthere[dowefind]thefatherofall,atleastofallGreekandRoman,history:Herodotus.Herodotus’shistory,asconfusedasitmayseem,isyetwithitsepisodesandtransitionsaunitedlyorderedstructure–asartfulaseverinEgyptthehandofDaedaluscouldlayoutalabyrinththatwascertainlynolabyrinthintheartist’sidea.Gattererhasrecentlyshownthistoanextent,andinhisdissection(Iamnottalkingabouttheapplicationtoourtimes)hasverywellpinneddownthestandpointfromwhichHerodotuswroteandmustberead.StillasonofhisagewhowasusedtosongsandHomeriads,healsoworkedouthishistorylikeacomplexlyinterrelatedsong,laysdownasafoundationinthemannerofepicsathemewhichheexecuteswithepisodesanddigressionsalmostasahistoricalrhapsode:“IwanttocelebrateinsongGreecefreedfromthePersians!”Forthisthemehetakesalongasmuchfromhispastandcontemporaryworldsasmightbeneededforitsexecution.Didhenotthereforeworkuphishistoryhalfasahistoricalepicandhalfasahistoricaldoctrinalstructure?Nootherwise!Butwhatifheonlyhadtodothistoaccordwithhisage?Ifsuchastructuremerelystemmedfromthepovertyofhisage?Ifjustbecauseofthathehadnoimitatorinthisamonghissuccessors?Ifjustbecauseofithebecamethetargetofhistoricalobjections?Shouldtheepisodicstructurethatishishistoryinthatcasestillbeasmuchaparagonforourtimeastheaforementionedrenownedteacherofhistory[Gatterer]believes?–Herodotushadnohistoriansbeforehim.Hence,asthefirstone,hehadtotakealongerleapbackwardsandalwaysreachbacktoPresumably“A”heremeans,onthemodelofsuchidiomsasvonAbisZ:myoriginalquestion.(SurelynotasGrimmsuggests:A[ristotle].)Lucian(secondcenturyAD),Greeksatiristwhoauthoredatreatiseabouthowtowritehistory.T.Abbt(–)andJ.C.Gatterer(–)werecontemporaryGermanswhowroteabouthistory(theformeristheAbbteulogizedbyHerderinthisvolume).InanessayVomhistorischenPlanundderdaraufsichgr¨undendenZusammenf¨ugungderErz¨ahlungen().ThisisnotliterallyaquotationfromHerodotus,butisinhisspirit.\nPhilosophyofHistoryprimordialtimesineachpartofhishistory–thatwasthefoundationforhishistoricalstructure;butitisnotingeneralaparagonofaplanforthosewhonolongerneedtowriteasaboriginals.HerodotuswroteforapublicthathadbeenneitherinPersianorinEgyptandalsodidnotyethalforwhollyknowtheselandsfromaHubner.¨SohehadtobecomesuchaH¨ubnerandinserttraveldescriptions,notbecausetheybelongedthere,butbecausewithoutthemhishistorywouldhavebeenunintelligibleforhisGreece,andbecause–whyshouldwenotsayit?–hewouldotherwisealsohavetraveledfornothing,andwhowantsthat?Inthiswayhebecamewiththesepatched-inragsofgeographyandforeignhistorysouseful,soindispensable,tohisownandallsubsequentages;butinthecompositionofhisdigressiveplanstillpreciselynoparagoninthis.Finally,HerodotuswasanAsian,butanAsiaticGreek;henceespeciallyhissettingofhisnineMusesaroundhisfatherland;hencethenationaltonethatrulesthroughout,andwhichsomeoneshouldinvestigateexactly;hencetheconstructionofhishistoryonthebasisofGreekconcepts,withwhichitisclothedinreligionandpoliticsandmodeoflife;hencethefactthathisworkbecameahistoricaldoctrinalstructureforhisGreeks–butnot,indeed,theparagonofaplanforthewholeworld.NotevenfortheGreekagesafterhim.Thucydides,preciselythatThucydideswhomnooneelsebutHerodotusawakenedasahistorian,thatThucydideswhoasaboycriedtearsofemulationwhenheheardHerodotus’shistoryreadout,didnot,asaman,asahistorian,imitateit,butwroteaccordingtoaplanthatseemednottoknowaboutit.Alltheworseforhim,itwillbesaid.“ThatiswhyhealsohasalessimportantsubjectthanHerodotus;thatiswhyhealsoweavesinsuchdreadfullylongspeechesofwhichHerodotushasnoexactknowledge;thatiswhyhealsolacksthegentlebondbetweenhisperiodsofhistory;thatiswhy,wearesorrytosay,thatiswhywealsofindhimnotbesidehistoriansbutamongannalists.”PerhapsitwillnotexactlypainThucydidesverymuchtobefoundthere,becauseheputhimselfthereofhisownfreewill.HishistorydoesnotreachoutroundaboutitinsuchabroadsphereofscopeasHerodotus’sandhisintroductionisnotsuchamagnificentgatewayasHerodotus’scourtyardofAsiaticextent.Butthatisfine!,forhisintro-ductionwaswrittenbyastatesmanwhotookupfromancienthistoryonlyJ.Hubner(¨–)hadwrittenwidelyknownworksonthebible,history,andgeography.Herderisalludingtothe(infactHellenistic)divisionofHerodotus’sworkintoninebooks,eachonebearingthenameofaMuse.\nOlderCriticalForestletasmuchashe–notasmuchasheneeded,forHerodotuswasthere,butashe–wantedtocorrectortoexplainintherulingpreconceptionsabouttheantiquityofGreece.Hewroteintermsofwintersandsummers–anaturaldivisionofthecourseofwarinhistime,andasappropriateforageneralconductingwarsasitisforashepherdesstocalculateherlifeintermsofsprings.Heinsertedspeeches–thedocumentsandmotivationsofthatage,whosecollectionandcorrectioncosthimsomuch,butwhichhavethemisfortuneofbeingregardedbyusasoratoricalexercisesthatagreatgeneralissupposedtohavegivenhimselfpracticedressingup.Hedwellsoninessentialmattersforalongtimeandoftentoolongatime,doesnotinhisnarrationadequatelymeasurewithaneyetotheinnerimportanceforthewhole,becausehe–whyshouldwenotsaythisaswell?–becausehestillstoodtooclosetotheoccurrences,couldnotyetobservethemfromtheappropriatedistanceinordertosurveythemasawhole,becausetheywerestilltoopressingforhim,andsotospeakin,notbefore,hiseyes.Rightatthestartofthewarhedecidedtowriteaboutthewar,duringithecollectedmaterialsandputtheminorder–howthereforecouldithavebeenotherwisethanthathehadtowriteinsuchapiecemealway,andcompletedhishistorynotasacirclelikeHerodotusbutseriallyandindetail,thoughwiththatmuchmoredetailedprecisionandornamentation,completedeverythingnotsidebysidelikeHerodotusbutintertwinedandsequential?ButwhatamIsaying?Completed?Hedidnotcompleteit,andevenifhehadcompletedit,stillanythingcouldhavebecomeofitsoonerthan“adoctrinalstructureaboutthePeloponnesianWar.”Butnow!thefirstofthephilosopherswhobecameahistorian,theamiablepupilofSocrateswhorevealedtousthememorabiliafromthesoulofhisteacher,whowasabletobeaphilosopherandastates-man,fromhorsebreeding,hunting,theartofdomesticmanagementontotheeducationofaprince,toinstructionsandeulogiesforrulers.Whenhecametohistorywhatwillhavebecomeofitbutadoctrinalstructureofstatecraftandphilosophy?Whatrichopportunitiestoletthestatesman,thegeneral,theSocraticknower-of-menspeak!IfXenophonhadlivedinourtime,howcoulditwellhavebeenotherwise?Butnow,whatashameReadingschreibenmußteforschreiben–thoughthesentencemaybeacaseofdeliberateanacoluthonratherthansimpleword-omission.Thucydides’workbreaksoffinthemiddleofbook.ThisisthetitleofXenophon’smostfamouswork.\nPhilosophyofHistorythataccordingtohisideas,asitseems,doctrinalstructureandhistorycouldnotexist[together];soheseparatedthetwocompletely.Wherethestatesman,theeconomist,thephilosopherwassupposedtospeak,well,inthatcasehelethimspeak–butnotinhistory.Whetherbiographerorwarnarrator,[hewas]alwaysanythingbutanarchitectaboutthehistoryofhishero,hiswar;alwaysnothingbutthenoblest,thegentlest,historian.Thehistorianwhoseemstoknowofnoplan,ofnoopinionsofhisown,towhomitdoesnotoccurtoorderthingsaccordingtotheseopinionsandprospects,withwhomoccurrencesseemtoorderthemselves,thoughtstoflowforthoutofeachother,historytohavewrittenitself.IdonotthinkthatonepetbiasbindsmetoXenophon,butformeheisthemostclassicaloftheGreekprosewriters,andatthatpointatwhichhemaintainsthegoldenmiddlebetweenthedigressionsofhispredecessorsandhissuccessors.Thusaparagonofhistory.Butwithwhom,indeed,arehistoryanddoctrinalstructuremoreseparatedthanwithhim?AndwithwhomcouldtheyhavestoodtogethermorecompletelythanwiththeauthoroftheCyropaedia,theteacherofthegreatScipio,Lucullus,and[gapintext.]ThusXenophon.Buthissuccessorsscarcelyanylonger.Thebarriersofthishistoricalmoderationbecametoonarrowforthem,sotheymadeabroadercourseforthemselves;outofhistoriansdevelopedphilosophersaboutahistory.Theclearonwardflowofhistoricaloccurrencesand,mixedintherewith,ofaquiethistoricalwisdomtastedtoowaterytothem;thedrinkgotspicedwithphilosophy,spicedevermorestrongly,andintheendsostronglythatitcannolongerbecalledhistorybutratherphilosophyontheoccasionofahistory,andthenhistorywasindeeddoc-trinalstructure.Thehistorian[was]nolongerXenophonbutPolybius–Icangivenomorecompleteexample.[Deletedpart.]AndsothatitdoesnotseemasthoughIamlookingforanexampleformycauseinhim,hismostrecentBritishtranslatormayspeak,whocertainlyknewhimandstillmorecertainlywasmoreprejudicedforthanagainsthim:“EverywherePolybiusspeaksinadidactictone.Everywheretheofficialfaceoftheteacher,toodark,tooproudandinsulting,tobeabletomakefriends.Thatisthesourceofhisexcessivestrivingtobedis-tinctandmoredistinct,whichaccordinglydegeneratesintonauseatingLieblingsvorurteil.ButperhapsHerdermeanttowriteLieblingsvorteil:petadvantage.\nOlderCriticalForestletrepetitionsandshamesthereaderasapupil.IfPolybiushadmerelywrittenforhiscompatriots,theArcadians,then...butasitisheaspirestobetheteacherofallGreeceandthinkshisreaderschildren.Nohis-torianofhisownorofearliertimessatisfieshim,andhereproachesinotherswiththeextremeststrictnesserrorswhichhehimselfcommits.”Hamptoncontinues,andalthoughhewillhavenoneoftheideathatPolybius,besidesthemainintentionofhishistory,explicitlyhadthesec-ondaryintentionofpromotingtheartofwar,althoughheafterwardspraiseshimrichlyenough,hestillcannot,though,failtorecognizetheattitudethatPolybiusmakesfreewithconcerningthehistorians.Tobesure,[heis]astatesman,ageneral,aphilosopherwhospeaksquiteintimatelywithusinhisroom,andthroughthoroughanddeepobservationsputsusinapositiontolearnbothfromthebadconductandfromtheclevernessofpasttimes;certainly,[heis]thefriend,theadviser,thecompanionofScipio,theteacherofBrutus,andalsoinourtimestheteacherofkingsandheroes,justasheoughtalsotobesoinmorethingsthanjusttheartofwarifhewerereadfromadifferentviewpointthanFolard’s.Allthisistrue,tobesure,butstill–[heis]entirelymorethanahistorian.Andwhoeverwantstobemorethanthatmustinevitablyarriveatpointswhereheisnolongeratruehistorian.ThatisindeedtrueofPolybius,whosehistoryhasalreadybeencalledbyothersaphilosophyfullofexamples.Andtobesure,thatisadoctrinalstructure.IskipovertheRomans,andwherewillIfindthemoderns?WhereverIwanttofindthem–partlywithmere,andoftenpedantic,narrators;partlywithhistoricalartistswholovenothingsomuchastopaint,drawouthistoricalsentenceslikeavenues,andafterwardsmakeforussuchsplendidcharactersketches,portraits,anddepictionswhichperhapslivemerelyintheirbrains;finally,[thereare]thosewiseinstatecraftwhohavebeenabletowriteviahistoryawholedoctrinalstructureforawholenationinallitspoliticalconstitutions.InthefirstcategorythemajoritywillperhapsbeGermans;inthesecondFrenchmen;andinthethirdEnglishmenandScotsmen–andamongthelastespeciallyaHume.–Hume,certainlyoneofthegreatestmindsofourtime,whomIalwaysreadwithreverence,butifImaysaysoagain,notasahistorianbutasThisisaveryfreerenderingbyHerderofremarksbythetranslatorinquestion,Hampton.ThetranslationhereisfromHerder’sGerman.J.-C.deFolard(–)wasaFrenchofficerandmilitaryauthorwhowroteacontroversialcommentaryonPolybius.\nPhilosophyofHistoryaphilosopherofBritishhistory.Thepersonwhodidnotadmireinhimtheinsightfulstatesman,thedeepthinker,thepenetratingnarrator,theenlighteningjudge,wouldnotbeworthyofbeinghisreader;however,asmuchasthereisthatIwanttolearnfromhim,amongthismuchtheleastis–history.[WhatIwanttolearnfromhim]iswhatHumethinksaboutit,howthestateofthingsappearedtohim,howhisjudgmentflowsfromhisrepresentation,howheimaginestheoccurrencesthathavehappenedandthepeople,howhesituatesthem,butnotnecessarilyhowtheyhappened,howtheywere.IciteaBritishauthor–because,sinceamongtheBritishthereisthemoststrikingdifferenceofmindsandjudgmentsabouttheirnationalaffairs,thecomparisonofdifferentandalsodifferentlythinkinghistoriansconcerninganeventcanshowuswhatagulfthereisbetweenhistoryanddoctrinalstructure,betweenoccurrenceandjudgment.Unexpectedly,therefore,IamatthatpointinmycriticalforestletwhenceIsetout.AndwhatdoIbringhomewithmefrommymentalwalk?Approximatelythefollowing:Ahistorycanbeadoctrinalstructuretotheextentthatitrepresentedtousasingleoccurrence,initsentirety,likeastructure.Butifthisoccurrenceisindividual,thensuchadescriptioncannotproperlybecalledadoctrinalstructure.So,second:thatitseeksoutthecausesoftheoccurrence,thebondbetweengroundandconsequence.Thisbondisnotseen,butinferred,andtheartofinferringconcerningitisnolongerhistorybutphilosophy.Emphatically,asourthirdpoint:Ifagreatsequenceofoccurrencesshouldbelinkedtogetherforasinglevision,inasingleplanwithacertainharmonyoftheparts,thenthereisstillgreaterdangerthatthisdoctrinalstructure[formed]accordingtothecriterionofasingleunderstandingisnotineverythingsimpleandclearhistory.Fromthesemainpropositions–whichcouldbemadeprettyprovableifitwereamatterofphilosophicallanguage–itwouldfollow:Thatifonemustbelievealegitimatehistory,onemustinvestigateeverythinginitthatmaybedoctrinalstructure.Thatthedegreesofhistoricalprobabilityandoftheprobabilityofthesystematicpartofitmustnotbeconfused.Thattheplainerahistoryis,themoreitrestsonobviousfactaordata,thenthemoreprobableitis;themoreahistoryishistoricalart,themore\nOlderCriticalForestletpragmaticitis,thenthemoreinstructiveitisperhaps,butalsothemoreinneedofscrutiny.Thatinordertogiveanationhistory,onemustneverbeginfromthehighestthing,thehistoricalplan,thepragmaticaspectofhistory,etc.beforewehavemasteredthepure,clearHerodotianmannerofwritingandthinking.Iftheformerhappens,asinallsix–otherwiseuseful–volumesofthenewhistoricalacademyonehasstillhardlygotanyfurtherthantheplan(investigationswhichoughttohaveremainedpreciselyfortheend),thenwegetexactlyasfaraswithallthetheatricalrulesaboutthethreeunitiesandthe[plot-]plan,withoutinthatcaseprovidingforthedramaticgenius,orinourcaseforthehistoricalgenius,withasinglecrumb.Thathistoriographyneverdegeneratesmorethanwhenitbeginstobearationalizingorevenasystemwithoutahistoricalfoundation.InGermanywehavealreadywithourwealthofpragmaticinstructionsmadeafinestarttowardsrationalizing,almostwithoutknowingaboutwhat–afacttowhich,forexample,Hausen’shistoryoftheProtestantsbearswitness.Finally,thatthathistoryisbestinwhichwhatishistoryinitandwhatdoctrinalstructureare,asquitedifferentsortsofthings,indeedcom-bined,butalsorecognizablydistinguished,andthedegreeisspecified[concerning]whattheauthorhasdrawnupashistoryandwhathehasaddedinthoughtasdoctrinalstructure.EvenifourpresenthistoricalboominGermanyhadnotguidedmeontothispathofthought,itmightbeacceptedasaself-examinationoftheextenttowhichareaderhas,eveninthecaseofahistoryofart,thedoubledutytobelieveandtoinvestigate.AndthusIamnowagainatthesubjectofWinckelmann.ThiswasapublicationoftheGottingenhistoricalsocietyalludedtoearlier.¨K.R.Hausen,PragmatischeGeschichtederProtestanteninDeutschland().HerderatthispointinthetextturnstoamoredetaileddiscussionofWinckelmann.\nThisTooaPhilosophyofHistoryfortheFormationofHumanity[anearlyintroduction][Inearlydrafts,Herderbeganhisessaywithaquestion.Heinitiallyformulatedthequestionasfollows:“Whatsortsofvirtuesorunvirtueshavegovernedhumanbeingsatalltimes,andhasthetendencyofhumanbeingsbeenimprovedorworsenedwithtime,oralwaysremainedthesame?”Inasubsequentearlydraftthequestionwasreformulatedtoread:“Havehumanbeings’inclinationschangedfromtimetotime,andwhatarethevirtuesandvicesthathavegovernedthemhereandtheremoreorless?”Respondingtothisquestion,Herderthenmadethefollowingintroductoryobservationsbeforegivingaversionofthetextwhichhewouldeventuallypublishinandwhichistranslatednext.]Todevelopthisquestionmetaphysicallyseemstomeentirelybeyondourpurposeandoutofplace.Thehumanhearthasalwaysremainedthesameininclinations,justasthemindhasinabilities,and,whateversortsofangelicordevilishformspeoplehavesometimeswishedtoimagineinit,hasalwaysbeenonlyhuman.Recalcitrantandfaint-hearted,striv-inginneed,languishinginrestandluxury,nothingwithoutstimuliandexercises,throughthesewithgradualprogressalmosteverythingthathasbeenwished–amonsterorthemostimportanthieroglyphofallthegoodandbadofwhichhistoryisfull–whatpainterofthesoulcouldpaintitwithonestroke?HistoricallyandphysicallytooIimmediatelypresupposeasestablishedseveralobservationsoverwhichthephilosophicalspiritofourcenturyhasperhapsalreadypoetizedandponderedonlytoomuch.Thatthereisacertaincreationandinfluencebytheclime,hencecertainnationaland\nThisTooaPhilosophy[anearlyintroduction]provincialvices,forces,andvirtues;thatinsomeregionsandclimatessomeinclinations,likesomeplants,mustdeveloponlyweaklyandsap-lessly,butinothersstriveupwardswithwhole,fullnature–Imaypresup-posethisphysicsofhistory,scienceofthesoul,andpoliticsasconcededonthewhole,althoughinindividualdetailtherewillbeeternaluncertaintyandconfusionintheoffsettingandadditionoftheseoperativecauseswithotherones,andhenceinthewholeapplicationofthisgeographyofhumanity,becausetherearealwaystoomanyandtoodissimilarforcesoperatinginproximity.PoliticallytooIampresupposingthatcycle[Kreislauf]towhichindi-viduallyeverynation,andperhapseveryhumanundertaking,seemstobedestined,namelythatofrunningthroughinacirclepreciselyallthosenumerals[Ziffern]whichonlythishandonthisclock-face[Zifferblatte]cantouch.Itisanobservationthathasinevitablyforceditselfbeforetheeyesofeventhemoststupidhistorianthateverypeople,likeeveryartandscience,hasitsperiodofgrowth,bloom,anddecline.Andsincethefirstoftheseusuallycoincideswiththetimesofvirtueandneed,thelastwiththoseofluxuryandrest,betweenwhichthemiddle,highestpeakonlyoccupiesashorttime,andperhapstheveryminimumthatcouldbeconcededtoit,preciselyfromthishavearisenthepervasivequestionsaboutnationalpovertyandluxury,industryandrest,virtuesandvices,whichinpartbelongalongwiththecycleofuselessquestionsthatthehumanunderstandingshouldrunthroughbutthatnohumanforceshouldsolveorapply.Sinceanation’sinclinationsalwaysherelieinthewheelofitsfate,andgetjoltedroundandcarriedalongbyit,admittedlyapoliticalphilosophercanraisehimselfupforamomentandgetanoverviewofasectionofthewheelandgivehismodestopinionaboutit;butregardlessofthat,wheelandaxle-pin,alongwitheverythingthatbelongsthereto,himselfnotexcluded,rollson.Afterthesubtractionofallthesequestionswhichwouldleadontotoolargeortoosmallaplain,wepindownforourselvesthesingleproblemwhosesolutionwouldperhapsalsoexcelallthepreceding:“Isthere,historicallyandphysically,acertainprogressintheinclinationsofthehumanspecies?Canoneobserveinthebondbetweenthediverseperi-ods,connections,andrevolutionsofthepeoplesofthisearthlysphereathreadandplanofformation[Bildung]fordevelopinginthehumanheartlittlebylittlecertaininclinationsandforcesforwhichpeoplepreviouslyandonanotherpathsawnocleartrace?Andwhich,then,wouldbethe\nPhilosophyofHistoryinclinationsonthispathwhichweredevelopedatthispointandthat,ofwhichpeopledidnotyetfindanytraceinadvanceorinaneighboringregion,whichhadtoarise,fermentup,decline,andbringforthothersinturnpreciselythusandnow?Inshort,ifthereexistsinthehandoffateathreadofthedevelopmentofhumanforcesthroughallcenturiesandrev-olutions,andifahumanheartcanobserveit–whichisit?”Thequestioneithercontainsthedeepest,pleasantest,andmostusefulphilosophyofallhistoryorisbeyondandabovethehumanfieldofvision.Eitheritmustgrounditselfonastudyofthehumanheartinitsmostdiverseforms,underthemostmanifoldinfluenceoftimes,needs,contingencies,ethics,habits,formsofgovernment,etc.,oritdepictsadream.Andinordernottodepictthelatter,lettherealsobepermittedrightatthestarttheseparationoftwoside-conceptswhichcouldconfuseeverything,namelythat“ofmoralvirtueandofhumanbeings’happinessinthissequenceorinthiscycleoftheirinclinations.”Forbothofthesewenotonlystilllackacorrectcriterion,butitcouldevenperhapsbethathumannaturehadsuchaflexibilityandmutabilityastobeabletoformout[ausbilden]foritselfinthemostdiversesituationsofitsefficacyalsothemostdiverseidealsofitsactionsintowhatiscalledvirtueandthemostdiverseidealsofitssensationsintowhatiscalledhappiness,andtobeabletomaintainitselfthereinuntilcircumstanceschangeandfurtherformationoccurs[manweiterbildet].Who,now,wouldhaveenoughflexibilityandmutabilitytoplacehimselfalwaysintothisinnerfeelingwithoutwhichnothingcouldbemadeoutconcerningthetwowords?Soletitbeenoughforustosketchthephenomenonofmanysortsofforcesandinclinationsfromoutside,withoutinvestigatinghowmuchineachcaseeachhadofmoralvirtueinitorcontributedtothehappinessofthepart,ofthewhole,andofwhichwhole.Weseekandweighforces,notthephantomoftheirabstractionsandconsequences,whichperhapschangewitheveryrayofthesun.Andhowmuchwewouldalreadyhavetakenonwiththefirstjob!Certainlynotmerelythewretchedandsooftentreatedandmistreatedquestion“Hastheworldimprovedorworsened?”Forthisquestionwehavepreciselytherebyseparatedoff,fromthestandpointofethicsandhappiness.Butrather[thetaskwhichwehavetakenonisoneof]seek-ingthesapandpithofallhistory,onthebasisofwhichsubsequentlysomuchcouldbemadeoutaboutallplansfortheformation[Bildung]andchangeofhumaninclinations.Sinceallethicsarebasedoninclinations,\nThisTooaPhilosophy[anearlyintroduction]andallhumaninstitutionsform[bilden]orpresupposeethics,sincethefavoritenotionsoverwhichourcenturypondersandworksaretocon-tributetothisformationortransformation[BildungoderUmbildung]ofhumaninclinations,andwereallyinmanydifferentrespectsliveinsuchastrangecrisisofthehumanspirit,andwhynotalsoofthehumanheart?,IthereforeimaginetheresultsofmyinvestigationsogreatandusefulthatIwouldonlywishformyselfasguideandMuseofmyobservationsthatgeniuswhowasthegeniusofthehumanspeciesinallitsconditionsandinvisiblyguided,stillguides,andalonecompletelysurveysthethreadofthedevelopmentofitsforcesandinclinations.\nThisTooaPhilosophyofHistoryfortheFormationofHumanity()AcontributiontomanycontributionsofthecenturyTarasseitousanthropousoutapragmataallataperitˆonpragmatˆonˆdogmata.PhilosophyofhistoryfortheformationofhumanityFirstsectionThefurtherilluminationadvancesintheinvestigationofthemostancientworldhistory,itsmigrationsofpeoples,itslanguages,ethics,inventions,andtraditions,athemoreprobablebecomes,witheachnewdiscovery,theoriginationofthewholespeciesfromasinglemanaswell.WearegettingaMostrecenthistoricalinvestigationsandjourneysinAsia.[Forexamples,seeG:.]ThisTooaPhilosophyofHistory:ThispartofthetitlealludespolemicallytoVoltaire,Laphilosophiedel’histoire[ThePhilosophyofHistory]().forthe[Zur]:Asbecomesclearfromthewaythecontentsoftheessayunfold,thezurheremeansboth()concerningand()inpromotionof.Formation[Bildung]:NosinglewordinEnglishcapturesorcanwellbemadetocapturethespectrumofmeaningsthatthewordBildungbearsinHerder.Itsmostbasicmeaningisformation,molding,butitalsotakesonmeaningssuchasdevelopment,education,culture,cultivation,civilization.Inthepresentessayandelsewhereinthisvolume,Ihavepreferredformationwhereverpossible,buthavesometimesvariedthetranslationtootherwordsfromthegroupmentionedincaseswhereformationwouldbetooforcedormisleading.Humanity[Menschheit]:Menschheitmostofteninthisessaymeanshumankind,butitalsoatpointsdriftsinto(insteadoralso)meaninghumanityinthesenseofamoralideal.TheEnglishwordhumanitycanbearboththesesensesandhasthereforebeenusedtotranslateMenschheitthroughout.Itisnotthingsthatdisquiethumanbeingsbutdogmasconcerningthings.(Epictetus,Encheiridion,ch..ButnotethatthisviewishighlycharacteristicofthePyrrhonistsaswell–seee.g.SextusEmpiricus,OutlinesofPyrrhonism,bk.,chs.,.)\nThisTooaPhilosophy()closerandclosertothehappyclimewhereasinglepairofhumanbeings,underthegentlestinfluencesofcreatingProvidence,withthehelpofthemostfacilitatingdispensationsallaroundthem,beganspinningthethreadthathassincedrawnitselfoutfurtherfarandwidewithsuchentangle-ments;wherehencealsoallinitialcontingenciescanberegardedasthearrangementsofamaternalProvidencefordevelopingadelicatedoubleseedofthewholespecieswithalltheselectivenessandcarethatwemustalwayscredittotheCreatorofsuchanoblespeciesandtoHisoutlookaheadovermillenniumandeternity.[Itis]naturalthatthesefirstdevelopmentswereassimple,delicate,andmiraculousasweseetheminallofnature’sproducts.Theseedfallsintotheearthanddies;theembryogetsformed[gebildet]hiddenaway,asthephilosopher’sspectacleswouldhardlyapproveapriori,andcomesforthfullyformed;hencethehistoryofthehumanspecies’earliestdevelop-ments,astheoldestbookdescribesit,maysoundsoshortandapocryphalthatweareembarrassedtoappearwithitbeforethephilosophicalspiritofourcenturywhichhatesnothingmorethanwhatismiraculousandhidden–[but]exactlyforthatreasonitistrue.Justonepointtonote,then.Doesitnotseemevenforthemole’seyeofthisbrightestcenturythatinfactalongerlife,anatureoperatingmorequietlyandmoreinterconnectedly,inshort,aheroicperiodofthepatriarchalage,isrequiredinordertomoldintothetribalfathersofallposterity,andtomoldontothemasabeginningforeternity,thefirstformsofthehumanspecies–whateverthesemaybe?Nowweonlyhurryby,and,asvagrants,throughtheworld–shadesonearth!Allthegoodandbadthatwebringwithus(andwebringlittlewithus,becausewefirstreceiveeverythinghere)wemostlyalsohavethefatetotakeawaywithusagain;ouryears,careers,goodexamples,undertak-ings,impressions,thesumofourefficacybeyondourselvesonearth,istheforcelessdreamofasinglesleeplessnight–talk!–Thoucarriestthemawayetc.Justasnow,withthegreatstoreofforcesandabilitieswhichwefinddevelopedbeforeus,withthefastercourseofourfluidsandimpulses,life-agesandthought-plans,inwhichoneofthemrushestopursueanddestroyItistemptingheretoreadthepluralJahrtausendefortheprintedsingularJahrtausend.However,thesingularisprobablyintentional–motivatedbyitsaestheticsuperiorityoverthepluralinthecontextofthefollowingsingularnouneternity.SeeGenesis.Literalacceptanceofthebible’sage-andtime-specificationswasstillcommoninHerder’sday.Psalm,v.:“Thoucarriestthemawaylikeaflood;theyareasasleep,justasgrassthatsoon,though,withers.”(HeretranslatedfromLuther’sGerman.)\nPhilosophyofHistorytheotherlikeonewaterbubbletheother,withtheoftendiscordantrelationsbetweenforceandprudence,abilityandcleverness,talentandgoodheart,whichalwaysdistinguishacenturyofdecline–justaswithallthisitseemsintentionandbalancedwisdomtomoderateandsecureagreatmassofchildishforcesthroughashort,forcelessdurationoflife’splay,wasnotalsothatfirst,quiet,eternallifeoftreesandpatriarchsalonerequisiteinordertorootandgroundhumanityinitsfirstinclinations,ethics,andinstitutions?Whatweretheseinclinations?Whatweretheysupposedtobe?Themostnatural,thestrongest,thesimplest!,theeternalfoundationforallthecenturiesofhumanformation[Menschenbildung]:wisdominsteadofscience,pietyinsteadofwisdom,loveofparents,spouse,andchildreninsteadofpolitenessanddebauchery,[with]orderingoflife,ruleandregencyforGodoverahouseastheoriginalmodelofallcivilorderingandinstitution–inallthishumanity’ssimplestenjoymentbutalsosimultaneouslyitsdeepest.Howwasthatallsupposedtoget–Idonotmeantoaskhowwasitsupposedtogetfullyformed,butonly–firstformed,developed,except–throughthatquiet,eternalpoweroftheexemplarymodel,andofasequenceofexemplarymodels,withtheirruleaboutthem?Withourmeasureoflife,eachinventionwouldhavegotlostahundredtimesover,[wouldhave]sprungforthasanillusionanddisappearedasanillusion.Whatminorshouldacceptit,what–toosoon,again–minorforce[others]toacceptit?Thefirstbondsofhumanitywouldinthiswayfallapartatthebeginning.Orrather,howcouldsuchthin,shortthreadsatthattimeeverhavebecomethestrongbondswithoutwhichevenaftermillenniaofformation[Bildung]thehumanspeciesstillfallsapartthroughmereweakening?No!,withahappyshudderIstandtherebeforetheholycedarofatribalfatheroftheworld!Allaroundalreadyahundredyoungbloomingtrees,abeautifulforestofposterityandperpetuation!Butbehold!,theoldcedarstillbloomson,hasitsrootsfarroundaboutandbearsthewholeyoungforestwithsapandforcefromtheroot.Wherevertheoriginalfatherhashiscognitions,inclinations,andethicsfrom,whateverandhoweverfewthesemaybe,roundaboutaworldandaworldofposterityhasalreadyformeditself,andformeditselftofirmness,intheseinclinationsandethicsmerelythroughthequiet,forceful,eternalobservationofhisdivineexample!Twomillenniawereonlytwogenerations.Orpossibly:discovery.Cf.Psalm,v.:“Therighteous...shallgrowlikeacedarinLebanon.”\nThisTooaPhilosophy()∗However,evendisregardingtheseheroicbeginningsoftheformationofthehumanspecies,judgingbythemereruinsofworldlyhistoryandbythehastiestrationalizingaboutitalaVoltaire,what`conditionscanbethoughtuptotemptforth,form,andformtofirmnessfirstinclinationsofthehumanheartexceptthosethatwealreadyfindreallyappliedinthetraditionsofouroldesthistory?Theshepherd’slifeinthefairestclimeoftheworldwherefreely-willingnaturesoanticipates,orcomestotheaidof,thesimplestneeds;thepeacefulandatthesametimenomadicmodeoflifeofthefatherlypatriarchalhutwitheverythingthatitgivesandhidesfromtheeye;thattime’scircleofhumanneeds,occupations,andpleasuresalongwitheverythingthataccordingtofableorhistorycameinadditiontoguidetheseoccupationsandpleasures–letoneimagineeverythingsetinitsnatural,livinglight;whatachosengardenofGodforraisingthefirst,mostdelicatehumanplants!BeholdthismanfullofforceandfeelingofGod,butfeelingasardentlyandpeacefullyasthesappressesinthetreehere,astheinstinctthat,distributedthereinathousandformsamongcreatures–thatpressessomightilyineachcreatureindividually–asthisquiet,healthynaturaldrivecollectedintothemanevercanoperate!ThewholeworldroundaboutfullofGod’sblessing–agreat,courageousfamilyofthefatherofall–thisworldhisdailysight–tiedtoitwithneedandenjoyment–strivingagainstitwithwork,prudence,andgentleprotection–underthisheaven,inthiselementoflife-forcewhataformofthought,whatahearthadtoformitself!Greatandbrightlikenature!,likenature,quietandcourageousinhiswholecourse!,longlife,enjoymentofhimselfinthemostindivisibleway,divisionofthedaysthroughrestandexhaustion,learningandretaining–behold,suchwasthepatriarchjustbyhimself.–Butwhythisjustbyhimself?God’sblessingthroughthewholeofnature–wherewasitmoreferventthanintheimageofhumanityasitfeelsitswayforwardandformsitselfforward:inthewomancreatedforhim,inthesonsimilartohisimage,inthedivinespeciesthatroundaboutandafterhimfillstheearth.ThereGod’sblessingwashisblessing:hisshewhomhegoverns,histhesonwhomheraises,histhechildrenandgrandchildrenabouthimdowntothethirdandfourthgeneration,whomheguides,allofthem,withreligionandlaw,orderandhappiness.–ThisistheunforcedidealofapatriarchalworldEvenbythestandardsofthisessay,thissentenceisaratherextremeexampleofHerder’suseof–heremultiple–anacoluthon.\nPhilosophyofHistorytowardswhicheverythinginnaturepressed;withoutit,nopurposeoflife,nomomentofcomfort,orapplicationofforcewasthinkable–God!,whataconditionfortheformationofnatureinthesimplest,mostnecessary,pleasantestinclinations!–Humanbeing,man,woman,father,mother,son,heir,priestofGod,regent,andpaterfamilias,hewasmeanttobeformedthereforallmillennia!,andeternally,exceptforthethousand-yearrealmandthefantasiesofthepoets,eternallywillpatriarchalregionandpatriarchaltentremaintheGoldenAgeofhumanityinitschildhood.∗Now,thattherebelongtothisworldofinclinationsevenconditionswhich,duetoadeceptionofourage,weoftenfictionallyrepresenttoourselvesinamuchtooalienandterriblemannermightbeshownbyoneinductionaftertheother.–WehaveabstractedforourselvesanOrientaldespotismfromthemostexaggerated,violentphenomenaofrealmsmostlyinastateofdecaywhichareonlyputtingonastruggleofresistancewithitintheirlastterrorofdeath(butwhichpreciselytherebyalsoshowterrorofdeath!)–andsince,now,accordingtoourEuropeanconcepts(andperhapsfeelings)onecanspeakofnothingmoreterriblethandespotism,oneconsolesoneselfthatonecandivertitfromitselfintocircumstanceswhereitwascertainlynottheterriblethingthatweonthebasisofourconditiondreamittohavebeen.bItmaybethatonlyrespect,exemplarymodel,authorityruledinthepatriarch’stent,andthathence,intheartificiallystrunglanguageofourpolitics,fearwasthedrivingmotiveofthisconstitution–however,donot,Ohumanbeing,letyourselfbeputoffbythewordofthephilosophicalprofessional,cbutfirstobservewhatsortofrespect,whatsortoffear,itis,then.Istherenotineveryhumanlifeanageinwhichwelearnnothingthroughdryandcoldreason,butthroughinclination,formation,inobediencetoauthority,everything?Inwhichwehavenoear,nosense,nosoulforponderingandrationalizingaboutthegood,true,andbeautiful,buthaveeverythingfortheso-calledprejudicesandimpressionsofupbringing?Behold!,theseso-calledprejudices,graspedwithoutbarbaracelarent,andaccompaniedbBoulanger,[Recherchessurl’origine]dudespotismeoriental[InvestigationsontheOriginofOrientalDespotism];Voltaire,[La]philosophiedel’histoire[ThePhilosophyofHistory],[Traitesur]la´tolerance[´TreatiseonTolerance],etc.;Helv´etius,Del’esprit,disc.[OntheMind,rddiscourse],etc.etc.cMontesquieu’sthrongsoffollowersandimitatorumservumpecus[slavishherdofimitators].I.e.validsyllogisticreasoning.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()bynodemonstrationofnaturallaw,howstrong,howdeep,howusefulandeternal!–foundationpillarsofeverythingthatissupposedtobebuiltuponthemlater,orratheralreadythroughandthroughseedsoutofwhicheverythinglaterandweaker,howevergloriousitmaybecalled,develops(eachpersonafterallonlyrationalizesaccordingtohissensation)–hencethestrongest,eternal,almostdivinetraitswhichblessorruinourwholelife;withwhich,whentheyabandonus,everythingabandonsus.–Andbehold:whatisunavoidablynecessaryforeachindividualhumanbeinginhischildhoodiscertainlynotlesssoforthewholehumanspeciesinitschildhood.Whatyoucalldespotisminitsmostdelicateseed,andwasactuallyonlypaternalauthorityforgoverninghouseandhut–beholdhowitachievedthingswhich,withallyourcoldphilosophyofthecentury,younowsurelyhavetoleaveundone!,howit,didnotindeeddemonstrate,butinsteadcastfirmineternalformswhatwasrightandgoodoratleastseemedso,witharadianceofdivinityandpaternallove,withasweetpeelofearlyhabituation,andeverythingthatwaslivinginthechildhoodideasfromitsworld,withallthefirstenjoymentofhumanity,magicallyturneditintoamemorialwithwhichnothing,nothingintheworld,canbeequated.Hownecessary!,howgood!,howusefulforthewholespecies!–therefoundationstoneswerelaidwhichcouldnotbelaidinanotherway,couldnotbelaidsoeasilyanddeeply–theyliethere!Centurieshavebuiltontopofthem,stormsofworld-ageshavedelugedthemwithdesertsofsandbutnotbeenabletoshakethem,likethebasesofthepyramids–theystillliethere!,andhappilyso,foreverythingrestsuponthem.Orient,youlandofGodtrulychosenforthis!Thedelicatesensitivityoftheseregions,withthequick,flyingimaginationthatsolikestoclotheeverythinginadivineradiance;reverenceforeverythingthatismight,respect,wisdom,force,footstepofGod,andhenceimmediatelychild-likesubmission,whichforthemnaturally,forusEuropeansincompre-hensibly,mixeswiththefeelingofreverence;thedefenseless,dispersed,tranquillity-lovingflock-likeconditionoftheshepherd’slifewhichwantstoliveitselfoutgentlyandwithoutexertiononaplainofGod’s–allthis,moreorlesssupportedbycircumstances,indeeditdidinthelatersequelsupplyfullmaterialsforthedespotismofconquerorsaswell,suchfullmaterialsthatdespotismwillperhapsbeeternalintheOrient,andnodespotismintheOrienthasyetbeentoppledthroughforeign,externalforces,ratherital-waysjusthadtofallapartthroughitsownweightalonebecausenothingstood\nPhilosophyofHistoryinoppositiontoitanditextendeditsscopeimmeasurably.Certainly,thisdespotismalsooftenproducedthemostterribleeffects,and,asthephiloso-pherwillsay,themostterribleofall,thatnoOrientalassuchisyetablehardlytopossessanydeepconceptofahumane,betterconstitution.–Butallthatsetasideforlater,andadmitted–atthebeginning,undergentlepaternalgovernment,wasnotpreciselytheOrientalwithhissensitivechild’ssensethehappiestandmostobedientstudent?Everythingwastastedasmother’smilkandfather’swine!Everythingpreservedinchildren’sheartsandsealedtherewiththesealofdivineauthority!Thehumanspiritreceivedthefirstformsofwisdomandvirtuewithasimplicity,strength,andloftinessthatnow–speakingfrankly–inourphilosophical,cold,Europeanworldsurelyhasnothing,nothingatall,likeit.Andpreciselybecausewearesoincapableofunderstanding!,offeeling!,itanymore,letaloneofenjoyingit,wemock,deny,andmisinterpret!Thebestproof!Withoutadoubtreligionispartofthisaswell,orrather,religionwas“theelementinwhichallthislivedandfunctioned.”Evendisregardingalldivineimpressioninthecreationandearliestcareofthehumanspecies(necessarytothewholeasmuchasparentalcareistoeachindividualchildafteritsbirth),evendisregardingallthat,whenoldman,father,kingsonaturallyrepresentedGod’splace,andjustasnaturallytheobediencetopaternalwill,thestickingtooldhabit,andthereverentsubmissiontothehintofone’ssuperiorwhohadthememorialrespectofancienttimesdmixedwithasortofchildlikereligiousfeeling–mustthey,then,asweimag-inewithsuchcertaintyonthebasisofthespiritandheartofourowntime,ehavebeennothingbutdeceiversandvillainswhofoistedsuchideas[onpeople],hadcunninglymadethemup,andcruellymisusedthem?Itmaybethatthissortofreligiousfeeling,asanelementofouractions,wouldbefrombothwithinandwithoutextremelyshamefulandharm-fulforourphilosophicalpartoftheworld,forourcivilized[gebildete]age,forourconstitutionwithitsfreedomofthought(Ibelievethatthisre-ligionis–whatisstillmore–unfortunately!–quiteimpossibleforit),andletitbethecasethatthemessengersofGod,iftheyweretoappearnow,wouldbedeceiversandvillains–butdoyounotseethatthingsarequitedifferentwiththespiritoftheage,oftheland,ofthelevelofdMontesquieu,[Del’]espritdeslois[OntheSpiritoftheLaws],bks.,.eVoltaire,[La]philosophiedel’histoire[ThePhilosophyofHistory],Helv´etius,Boulanger,etc.TherearesomeproblemswiththeGermantextinthisfirstpartofthesentence,buttheydonotcallthegeneralsenseintoquestion.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()thehumanspecies,thatprevailedthere?Alreadytheoldestphilosophyandformofgovernmentalonehadsonaturallyinalllandstobeorigi-nallytheology!–Thehumanbeinggazesinwonderateverythingbeforehesees,onlyarrivesattheclearideaofthetrueandthebeautifulthroughamazement,onlyatthefirstpossessionofthegoodthroughsubmissionandobedience–andcertainlylikewisethehumanspecies.Haveyouevertaughtachildlanguagefromthephilosophicalgrammar?,taughthimtowalkfromthemostabstracttheoryofmotion?Wasitnecessary,orrequired,orpossibletomaketheeasiestormostdifficultdutyintelligibletohimfromademonstrationinthescienceofethics?Godpreciselybepraised!thatitwasnotrequiredorpossible!Thissensitivenature,ignorantandconsequentlyverycuriousforeverything,credulousandhencesuscepti-bletoanyimpression,trustinglyobedientandhenceinclinedtobeledtoeverythinggood,graspingeverythingwithimagination,amazement,ad-miration,butpreciselyinconsequencealsoappropriatingeverythingthatmuchmorefirmlyandwonderfully–“faith,love,andhopeinhissensitiveheart,thesoleseedsofallcognitions,inclinations,andhappiness.”DoyoublameGod’screation,ordoyounotseeineachofyourso-calledfaultsavehicle,thesolevehicle,ofeverythinggood?Howfoolishwhenyouwanttostigmatizethisignoranceandadmiration,thisimaginationandrever-ence,thisenthusiasmandchild’ssense,withtheblackestdevil’sformsofyourcentury,deceptionandstupidity,superstitionandslavery,tomakeupforyourselfanarmyofpriest-devilsandtyrant-ghostswhichonlyexistinyoursoul!Howitwouldbeathousandtimesmorefoolishifyouwantedgenerouslytofavorachildwithyourphilosophicaldeism,youraestheticvirtueandhonor,youruniversalloveofpeoplesfulloftolerantsubjugation,exploitation,andenlightenmentinthehightasteofyourtime!Achild?Oyoutheworst,mostfoolishchild!,andyouwouldtherebyrobhimofhisbetterinclinations,theblissandfoundationofhisnature;wouldmakehim,ifyouweresuccessfulinthissenselessplan,intothemostunbearablethingintheworld–anoldmanofthreeyears.OurcenturyhasmarkedthenamePhilosophy!onitsforeheadwithaquafortis,whichseemstoexerciseitsforcedeepintothehead–henceIhavehadtoanswerthedisdainfullookofthisphilosophicalcritiqueoftheoldesttimes,ofwhichnotoriouslyallphilosophiesofhistoryandhistoriesofphilosophyarenowfull,withadisdainfullook,thoughoneofindignationThispresumablyreferstothePortRoyalGrammar().Readinggelehrtforgelernt.Orperhaps:allowable.Orperhaps:allowable.\nPhilosophyofHistoryanddisgust,withoutfindingitnecessarytoconcernmyselfabouttheconsequencesoftheoneoroftheother.Goforth,myreader,andstillnowaftermillenniafeelthesolongpreservedpureOrientalnature,bringittolifeforyourselffromthehistoryoftheoldesttimes,andyouwill“meetinclinationsastheycouldonlybemoldedontothehumanspeciesovertimeinthatland,inthatway,forthegreatpurposesofProvidence.”WhatapaintingifIcouldsupplyittoyouasitwas!∗Providenceguidedthethreadofdevelopmentfurther–downfromtheEuphrates,Oxus,andGangestotheNileandtothecoastsofPhoenicia–greatsteps!ItisseldomthatIstepbackfromancientEgyptandfromthecon-siderationofwhatitbecameinthehistoryofthehumanspecieswithoutreverence!Alandwhereapartofhumanity’sboyhoodwasdestinedtobeformed[gebildet]ininclinationsandcognitions,likeitschildhoodintheOrient!Themetamorphosisherewasjustaseasyandunnoticedasthegenesisthere.Egyptwaswithoutlivestockpasturesandshepherd’slife;hencethepatri-archalspiritofthefirsthutwaslost.But,formedfromtheslimeoftheNileandfructifiedbyit,thereappeared,almostjustaseasily,themostexcellentagriculture.Hencetheshepherd’sworldofethics,inclinations,cognitionsbecameadistrictoffield-farmingpeople.Thenomadiclifestopped;theredevelopedpermanentresidences,land-ownership.Landshadtobemea-suredout,eachpersonallottedhis,eachpersonprotectedonhis;henceeachpersoncouldalsobefoundonhis–theredevelopedsecurityofland,cultivationofjustice,order,civiladministration,asallthishadneverbeenpossibleinthenomadiclifeoftheOrient;theredevelopedanewworld.Nowtherearoseanindustrysuchastheblessed,idlehut-dweller,thepilgrimandalienonearth,hadnotknown;artswereinventedwhichthathut-dwellerneitherusednorfeltthedesiretouse.GiventhespiritofEgyptianprecisionandagriculturaldiligence,theseartscouldnotbutattainahighdegreeofmechanicalperfection;thesenseforstrictdiligence,forsecurityandorder,permeatedeverything;inknowledgeoflegislationeachpersonwasduty-boundtoitwithneedandenjoyment;hencetheNotethatHerderishereavowingtheuseofstandardPyrrhonianprocedure:counterbalancingadogmatist’sargumentwithacounterargument,butwithoutcommitmenttoeither.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()humanbeingalsobecameshackledbeneathit;theinclinationswhichhadthere[intheOrient]beenmerelypaternal,childlike,shepherdly,patriar-chalbecameherecitizenly,village-based,citified.Thechildhadgrownoutofitschild’ssmock;theboysatontheschoolbenchandlearnedorder,diligence,citizens’ethics.AnexactcomparisonoftheOrientalandEgyptianspiritswouldin-evitablyshowthatmyanalogytakenfromhumanagesinlifeisnoplay.Obviously,everythingwhateverthatbothagessharedincommonhadlostitsheavenlycoatingandhadhadmixedintoitearth-keepingandfield-clay;Egypt’scognitionswerenolongerpaternaloracularpronouncementsofthedeitybutalreadylaws,politicalrulesofsecurity,andtheremainsoftheformermerelygotpaintedasaholyimageontheboardsothatitmightnotperish,sothattheboyshouldstandbeforeit,unravel,andlearnwisdom.Egypt’sinclinationsnolongerhadasmuchchildlikesensitivityasthoseintheOrient;thefeelingforfamilyweakened,andinsteadbe-cameconcernforfamily,class,artist’stalent,whichwashandeddownwiththeclass,likehouseandfield.Theidletentwherethemanruledhadbecomeahutofworkwherethewomantoowasdefinitelyalreadyaperson,wherethepatriarchnowsatasanartistandmadeameagerliving.God’sfreepasturefullofflocks,fieldsfullofvillagesandcities;thechildwhoatemilkandhoney,aboywhoinperforminghisdutieswasrewardedwithcake–therefunctionedthrougheverythinganewvirtuewhichwewanttocallEgyptiandiligence,citizen’sfaithfulnessbutwhichwasnotOrientalfeeling.TheOriental,howheisevennowdisgustedbyagriculture,citylife,slaveryinartworkshops!Howfewbeginningshehasstillmadeinallthataftermillennia.Helivesandfunctionsasafreeanimaloftheopenfield.TheEgyptian,bycontrast,howhehatedandfeltdisgustattheherderoflivestockwitheverythingthatstucktohim!,justassubsequentlythemorerefinedGreekinhisturnraisedhimselfabovetheburden-bearingEgyptian–itwasjustamatterofthechildinitsswaddlingclothesdis-gustingtheboy,andtheyouthhatingtheboy’sschool-jail;butoverallallthreebelongonandaftereachother.TheEgyptianwithoutOrientalchild-hoodinstructionwouldnotbeanEgyptian,theGreekwithoutEgyptianschool-diligencenotaGreek–preciselytheirhateshowsdevelopment,progress,stepsoftheladder!Thesetwoitscouldrefer(intheGermanasintheEnglish)eithertothesecurityandorderortothelegislation.I.e.ahieroglyph.\nPhilosophyofHistoryTheyareamazing,theeasierwaysofProvidence;Providence,whichenticedandraisedthechildthroughreligion,developedtheboythroughnothingbutneedsandthedear‘must’ofschool.Egypthadnopastures–hencetheinhabitanthadtowelllearnagriculture;andhowmuchProvidencefacilitatedthisdifficultlearningforhimthroughthefecundNile.Egypthadnowood,peoplehadtolearntobuildwithstone;therewerestone-quarriesenoughthere,theNilewascomfortablytheretotransportthemthence–howhightheartrose!,howmuchitdevelopedotherarts!TheNileflooded–peopleneededmeasurements,drainagechannels,dams,canals,cities,villages–inwhatdiversewayspeoplewereboundtotheearthenclod!,butalsohowmuchorganizationdidtheearthencloddevelop!Tomethisearthenclodisonthemapnothingbutaboardfulloffigureswhereeachpersonhasunraveledmeaning–asoriginalasthislandanditsproducts,alikewisedistinctivekindofhumanbeing!Thehumanunderstandinghaslearnedmuchinthisearthenclod,andthereisperhapsnoregionoftheearthwherethislearningwasasclearlycultureofthegroundashere.Chinaisstillitsimitator;letonejudgeandconjecture.Hereagaintoo,stupiditytotearasingleEgyptianvirtueoutoftheland,thetime,andtheboyhoodofthehumanspiritandtomeasureitwiththecriterionofanothertime!If,aswasshown,itwasalreadypossiblefortheGreektobesomistakenabouttheEgyptianandfortheOrientaltohatetheEgyptian,then,itseemstome,itreallyoughttobeone’sfirstthoughttoseehimmerelyinhisplace,otherwiseonesees,especiallylookinghitherfromEurope,themostdistortedcaricature.Thedevel-opmenttookplacehitherfromtheOrientandchildhood–sonaturallyreligion,fear,authority,despotismstillhadtobecomethevehicleofformation[Bildung],forevenwiththeboyofsevenyearsonecannotyetrationalizeaswithanoldmanoraman.Sonaturally,also,forourtaste,thisvehicleofformationhadtocauseahardhusk,oftensuchtroubles,somanysicknesses,Herder’sbasicideahereseemstobetousethedecipheringofmeaningsfromhiero-glyphsasametaphorfortheEgyptianpeople’stransformationofEgypt’snaturalconditionsintonewmeaningfularts,institutions,modesofthought,andhenceanewtypeofhumanbeing.KulturdesBodens–apunthatturnsontwodifferentsensesofthewordKulturandtwodifferentusesofthegenitivecase:()cultivationoftheground,()culturebelongingtotheground.Herdermaypossiblyhavemeanttowritehere:andfortheEgyptiantohatetheOriental.Thephrase“withanoldmanoraman”isagoodexampleofHerder’suseoftherhetoricalfigureofhysteronproteron.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()whichonecallsboys’fightsandcanton-wars.YoucanpouroutasmuchgallasyoulikeonEgyptiansuperstitionandclericalism,asforexamplethatamiablePlatoofEuropefwhowantstomodeleverythingonlytoomuchonaGreekoriginalmodelhasdone–alltrue!,allgood,ifEgyptianantiquityweresupposedtobeforyourlandandyourtime.Theboy’scoatiscertainlytooshortforthegiant!,andtheschool-jaildisgustingfortheyouthwithafiancee–butbehold!,yourformalgownisinturntoo´longfortheformer,anddoyounotsee,ifyouknowabitoftheEgyptianspirit,howyourcitizen’scleverness,philosophicaldeism,easytrifling,traveltoallpartsoftheworld,tolerance,propriety,internationallaw,andhoweverthisstuff’snamesmaygoon,wouldhaveinturnmadetheboyintoamiserableoldmanofaboy?Hehadtobeshutin;therehadtobeacer-tainprivationofcognitions,inclinations,andvirtues,inordertodevelopwhatlaywithinhimandcouldnowinthesequenceofworldeventsbedevelopedonlybythatland,thatplace!Hencethesedisadvantageswereforhimadvantagesornecessaryevils,asisforthechildcarewithalienideas,fortheboyadventuresandschooldiscipline.Whydoyouwanttoshifthimfromhisplace,outofhisageinlife,tokillthepoorboy?–Whatalargelibraryofsuchbooks!–theEgyptiansnowmadetooold,andwhatwisdompickedoutoftheirhieroglyphs,beginningsinart,constitutionsofciviladministration!,gnowontheotherhandsodeeplydespisedincomparisonwiththeGreeksh–merelybecausetheywereEgyptiansandnotGreeks,asforthemostparttheHellenophiles[judged]whentheyleftbehindtheirfavoriteland.Clearinjustice!Thebesthistorianoftheartofantiquity,Winckelmann,obviouslyonlypassedjudgmentontheartworksoftheEgyptiansaccordingtoaGreekcriterion,hencedepictedthemverywellnegatively,butsolittleaccord-ingtotheirownnatureandmannerthatwithalmosteveryoneofhissentencesinthismostimportantmattertheobviouslyone-sidedandsidewards-glancingaspectglaresforth.ThusWebbwhenhecontraststheirfShaftesbury,Charact[eristicsofMen,Manners,Opinions,Times],vol.;Miscell[aneousReflections].gKircher,D’Origny,Blackwell,etc.hWood,Webb,Winckelmann,Newton,Voltairenowone,nowtheother,accordingtolocationandoccasion.HerderisherethinkingofatheorypropoundedbyA.Y.Goguet(–)thattheoldestformsofwarfarewereaimedsolelyatharmingtheopponentandendedwiththereturnofeachpartytoits“canton.”\nPhilosophyofHistoryliteraturewithGreekliterature.ThusseveralotherswhohavewrittenaboutEgyptianethicsandformofgovernmentevenwithaEuropeanspirit.–AndsincewhathappenstotheEgyptiansismostlythatpeoplecometothemfromGreeceandhencewithamerelyGreekeye–howcanworsehappentothem?ButdearGreek!,thesestatues,now,were(asyoucouldperceivefromeverything)supposedtobeanythingbutparagonsofbeautifulartinaccordancewithyourideal!–fullofcharm,action,movement,aboutallofwhichtheEgyptianknewnothing,orwhichhispurposepreciselycutoffforhim.Theyweresupposedtobemummies!,memorialstodeceasedparentsorancestorsaccordingtoalltheexactnessoftheirfacialtraits,size,accordingtoahundredfixedrulestowhichtheboywasbound.Hencenaturally,preciselywithoutcharm,withoutaction,withoutmovement,preciselyinthisgrave-posewithhandsandfeetfullofrestanddeath–eternalmarblemummies!Behold,thatiswhattheyweresupposedtobe,andthatiswhattheyaretoo!,thatiswhattheyareinthehighestmechan-icalaspectofart!,intheidealoftheirintention!Howyourfairdreamoffault-findingislostnow!Ifyouweretoelevatetheboytenfoldthroughamagnifyingglassintoagiantandtoshinealightonhim,youcannolongerexplainanythinginhim;allhisboy’sstancehasgone,andyet[he]isanythingbutagiant!∗ThePhoenicians,despitethefactthattheyweresorelatedtotheEgyptians,wereorbecametoacertainextenttheiroppositeinformation[Bildung].TheEgyptians,atleastinlatertimes,hatersoftheseaandofforeigners,inorder“todevelopallthepotentialsandartsoftheirland”onlynatively;thePhoeniciansretreatedbehindmountainanddeserttoacoastinordertoestablishanewworldonthesea.Andonwhatasea?Onanislandsound,abaybetweenlands,whichseemedproperlybroughtthere,properlyformedwithcoasts,islands,andpromontories,inordertofacilitateforanationtheeffortofsailingandseekingland–howfamousyouareinthehistoryofthehumanspirit,archipelagoandMediterraneansea!Afirsttradingstate,basedentirelyontrade,whichfirstreallyextendedtheworldbeyondAsia,plantedpeoples,andboundpeoplestogether–whatagreatnewstepindevelop-ment!Now,tobesure,Orientalshepherd’slifeinevitablyalreadybecamealmostincomparablewiththisemergingstate:familyfeeling,religion,andquietenjoymentofthelandinlifewithered;theformofgovernmenttookamightysteptowardsthefreedomofarepublic,ofwhichneitherOriental\nThisTooaPhilosophy()norEgyptianhadactuallyhadanyidea;onatradingcoastaristocraciesofcities,houses,andfamiliesinevitablysoonemerged,contrarytopeople’sknowledgeandwill,sotospeak–withallthis,whatachangeintheformofhumansociety!Consequently,ashatredofforeignersandshutting-offfromotherpeopleswithered,althoughitwasnotfromloveofhumankindthatthePhoenicianvisitednations,therebecamevisibleasortofloveofpeoples,familiaritywithpeoples,internationallawofpeoples,ofwhichnowofcoursequitenaturallyashut-intribeoralittleColchianpeoplecouldknownothing.Theworldbecamebroader,humanracesbecamemoreconnectedandcloser,withtradeamassofartsgotdeveloped,anentirelynewdrivetoartespecially,foradvantage,comfort,luxury,andsplendor!Suddenlyhumanbeings’diligenceclimbeddownfromtheheavyindustryofpyramidconstructionandfromagriculturalworkintoa“daintyplayofsmalleroccupations.”Insteadofthoseuseless,partlessobelisks,theartofconstructionturnedtocomposite,andineachpartuseful,ships.Fromthesilent,standingpyramidthereemergedtheroving,speakingmast.InthetrainoftheEgyptians’statuaryandconstruction-workonagrandandmonstrousscale,peoplenowplayedsoadvantageouslywithglass,withmetalcutintopiecesandetched,purpleandlinen,utensilsfromLebanon,jewelry,containers,ornaments–peopleconveyedthistothehandsofforeignnations–whatadifferentworldofoccupation!,ofpurpose,utility,inclina-tion,applicationofsoul!Naturallythedifficult,mysterioushieroglyphicwritinghadnowto“becomeaneasy,abbreviated,usableartofcalculationandlettering;theinhabitantofshipandcoast,theexpatriatesearoverandrunnerbetweenpeoples,hadnowtoseemaquitedifferentcreaturetotheinhabitantoftentorfarmer’shut;theOrientalhadtofinditpossibletoreproachhimforweakeninghumanfeeling,theEgyptianforweakeningfeelingforfatherland,theformerforlosingloveandlife,thelatterforlosingfaithfulnessanddiligence,theformerforknowingnothingoftheholyfeelingforreligion,thelatterforputtingonpublicdisplayinhistrading-marketsthesecretcontentofthesciences,atleastinremains.”Alltrue.Onlyontheotherhandtherealsodevelopedincontrastwiththatsomethingquitedifferent(whichIindeedinnowaymeantocomparewiththat,forIdonotlikecomparingatall!):Phoenicianactivenessandcleverness,anewsortofcom-fortandgoodliving,thetransitiontoGreektaste,andasortofknowledgeofpeoples,thetransitiontoGreekfreedom.EgyptianandPhoenicianwerehence,despiteallthecontrastbetweentheirmannersofthought,twinsfromonemother,theOrient,whoafterwardstogetherformedGreeceand\nPhilosophyofHistoryhencetheworldbeyondit.Hencebothinstrumentsofonwardguidanceinthehandsoffate,and,ifImayremainwithmyallegory,thePhoenicianthemoregrown-upboywhoranaboutandbroughttheremainsoftheprimallyancientwisdomandskilltomarketsandalleywaysmorecheaply.WhatalldoestheformationofEurope[not]owetothedeceptive,profit-crazedPhoenicians!–AndnowthebeautifulGreekyouth.∗Justasweaboveallrememberouryouthwithpleasureandjoy–forcesandlimbsformedtothepointoflife’sbloom;ourabilitiesdevelopedtothepointofpleasanttalkativenessandfriendship;allinclinationstunedtofreedomandlove,pleasureandjoy,andallofthemnowintheirfirstsweetsounding–justasweconsiderthoseyearstheGoldenAgeandanElysiumofourmemory(forwhoremembershisundevelopedchildhood?),yearswhichstriketheeyemostbrilliantly,preciselyintheopeningofthebloombearingintheirlapallourfutureefficacyandhopes–inthehistoryofhumanityGreecewillforeverremaintheplacewherehumanityspenthermostbeautifulyouthandherbridalbloom.Theboyhasoutgrownhutandschoolandstandsthere–nobleyouthwithbeautiful,oiledlimbs,favoriteofalltheGraces,andloverofalltheMuses,victorinOlympiaandallothergames,mindandbodytogetherjustasinglebloomingflower!Theoracularpronouncementsofchildhoodandtheinstructiveimagesofthelaboriousschoolwerenowalmostforgotten,buttheyouthdevelopedfromthemforhimselfeverythingthatheneededforyouthfulwisdomandvirtue,forsongandjoy,pleasureandlife.Hedespisedcrudelaboriousartsashedidmerelybarbariansplendorandtheexcessivelysimpleshepherd’slife–buthepluckedfromallthisthebloomofanew,beautifulnature.–Manuallaborbecamethroughhimbeautifulart;subservientagricultureafreeguildofcitizens;strictEgypt’sheavyladennesswithmeaninglight,beautifulGreekpassionofallkinds.Nowwhatanewbeautifulclassofinclinationsandabilitiesofwhichtheearlierageknewnothing,butforwhichitgavetheseed.Theformofgovernment–wasitnotnecessarythatithadswungitscoursedownfromOrientalpatriarchaldespotismthroughtheEgyptianlandguildsandPhoeniciansemi-aristocraciesbeforetherecouldoccurthebeautifulideaofarepublicintheGreeksense,“obediencepairedwithfreedom,andwrappedaboutwiththenameoffatherland”?Thebloomunfolded–lovelyphenomenonofnature!Itsname“Greekfreedom”!EthicshadtohavebecomegentlerfromOrientalfather-sense\nThisTooaPhilosophy()andEgyptiandaylaborer-sensethroughPhoeniciantravel-cleverness–andbehold!,thenewbeautifulbloomunfolded:“Greeklightness,gentleness,andpatriotism.”LovehadtothintheveiloftheharemthroughseveraldegreesbeforeitbecamethebeautifulplayoftheGreekVenus,ofAmor,andoftheGraces.Thusmythology,poetry,philosophy,finearts[sch¨oneK¨unste]–developmentsofprimallyancientseedswhichherefoundseasonandplacetobloomandtosendscentintothewholeworld.Greecebecamethecradleofhumanity,ofloveofpeoples,ofbeautifullegislation,ofwhatismostpleasantinreligion,ethics,mannerofwriting,poetry,customs,andarts.–Everythingyouthfuljoy,grace,play,andlove!Ithasbeeninpartsufficientlydevelopedwhatsortsofcircumstancescontributedtothisuniqueproductofthehumanspecies,andIshallonlysetthesecircumstancesintothelargercontextoftheuniversalconnectionbetweentimeperiodsandpeoples.BeholdthisbeautifulGreekclimateandwithinitthewell-formedhumanracewithitsfreebrowandfinesenses–atrueintermediatelandincultureinwhichfromtwoendseverythingflowedtogetherwhichtheysoeasilyandnoblyaltered!Thebeautifulbridewasservedbytwoboysontherightandtheleft,allshedidwastoidealizebeautifully–preciselythemixtureofPhoenicianandEgyptianmannersofthought,eachofwhichtookawayfromtheotheritsnationalaspectanditsjaggedstubbornidiosyncrasy,formedtheGreekheadfortheideal,forfreedom.Nowthestrangecausesoftheirseparationandunificationsfromtheearliesttimeson–theirdivisionintopeoples,republics,colonies,andyetthecommonspiritofthese;feelingofonenation,ofonefatherland,ofonelanguage!–Thespecialopportunitiesfortheformationofthisuniversalspirit,fromthejourneyoftheArgonautsandthecampaignagainstTroytothevictoriesagainstthePersians;andthedefeatagainsttheMacedonianwhenGreecedied!–Theirinstitutionsofcommongamesandcompetitions,alwayswithlittledifferencesandmodificationsineachtiniestregionandpeople.AllthisandtentimesmoregaveGreeceaunityandmanifoldnesswhichheretooconstitutedthemostbeautifulwhole.Fightingandcomingtoaid,strivingandmoderating–theforcesofthehumanspiritattainedthemostbeautifulbalanceandimbalance–harmonyoftheGreeklyre!Butnow,thatpreciselytherebyimmeasurablymuchoftheold,earlierstrengthandnourishmentinevitablygotlost–whowouldwanttodenythis?SincetheEgyptianhieroglyphshadtheirheavycasingstrippedfromLiterally:beautifularts.I.e.AlexandertheGreat.\nPhilosophyofHistorythem,itcanindeedbethatacertaindepth,fullnessofmeaning,wisdomaboutnaturethatwasthecharacterofthisnationevaporatedoverseatherewithaswell;theGreekkeptnothingbutbeautifulimage,game,feastfortheeyes–howeveryouwanttocallitincontrasttothatheavierquality–enough,thisisallhewanted!ThereligionoftheOrienthaditsholyveiltakenaway,andnaturally,sinceeverythingwasputondisplayinthetheaterandthemarketandthedancingplace,itsoonbecame“fable,beautifullyextended,talkedabout,madeintopoetryandremadeintopoetry–youth’sdreamandgirl’stale!”Orientalwisdom,takenfrombehindthecurtainofmysteries,abeautifultalkativeness,doctrinalstructure,andcontentionoftheGreekschoolsandmarkets.Egyptianarthaditsheavytradeaprontakenaway,andhencetheexcessivelyprecisemechanicalaspectandartists’strictness,forwhichtheGreeksdidnotstrive,werelostaswell;thecolossusdiminishedtoastatue,thegianttempleintoastage,EgyptianorderandsecurityslackenedofitselfinthemultiplicityofGreece.Thatoldpriestcouldinmorethanonerespectsay“O,youeternalchildrenwhoknownothingandtalksomuch,havenothinganddisplayeverythingsobeautifully,”andtheoldOrientalfromhispatriarchalhutwouldspeakstillmoreviolently–beabletoblamethemfor,insteadofreligion,humanity,andvirtue,onlytheprostitutionofallthis,etc.Sobeit.Thehumancontaineriscapableofnofullperfectionallatonce;itmustalwaysleavebehindinmovingfurtheron.Greecemovedfurtheron–Egyptianindustryandciviladministrationcouldnothelpthem,becausetheyhadnoEgyptandnoNile;PhoenicianclevernessintradecouldnothelpthembecausetheyhadnoLebanonandnoIndiabehindthem;thetimewaspastforOrientalupbringing–enough!,itbecamewhatitwas:Greece!Originalandexemplarymodelofallbeauty,grace,andsimplicity!Youthfulbloomofthehumanspecies–oh,ifonlyitcouldhavelastedforever!IbelievethatthepositioninwhichIplaceGreecealsohelpstodisen-tanglesomewhat“theeternalquarrelabouttheoriginalityoftheGreeksortheirimitationofforeignnations”–asineverything,peoplewouldhavereachedagreementheretooifonlytheyhadunderstoodeachotherbet-ter.ThatGreecereceivedseedsofculture,language,arts,andsciencesfromsomewhereelseis,itseemstome,undeniable,anditcanbeclearlyshowninseveralcases:sculpture,architecture,mythology,literature.ButthattheGreeksasgoodasdidnotreceiveallthis,thattheyequippeditwithaquitePlato,Timaeus,bff.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()newnature[Natur],thatineachkindthe“beautiful”intherealsenseofthewordisquitecertainlytheirwork–this,Ibelieve,becomesjustascertainfromalittlecontinuationoftheseideas.NothingOriental,Phoenician,orEgyptianretaineditsnature[Art]anylonger;itbecameGreek,andinmanyrespectstheGreekswerealmosttoomuchoriginalswhoclothedorre-clothedeverythinginaccordancewiththeirownnature.Fromthegreatestinventionandthemostimportantstorydowntowordandsign.Everythingisfullofthis;itissimilarlythecasefromsteptostepwithallnations–whoeverstillwantstobuildasystemorquarrelaboutaname,lethimquarrel!∗Therecamethemanhoodofhumanforcesandstrivings:theRomans.VirgildepictedthemwithonestrokeincontrasttotheGreeks,withfineartsandexercisesofyouthlefttothelatter:turegereimperiopopulos,Romane,memento.AndheapproximatelytherebyalsodepictedtheirtraitincontrasttotheNorthernerswhoperhapsexcelledtheminbarbarichardness,strengthinattack,andrawbravery,but:turegereimperiopopulos–Romanbraveryidealized:Romanvirtue,Romansense!,Romanpride!Thegreat-hearteddispositionofthesoultodisregardsensualgratifications,weakness,andevenfinerpleasure,andtooperateforthefatherland.Thecontrolledheroiccouragenevertoberashandplungeintodangerbuttopersist,toreflect,toprepare,andtoact.Itwastheunshakencourseoflettingoneselfbedeterredbynothingthatiscalledobstacle,ofbeinggreatestpreciselyindisaster,andofnotdespairing.Finally,itwasthegreatever-sustainedplanofbeingsatisfiedwithnothinglessthanwhentheireaglecoveredthecircleoftheworld.Whoevercancoinamuch-weighingwordforalltheseproperties,cancomprehendthereinsimultaneouslytheirmanlyjustice,cleverness,thefullnessoftheirplans,decisions,executions,andingeneralofalltheoccupationsoftheirworld-building,lethimsayit.–Enough,herestoodthemanwhoenjoyedandusedtheyouthbutforOr:discovery.Remember,thou,Roman,toruleoverpeoples.Orpossibly:needed.\nPhilosophyofHistoryhisownpartwantedtoperformonlymiraclesofbraveryandmanliness–withhead,heart,andarms!OnwhataheighttheRomanpeoplestood,whatagianttempletheybuiltonthisheight!Thispeople’sstate-andmilitary-structure,itsplanandmeansforexecution–colossusforthewholeworld!CouldachildishtrickbeplayedinRomewithoutbloodflowinginthreepartsoftheearth?Andthegreat,worthypeopleofthisempire,whereandhowtheyhadeffectbeyondthemselves!Whatpartsbelongedtothisgreatmachine,almostunknowinglymovedbysuchlightforces!Whitherwerealltheirtoolsraisedandfixed–senateandartofwar–lawsanddiscipline–Romanpurposeandstrengthtoexecuteit–Ishudder!WhatwiththeGreekshadbeenplay,youthfulrehearsalbecamewiththeRomansserious,fixedinstitution–theGreekmodelsonasmallstage,anarrowstripofland,asmallrepublic,presentedonthatheightandwiththatstrength,becamedeedsofspectacleoftheworld.Howeveronetakesthematter,itwas“maturityofthefateoftheancientworld.”Thestemofthetreegrowntoitsgreaterheightstrovetobringpeoplesandnationsunderitsshade,intotwigs.TheRomansnevermadeittheirmainconcerntocompetewithGreeks,Phoenicians,Egyptians,andOrientals,butthroughtheirmanlyapplicationofeverythingthattheyfoundbeforethem–whataRomancircleoftheeartharose!Thenamelinkedpeoplesandregionsoftheworldtogetherwhichpreviouslyhadnotknowneachotherevenbyaword.Romanprovinces!,inallofthemroamedRomans,Romanlegions,laws,paragonsofethics,virtues,andvices.Thewallthatseparatednationfromnationgotbrokenup,thefirststepwastakentodestroythenationalcharactersofallofthem,tocastallintooneformwhichwascalled“Romanpeople.”Naturally,thefirststepwasnotyetthework;eachnationremainedwithitsrights,freedoms,ethics,andreligion–indeedtheRomansflatteredthembythemselvesbringingwiththemadollofthisreligionintotheircity.Butthewalllay[fallen].CenturiesofRomanrule–asoneseesinallpartsoftheworldwheretheyhavebeen–achievedaverygreatdeal:astormwhichpenetratedtheinnermostchambersofthenationalmannerofthoughtofeachpeople;withtimethebondsbecameevertighter;intheendthewholeRomanempirewasdestinedtobecomeonlythecityofRome,sotospeak–allsubjectscitizens–untilthatempireitselfsank.Notyettomentionadvantageordisadvantageatall,onlyeffect.IfallpeoplesceasedundertheRomanyoketobethepeoplestheywere,sotospeak,andhenceanartofstatecraft,militaryart,andinternationallawof\nThisTooaPhilosophy()peopleswasintroducedoverthewholeearthofwhichtherehadpreviouslynotyetbeenanyexample–whenthemachinestoodandwhenthemachinefell,andwhentheruinscoveredallthenationsoftheRomanearth–isthereinallthehistoryofthecenturiesagreatersight!Allnationsbuildingfromorontheseruins!Acompletelynewworldoflanguages,ethics,inclinations,andpeoples–therebeginsanewage–asightasthoughofthebroad,revealing[offenbar]seaofnewnations.–However,letuscastfromtheshoreonemoreglanceonthepeopleswhosehistorywehaverunthrough.∗I.NooneintheworldfeelstheweaknessofgeneralcharacterizingmorethanI.Onepaintsawholepeople,age,regionoftheearth–whomhasonepainted?Onedrawstogetherpeoplesandperiodsoftimethatfollowoneanotherinaneternalsuccessionlikewavesofthesea–whomhasonepainted?,whomhasthedepictingwordcaptured?Finally,oneafteralldrawsthemtogetherintonothingbutageneralwordinrelationtowhicheachpersonperhapsthinksandfeelswhathewants–imperfectmeansofdepiction!,howonecanbemisunderstood!Whoeverhasnoticedwhataninexpressiblethingoneisdealingwithinthedistinctiveindividualityofahumanbeing–tobeabletosaywhatdistinguisheshiminadistinguishingway,howhefeelsandlives,howdifferentandidiosyncraticallthingsbecomeforhimoncehiseyeseesthem,hissoulmeasuresthem,hisheartfeelsthem–whatdepthliesinthecharacterofjustasinglenationwhich,evenifonehasoftenenoughperceivedandstaredatit,yetsoescapestheword,andatleastsorarelybecomesrecognizabletoeveryoneinthewordsothatheunderstandsandfeelsalong–[forhim]itisasthoughoneweresupposedtosurveytheworld-seaofwholepeoples,ages,andlands,comprehenditinoneview,onefeeling,oneword!Tiredsemi-phantomthatawordis!Thewholelivingpaintingofmodeoflife,habits,needs,peculiaritiesoflandandclimate,wouldhavetobeaddedorThewordoffenbarinvolvesapunonatleastthreemeaningsthatisnotwellcapturableinEnglish:()itsnormalmeaning:manifest,revealed;()anunusualmeaningmadepossiblebyanetymologicalconstrualofitscomponentsoffen(“open”)and-bar(“-able”):openable(cf.theexpressionaufoffenerSee,“ontheopensea”);()thefurthermeaning:ofrevealedreligion(cf.geoffenbarteReligion,“revealedreligion”).Manuscriptacompletesthissentencefrom“feelsalong”asfollows:–hewillbeevenmoreamazedandfeeldizzywhenheconfrontswhatiscalledthespiritofinclinationsinsuchremotepeoples,ages,andlands.\nPhilosophyofHistorytohavepreceded;onewouldhavefirsttosympathizewiththenation,inordertofeelasingleoneofitsinclinationsoractionsalltogether,onewouldhavetofindasingleword,toimagineeverythinginitsfullness–oronereads–aword!WeallbelievethatwestillnowhavepaternalandhouseholdandhumandrivesastheOrientalhadthem;thatwecanhavefaithfulnessanddiligenceinartastheEgyptianpossessedthem;Phoenicianactiveness,Greekloveoffreedom,Romanstrengthofsoul–whodoesnotthinkthathefeelsadispositionforallthat,ifonlytime,opportunity...Andbehold!,myreader,wearepreciselythere.Themostcowardlyvillainnodoubtstillhasaremotedispositionandpotentialforbeingthemostgreat-heartedhero–butbetweenthoseand“thewholefeelingofbeing,ofexistence,insuchacharacter”–agulf!Henceevenifyoulackednothingbuttime,opportunitytochangeyourdispositionsforbeinganOriental,aGreek,aRoman,intofinishedskillsandsoliddrives–agulf!Drivesandfinishedskillsareallthatisinquestion.Thewholenatureofthesoul,whichrulesthrougheverything,whichmodelsallotherinclinationsandforcesofthesoulinaccordancewithitself,andinadditioncolorseventhemostindifferentactions–inordertoshareinfeelingthis,donotansweronthebasisofthewordbutgointotheage,intotheclime,thewholehistory,feelyourselfintoeverything–onlynowareyouonthewaytowardsunderstandingtheword.Butalsoonlynowwillyoulosethethought“asthoughyoutooareallthattakenindividuallyorcollectively.”Youalltakencollectively?Quintessenceofalltimesandpeoples?Thatreallyshowsstupidity!Characterofthenations!Onlydataoftheirconstitutionandhistorymustdecide.Butdidnotapatriarch,inadditiontotheinclinationswhich“youattributetohim,alsohave,andhavetheabilitytohave,otherones?”Isaytobothquestionssimply:certainly!Certainly,hehadotherones,subordinatetraitswhichareself-understoodfromwhatIhavesaidornotsaid,whichIandperhapsotherswithmewhohavehishistoryinmindindeedalreadyrecognizedintheword,andstillmorereadilythathehadtheabilitytohavesomethingverymuchother–inanotherplace,inthistime,withthatprogressincivilization[Bildung],underthoseothercircumstances–whyinthatcaseshouldnotLeonidas,Caesar,orAbrahambeagenteelmanofourcentury?Hadtheabilitytobe,butwasnot.Askhistoryaboutit;thatiswhatisinquestion.Ithereforelikewisepreparemyselfforsmall-scaleobjectionsbasedonthegreatdetailofpeoplesandtimes.Thatnopeoplelongremained\nThisTooaPhilosophy()orcouldremainwhatitwas;thateachone,likeeachartandscienceandwhateverintheworldnot?,haditsperiodofgrowth,ofbloom,andofdecline;thateachofthesechangingstatesonlylastedtheverysmallamountoftimethatcouldbegivenitonthewheelofhumanfate;finally,thatnotwomomentsintheworldarethesame,thatconsequentlyEgyptians,Romans,andGreekswerealsonotthesameatalltimes–ItremblewhenIthinkwhatsortsofwisecriticismswisepeople,especiallyexpertsonhistory,canmakeconcerningthis!Greececonsistedofmanylands:AtheniansandBoeotians,SpartansandCorinthians,wereanythingbutlikeeachother.DidnotpeoplepracticeagricultureinAsiatoo?DidnotEgyptiansatonetimetradejustasmuchasPhoenicians?WerenottheMacedoniansjustasmuchconquerorsastheRomans?[Was]notAristotlejustasmuchaspeculativeheadasLeibniz?DidnotournorthernpeoplesexceltheRomansinbravery?WereallEgyptians,Greeks,Romans–areallratsandmice–likeeachother?No!Buttheyarestillratsandmice!Howvexingitmustbecometospeaktothepublic,whereonealwayshastoexpectfromthenoisypart(themorenoblythinkingpartkeepsquiet!)suchandstillworsecriticisms,andpresentedinwhatatone,andhasthenatthesametimetoexpectthatthegreatheapofsheepwhichdoesnotknowrightfromleftimmediatelyfollowsthisdelusion.Cantherebeageneralimagewithoutanorderingamongandtogether?Cantherebeadistantprospectwithoutanelevation?Ifyouholdyourfacecloseuptotheimage,carveatthissliver,pickatthatlittlelumpofpigment,youneverseethewholeimage–youseeanythingbutanimage!Andifyourheadisfullofagroupthatyouhavefallenmadlyinlovewith,canyourviewwellembrace,order,gentlyfollow,awholeofsuchchangingperiods,separateoutjustthemaineffectineachscene,quietlyaccompanythegradualtransitions,andnow–namethem?Butifyoucandononeofallthat!,historyshimmersandflickersbeforeyoureyes!,aconfusionofscenes,peoples,periods–firstreadandlearntosee!Incidentally,Iknowaswellasyoudothateverygeneralimage,everygeneralconcept,isonlyanabstraction–itisonlytheCreatorwhothinksthewholeunityofone,ofall,nationsinalltheirmanifoldnesswithouthavingtheunitytherebyfadeforhim.II.Soletusleavebehindthesesmall-scaleobjectionswhichmisspur-poseandviewpoint!Setintheperspectiveofthegreatwholeofthesequence,howpatheticprove“somefashionablejudgmentsofourcentury,basedonmerelygeneralconceptsoftheschools,concerningtheadvantages,virtues,happiness,ofsuchdistant,suchchanging,nations!”\nPhilosophyofHistoryIfhumannatureisnoindependentdivinityingoodness–ithastolearneverything,beformedthroughprogressions,stepeverfurtheringradualstruggle–thennaturallyitisformedmostoronlyonthosesideswhereithassuchoccasionsforvirtue,forstruggle,forprogression.Thereforeinacertainrespecteachhumanperfectionisnational,generational[s¨akular],and,consideredmostexactly,individual.Peopleformtogreaterfullnessonlywhattime,clime,need,world,fategivesoccasionfor.Turnedawayfromtherest.Theinclinationsorcapacitiesslumberingintheheartcanneverbecomefinishedskills.Sothenationcan,despitevirtuesofthemostsublimesortononeside,onanothersidehaveshortcomings,makeexceptions,revealcontradictionsanduncertaintieswhichastonish–butnooneexcepthewhobringswithhimhisidealsilhouetteofvirtuefromthecompendiumofhiscenturyandhasenoughphilosophytowanttofindthewholeearthononepatchofearth,nooneelse!Foreverypersonwhowantstorecognizethehumanheartfromtheelementofitslife-circumstancessuchexceptionsandcontradictionsarecompletelyhuman:theproportioningofforcesandinclinationsforacertainpurposewhichcouldneverbeachievedwithoutit–hencenoexceptionsatall,buttherule.Letitbe,myfriend,thatthatchildlikeOrientalreligion,thatdevotiontothesoftestfeelinginhumanlife,ontheothersideyieldsweaknesseswhichyoudamninaccordancewiththemodelofothertimes.ApatriarchcanbenoRomanhero,noGreekcompetitiverunner,nomerchantofthecoast,andjustaslittlethatintowhichtheidealofyouracademicrostrumorofyourwhimwouldinflatehiminorderfalselytopraiseorbitterlytodamnhim.Letitbethathewouldappeartoyoufearful,afraidofdeath,soft,ignorant,idle,superstitious,andifyouhavebileinyoureye,repellentjudgedaccordingtolaterexemplarymodels–heiswhatGod,clime,period,andtheleveloftheworld’sagecouldformhiminto:apatriarch!Sohehasincontrasttoallthelossesoflatertimesinnocence,piety,humanity–inwhichhewilleternallybeagodforeverylateage!TheEgyptian,creeping,slavish,ananimaloftheearth,superstitiousandsad,hardagainstforeigners,athoughtlesscreatureofhabit–contrastedherewiththelightGreekwhoformseverythingbeautifully,therewithafriendofhumanityinaccordancewiththehightasteofourcenturywhocarriesallwisdominhisheadandthewholeworldinhisbreast–whatafigure!Butnow,alsotheformer’sHerderisusingthiswordwiththesensesofitsLatincognatesaeculuminmind:generation,century.Orpossibly:withoutthem(i.e.withouttheproportioningandtheforcesandinclinations).\nThisTooaPhilosophy()patience,faithfulness,strongrepose–canyoucomparethesewithGreekpederastyandyouthfulcourtingofeverythingbeautifulandpleasant?,andagain,canyoufailtorecognizeGreeklightness,triflingwithreligion,shortcominginacertainlove,discipline,andintegrity–ifyouwantedtotakeanideal,whoever’sitmightbe?Butwasitpossibleforthoseperfectionstobedevelopedinthatamountanddegreewithouttheseshortcomings?Providenceitself,youcansee,didnotdemandit,onlywantedtoattainitspurposeinsuccession,inleadingfurtherthroughtheawakeningofnewforcesandthedemiseofothers.Philosopherinthenorthernvalleyoftheearth,holdingthechild’sscalesofyourcenturyinyourhand,doyouknowbetterthanProvidence?Authoritativedecisionsofpraiseandblamewhichweheap,fromadiscoveredfavoritepeopleinantiquityatwhichwestareduntilwefellinlovewithit,ontothewholeworld–whatisyourlegitimacy!ThoseRomanswereabletobeasnoothernation,todowhatnoonedoesinimitation–theywereRomans.Onasummitoftheworld,andeverythingaroundthemvalley.Onthatsummitfromyouthon,formedtothatRomansensibility,thereactedinhim–whatwonder?Andwhatwonderthatasmallshepherdingandfarmingpeopleinavalleyoftheearthwasnotanironanimalthatcouldactinthatway?AndwhatwonderthatthispeopleinitsturnhadvirtueswhichthenoblestRomandidnothave,andthatthenoblestRomanonhissummitunderthepressofnecessitywasabletodecidewithcoldbloodoncrueltieswhichagainnowtheshepherdinhissmallvalleydidnothaveonhisconscience.Onthepeakofthatgiantmachinesacrificewasunfortunately!oftenatriviality,oftenanecessity,often(poorhumanity,whatconditionsyouarecapableof!),oftenakindness.Itwaspreciselythemachinethatmadefar-reachingvicespossiblewhichalsoraisedvirtuessohigh,spreadefficacysofarandwide.Ishumanitycapableofpureperfectioninasinglepresentconditionatall?Peakbordersonvalley.AboutnobleSpartanstheredwellinhumanlytreatedHelots.TheRomanvictordyedwithreddyeofthegodsisinvisiblyalsodaubedwithblood;plunder,wickedness,andlustssurroundhischariot;beforehimgoesoppression,inhistrainfollowsmiseryandpoverty.–Henceinthissensetooshortcomingandvirtuealwaysdwelltogetherinonehumanhut.Reading,withSteig,verkennenforvergleichen(inlightofmanuscripta).SeeDaniel:.TheexpressionhastraditionallybeentakentorefertotheRomanempire.ThisisanotherexampleofHerderusinganadiplosis.ThisisanotherexampleofHerderusinghendiadys.\nPhilosophyofHistoryFairartofpoetrymagicallytotransformafavoritepeopleontheearthintosuperhumanbrilliance.Theartofpoetryisalsouseful,forthehumanbeingalsogetsennobledthroughfairprejudices.Butwhenthepoetisahistorian,aphilosopher,asmostofthempretendtobe,andthesethenmodelallcenturiesaftertheoneformoftheirtime–andoftenitisverysmallandweak!–Hume!,Voltaire!,Robertson!,classicalghostsoftwilight!,whatareyouinthelightoftruth?Alearnedsocietyofourageiset,doubtlesswithhighintentions,thequestion“Whichwasprobablythehappiestpeopleinhistory?”AndifIunderstandthequestioncorrectly,ifitdoesnotliebeyondthehorizonofahumananswer,thenIonlyknow:suchapointintimecametoeverypeopleatacertaintimeandundercertaincircumstancesoritwasneverapeople.Forif,again,humannatureisnocontainerofanabsolute,independent,unchangeablehappinessasthephilosopherdefinesit,butiteverywhereattractsasmuchhappinessasitcan,isaflexibleclayfor,inthemostdifferentsituations,needs,andpressures,alsoformingitselfdifferently,[and]eventheimageofhappinesschangeswitheachconditionandregion(forwhatisthisimageeverbutthesumof“satisfactionsofwishes,achievementsofpurposes,andgentleovercomingofneeds,”which,though,allshapethemselvesaccordingtoland,time,andplace?)–thenatbottomallcomparisonprovestobeproblematic.Assoonastheinnersenseofhappiness,theinclination,haschanged,assoonastheexternaloccasionsandneedsformandfixthenewsense–whocancomparethedifferentsatisfactionofdifferentsensesindifferentworlds?–theshepherdandfatheroftheOrient,thefarmerandartist,thesailor,competitiverunner,conqueroroftheworld–whocancomparethem?Nothingturnsonthelaurelwreathoronthesightoftheblessedflock,onthemerchantshipiThegentlemenmusthavehadaterriblyhighidealforasfarasIknowtheyhaveneverfoundanyoftheirphilosophicaltasksachieved.Inmanuscriptathefollowingpassagecorrespondstothisimportantparagraph:“Thustherecanalwaysbefairpoeticartwhensomeoneinoneoranotherwaychoosesforhimselfsuchfavoritepeoplesandregions.Also,thepoeticartcanbeappliedveryusefullybecausethehumanbeingcanalsobeveryennobledthroughfairprejudices.Onlyinjusticeahistorianorphilosophershouldneverwanttobesuchapoet,ashowevermostofthem,especiallythoseofthefirstclass,are,wherealmosteveryoneofthemfromHerodotustoHumehashisfavoritetime,hisfavoritepeople,hisfavoriteethicsinaccordancewithwhichhemodelseverythingelse.Goodisstrewnaboutontheearth;becausenosingleformorcenturycouldcontainit,itgotdistributedamongathousandformsandroamsforthslowlythroughallcenturies.Ifweareunwillingtofollowitonthisthousand-formedPrometheus-course,thenwedoourselvesandthetruththegreatestharm.”ApatrioticsocietyinBerne,Switzerland.Readingwarforwars.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()orthecapturedstandard,butratheronthesoulthatneededthat,stroveforit,hasnowachievedthat,andwantedtoachievenothingbutthat.Eachnationhasitscenterofhappinessinitself,likeeverysphereitscenterofgravity!Thegoodmotherhastakencarewellheretoo.Sheputdispositionstomanifoldnessintotheheart,butmadeeachoftheminitselfsolittlepressingthatifonlyafewgetsatisfiedthesoulquicklyformsaconcertforitselffromtheseawakenednotesanddoesnotfeeltheunawakenedonesexceptinsofarastheysilentlyandobscurelysupportthesoundingsong.Sheputdispositionsofmanifoldnessintotheheart,andthenapartofthemanifoldnessinacircleaboutus,availabletous;thenshereinedinthehumanviewsothatafterasmallperiodofhabituationthiscirclebecamehorizonforhim.Nottolookbeyondit,hardlytosuspectbeyondit!–everythingthatisstillsimilarwithmynature,thatcanbeassimilatedtoit,Icovet,strivefor,makemyown;beyondthat,kindnaturehasarmedmewithfeelinglessness,coldness,andblindness;thiscanevenbecomecontemptanddisgust,butonlyhasthepurposeofforcingmebackonmyself,ofmakingmesatisfiedonthecenterthatbearsme.TheGreekmakesasmuchhisownfromtheEgyptian,theRomanasmuchfromtheGreek,asheneedsforhimself;heissated,therestfallsbythewaysideandhedoesnotstriveforit!Orwheninthisdevelopmentofdistinctivenationalinclinationsforadistinctivenationalhappinessthedistancebetweenpeopleandpeoplehasalreadygrowntoogreat–beholdhowtheEgyptianhatestheshepherd,thenomadictramp!,howhecontemnsthesuperficialGreek!Thusallpairsofnationswhoseinclinationsandcirclesofhappinesscollide–itiscalledprejudice!,mob-thinking!,limitednationalism!Prejudiceisgoodinitstime,foritrendershappy.Itforcespeoplestogetherintotheircenter,makesthemfirmerontheirtribalstem,morebloomingintheirkind,morepassionateandhencealsohappierintheirinclinationsandpurposes.Themostignorant,mostprejudicednationisinsucharegardoftenthefirst;theageofwishfulforeignmigrationsandjourneysabroadinhopeisalreadysickness,bloating,unhealthyfullness,intimationofdeath!III.Andtheuniversal,philosophical,human-friendlytoneofourcenturygrantssogladlytoeachdistantnation,eacholdestage,intheworld“ourownideal”invirtueandhappiness?Issuchauniquejudgeastopassjudgmenton,condemn,orbeautifullyfictionalizetheirethicsaccordingOrpossibly:Isthereforetheuniquejudge[withauthority]...\nPhilosophyofHistorytoitsownmeasurealone?Isnotthegoodontheearthstrewnabout?Becauseoneformofhumanityandoneregionoftheearthcouldnotgraspit,itgotdistributedintoathousandforms,itroamsforth–aneternalProteus!–throughallpartsoftheworldandallcenturies.Also,asheroamsandroamsfurther,itisnotforgreatervirtueorhappi-nessoftheindividualthathestrives–humanityeverremainsonlyhu-manity–andyetaplanofstrivingfurtherbecomesvisible–mygreattheme!Thosewhohavesofarundertakentounfoldtheprogressofthecenturiesforthemostparthaveintheprocessthepetidea:progresstomorevirtueandhappinessofindividualhumanbeings.Peoplehavethenforthispurposeexaggeratedormadeupfacts,understatedorsuppressedcontraryfacts,hiddenwholesides,takenwordsfor[deeds],enlightenmentforhappiness,moreandsubtlerideasforvirtue–andinthiswaypeoplehavemadeupnovels“abouttheuniversallyprogressingimprovementoftheworld”–novelsthatnoonebelieves,atleastnotthetruepupilofhistoryandthehumanheart.Others,whosawtheobjectionablenessofthisdream,andknewnothingbetter,sawvicesandvirtues,likeclimes,change,perfectionsariseandperishlikeaspringtimeofleaves,humanethicsandinclinationsflyaway,turnover,likeleavesoffate–noplan!,noprogress!,eternalrevolution–weavingandundoing!–Penelope-work!–Theyfellintoawhirlpool,skepticismaboutallvirtue,happiness,andvocationofhumankind,intowhichtheyweaveallhistory,religion,andethicaldoctrine–themostrecentfashion-abletoneofthemostrecent,inparticularFrench,philosophersjisdoubt!Doubtinahundredforms,butallwiththedazzlingtitle“basedonthehistoryoftheworld.”Contradictionsandoceanwaves–onesuffersship-wreck,orwhatofmoralityandphilosophyonesavesfromtheshipwreckishardlyworthtalkingabout.Shouldtherenotbemanifestprogressanddevelopmentbutinahighersensethanpeoplehaveimaginedit?Doyouseethisrivercurrent[Strom]jGood,honestMontaignemadethestart.ThedialecticianBayle–arationalizerwhosecontradic-tionsaccordingtoarticlesofhisthought-form,thedictionary,CrousazandLeibnizhavecertainlynotbeenabletomakeupfor–hadfurthereffectonthecentury.Andthenthemorerecentphiloso-phers,doubtersofeverythingwiththeirownmostboldassertions,Voltaire,Hume,eventhoseofDiderot–itisthegreatcenturyofdoubtingandrousingwaves.HerdermiswroteW¨orterf¨urW¨orter,whichmakesnosense,so“deeds”isconjecturalhere.Stromcanmeaneitherriverorcurrent.Theformerideaisuppermosthere,butthelattermustbekeptinviewinordertomakesenseof“breaksoffthere,beginshere.”\nThisTooaPhilosophy()swimmingalong–howitsprangforthfromalittlesource,grows,breaksoffthere,beginshere,evermeanders,andboresfurtheranddeeper–butalwaysremainswater!,rivercurrent!,dropalwaysonlydrop,untilitplungesintotheocean–whatifitwerelikethatwiththehumanspecies?Ordoyouseethatgrowingtree!,thatupwards-strivinghumanbeing!,havingtopassthroughdiverseagesoflife!,allmanifestlyinprogress!,astrivingonefortheotherincontinuity!Betweeneachthereareapparentrestingplaces,revolutions!,changes!,andyeteachhasthecenterofitshap-pinessinitself!;theyouthisnothappierthantheinnocent,satisfiedchild,northequietoldmanunhappierthantheforcefullystrivingman;thepen-dulumalwaysswingswiththesameforce,whetheritswingsfurthestandstrivesthatmuchmorequicklyoroscillatesmostslowlyandapproachesrest.However,itisstillaneternalstriving!Nooneisinhisagealone,hebuildsontheprecedingone,thisbecomesnothingbutthefoundationofthefuture,wantstobenothingbutthat–thisiswhatwearetoldbytheanalogyinnature,God’sspeakingexemplarymodelinallworks!Manifestlysointhehumanspecies!TheEgyptianwasnotabletoexistwithouttheOriental,theGreekbuiltuponthem,theRomanraisedhimselfontothebackofthewholeworld–trulyprogress,progressivedevelopment,evenifnoindividualwonintheprocess!Itsgoalisonthelargescale!Itbecomes–whathusk-historyboastsaboutsomuch,andwhatitshowssolittleof–thestageofaguidingintentiononearth!,evenifweshouldnotbeabletoseethefinalintention,thestageofthedeity,evenifonlythroughopeningsandruinsofindividualscenes.Atleastthisviewisfurtherthanthatphilosophy,whichmixesup,onlyeverilluminateshereandthereinthecaseofindividualconfusions,inordertoturneverythingintoaplayofants,intoastrivingofindividualinclinationsandforceswithoutapurpose,intoachaosinwhichonedespairsofvirtue,purpose,anddeity!IfIsucceededinbindingtogetherthemostdisparatesceneswithoutconfusingthem–inshowinghowtheyrelatetooneanother,growoutofoneanother,losethemselvesinoneanother,allofthemtakenindividuallyonlymoments,onlythroughtheprogressionmeanstopurposes–whatasight!,whatanobleapplicationofhumanhistory!,whatencouragementtohope,toact,tobelieve,evenwhereoneseesnothingornoteverything.–Icontinue.ReadingaufhelltwithDuntzerandBrummack/Bollacher.However,theprinted¨aufh¨altwouldbepossible:makes[us]stop.\nPhilosophyofHistorySecondsectionEventheRomanworld-constitutionreacheditsend,andthegreaterthebuildingwas,thehigheritstood,withthatmuchgreateracollapsediditfall!Halfoftheworldwasruins.Peoplesandpartsoftheearthhadlivedunderthetree,andnowthatthevoiceoftheholywatcherscalled“Cutitdown!”whatagreatemptiness!Likeatearinthethreadofworldevents!,nothinglessthananewworldwasnecessaryinordertohealthetear.Itwasthenorth.Andwhateveroriginsandsystemspeoplemaythinkup,now,abouttheconditionofthesepeoples,thesimplestthingseemsthetruest:inpeacetheywere,sotospeak,“patriarchiesastheywereabletobeinthenorth.”SincenoOrientalshepherd’slifewaspossibleinsuchaclimate,heavierneedsweighedmoreonthehumanspiritherethanwherenatureworkedalmostexclusivelyforhumankind,butpreciselytheseheavierneedsandthenorthernairhardenedhumanbeingsmorethantheycouldbehardenedinthewarm,aromaticgreenhouseoftheeastandthesouth,naturallytheirconditionremainedmoreprimitive,theirsmallsocietiesmoreseparatedandwilder,buthumanbondsstillinstrength,humandriveandforceinfullness.–TherethelandthatTacitusdescribescouldarise.Andwhenthisnorthernseaofpeoplescameintomotionwithallitswaves–wavespressedonwaves,peoplesonotherpeoples!,thewallanddamaroundRomewastornapart,theRomanshadthemselvesshownthemthegapsandenticedthemtheretopatchatthese–when,finally,everythingbroke,whatadelugeofthesouthbythenorth!,andafteralltherevolutionsandhorrorswhatanewnorthern–southernworld!WhoevernotestheconditionoftheRomanlandsintheirlastcenturies(andtheywereatthattimethecivilized[gebildete]universe!)willwonderatandadmirethispathofProvidenceforpreparingsuchastrangesub-stitutionofhumanforces.Everythingwasexhausted,enervated,shattered,abandonedbyhumanbeings,dweltinbyenervatedhumanbeings,sink-inginluxury,vices,disorder,freedom,andwildwar-pride.ThebeautifulRomanlawsandlearningwereunabletosubstituteforforceswhichhaddis-appeared,revivenerveswhichfeltnolife-spirit,rousemotivesthatjustlaythere[fallen]–hencedeath!,aworn-outcorpselyinginblood–theninthenorthanewhumanbeingwasborn.Underafreshsky,indesolateandwildplaceswherenoonesuspectedit,thereripenedaspringtimeofstrong,nourishingplantswhich,transplantedintothemorebeautiful,SeeDaniel:ff.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()moresouthernlands–nowsadlyemptyfields!–weredestinedtotakeonanewnature,toyieldagreatharvestforthefateoftheworld!Goths,Van-dals,Burgundians,Angles,Huns,Heruli,FranksandBulgarians,SlavsandLombardscame–settled,andthewholemodernworldfromtheMediter-raneantotheBlackSea,fromtheAtlantictotheNorthSeaistheirwork!,theirrace!,theirconstitution!Notmerelyhumanforces,butalsowhatlawsandinstitutionsdidtheytherebybringontothestageoftheworld’sformation[Bildung].Tobesure,theydespisedartsandsciences,luxuryandrefinement–whichhadwroughthavoconhumanity.Butwheninplaceofartstheybroughtnature,inplaceofsciencessoundnorthernunderstanding,inplaceoffineethicsstrongandgood,althoughwild,ethics,andallthatnowfermentedtogether–whatanevent!Theirlaws,howtheybreathemanlycourage,feelingofhonor,faithinunderstanding,honesty,andreverenceforgods!Theirfeudalinstitutions,howtheyunderminedtheconfusionofpeople-rich,luxuriouscities,cultivatedtheland,occupiedhandsandhumanbeings,madesoundandpreciselytherebyalsohappypeople.Theirlateridealbeyondneeds–itaimedatchastityandhonor–ennobledthebestpartofhumaninclinations–althoughanovel,nonethelessaloftynovel–atruenewbloomofthehumansoul.Letoneconsider,forexample,whatadelayforrecuperationandatrainingofforceshumanityreceivedinthecenturiesofthisfermenta-tionthroughthefactthateverythingfellintosmallconnections,divisions,andorderings-together,andsomany,manylimbsarose!Hereonelimbwaseverrubbingagainstanother,andeverythingsustaineditselfinbreathandforces.Timeoffermentation–butpreciselythisforsolongfendedoffdespotism(thetrueconsumingabyssforhumanity,whichswallowsdowneverything–asitsays,intopeaceandobedience,butintruth–intodeathanduniformpulverizing!).Now,isitbetter,isithealthierandmorebeneficialforhumanity,toproducemerelifelesscogsofagreat,wooden,thoughtlessmachine,ortoawakenandrouseforces?Evenifitshouldbethroughso-calledimperfectconstitutions,disorder,barbaricsticklingabouthonor,savageaddictiontoquarreling,andsuchthings–ifitachievesthepurpose,thenitisstilldefinitelybetterthanwhilealivebeingdeadandmoldering.Meanwhile,Providencehadseenfittopreparefor,andmixinwith,thisnewfermentationofnorthern-southernfluidsanadditionalnewyeast:\nPhilosophyofHistorytheChristianreligion.But,withourChristiancentury,Idonotfirsthavetoaskforgivenessforspeakingofthisreligionasamainspringoftheworld–forindeedconsideringitonlyasayeast,asaleaven,forgoodorforbad–orforwhateverelseonelikes.Andherethepoint–misunderstoodfromtwosides–deservessomediscussion.Thereligionoftheancientworld,whichhadcometoGreeceandItalyfromtheOrientviaEgypt,hadineveryrespectbecomeanevaporated,forcelessthing,thetruecaputmortuumofwhatithadbeenandwassupposedtobe.IfoneonlyconsidersthelatermythologyoftheGreeksandthepuppetofpoliticalpeoples-religioninthecaseoftheRomans,nofurtherwordisnecessary...Andyettherewasnowalsoalmost“nootherprincipleofvirtue”intheworld!Romansacrificeforone’sfatherlandhadsunkfromitssummitandlayinthemorassofcarousingandwarringinhumanity.Greekyouthfulhonorandloveoffreedom–wherewasit?AndtheoldEgyptianspirit–wherewasitwhenGreeksandRomansmadenestsintheirland?Whencenowasubstitute?Philosophycouldnotprovideit–philosophywasthemostdegeneratedsophisticalstuff,artofdisputation,jumbleofopinionswithoutforceorcertainty,awoodenmachinehungwitholdrags,withoutefficacyonthehumanheart,letalonewiththeefficacytoimproveafallencentury,afallenworld!Andnowthebuildingupoftheruinswassupposedtohappenbytheagencyofpeopleswhointheirconditionstillneededreligion,couldbeguidedthroughreligionalone,mixedthespiritofsuperstitionintoeverything.–Andyetthesepeoplesnowfoundontheirnewstagenothingexceptwhattheydespisedorwereunabletounderstand:Romanmythologyandphilosophy,alongwithstatuesandethicalforms.–Andtheirnorthernreligion,aremnantoftheOrientformedinanorthernmanner,wasinsufficient–[they]neededafresher,moreefficaciousreligion–andbehold!,Providencehadshortlybeforemadeitariseinaplacewhenceasubstituteforthewholewesternworldwasleasthopedfor.BetweenthenakedmountainsofJudaea!Shortlybeforethecollapseofthewholeunrenownedpeople,preciselyinitsfinal,mostmiserableepoch–inawaywhichwillalwaysremainmiraculous,itarose,maintaineditself,justasstrangelybeatabroadpathforitselfHerderisbeingsarcastic.Literally:deadhead.Buttheexpressionreferstotheresidueleftafterachemicalreaction,andhencemoreorlessmeans:dross.I.e.theEgyptians’.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()throughravinesandcaves–ontoastagewhichsoneededit!,onwhichithashadsovery,verymucheffect!–Certainlythestrangesteventintheworld!Then,however,itwascertainlyagreatandremarkabledramahowunderJulianthetwomostfamousreligions,theoldestheathenreligionandthenewerChristianreligion,struggledfornothinglessthanruleovertheworld.Thatwascleartohimandtoeveryone!Religioninthefullstrengthofthewordwasindispensableforhisfallencentury.GreekmythologyandRomanstateceremony–thiswaslikewisecleartohim!–wasinadequateforthepurposesofthecentury.Soheresortedtoeverythingthathecould,tothemostforcefulandoldestreligionthatheknew,thereligionoftheOrient–stirredupinitallthemiraculousforces,formsofmagic,andapparitionssothatitbecameentirelytheurgy;drew,asmuchashecould,ontheaidofphilosophy,Pythagoreanism,andPlatonisminordertogiveeverythingthefinestcoatingofreason;puteverythingonthetriumph-carofthegreatestpomp,pulledbythetwomostunrulybeasts,violenceandfanaticism,directedbythesubtlestpoliticalart.Allinvain!,thereligiondied!,ithadlivedoutitslife–miserablefineryofadeadcorpsethathadbeenabletoperformmiraclesonlyinanothertime;thenaked,newChristianreligionwon!ItcanbeseenthatthematterisobservedbyaforeignerwhocouldbeaMuslimandaMamelukeinordertowritepreciselythat.Icontinueinthesameway.Butnow,thesame,sostrangelyarisen,religionwassupposed–thisisundeniable–accordingtothemeaningofitsauthor(Idonotsaywhetherithasbecomethisineveryage’sapplication)–itwassupposedtobecometruereligionofhumanity,driveoflove,andbondofallnationsintoonearmyofbrothers–itspurposefrombeginningtoend!Itisjustascertainthatthisreligion(itsadherentsmaylateronhavemadefromitwhattheywished)–thatitwasthefirstthattaughtsuchpurespiritualtruthsandsuchheartfeltduties,socompletelywithouthuskandsuperstition,withoutornamentationandforce,thatmeanttoimprovethehumanheartsoexclusively,souniversally,soentirelyandwithoutexception.Allearlierreligionsofthebestperiodsandpeopleswerebycontrastonlynarrowlynational,fullofimagesanddisguises,fullofceremoniesandnationalcustoms,onwhichtheessentialdutiesalwaysonlyhungandwereadded–inshort,religionsofonepeople,Inotherwords,Herderisclaimingimpartialityandobjectivityonbehalfoftheaccountthathehasjustgiven.\nPhilosophyofHistoryofoneregionoftheearth,ofonelegislator,ofoneperiod!,whereasthisreligionwasobviouslyineverythingtheopposite:themostunadulteratedphilosophyofethicaldoctrine,thepuresttheoryoftruthsandduties,independentofalllawsandlittleterritorialconstitutions,inshort,ifyoulike,themosthuman-lovingdeism.Andhencecertainlyreligionoftheuniverse.Others,andevenitsenemies,haveprovedthatsuchareligioncouldcertainlynothavesproutedorgrownorstolenitswayin–letonecallitasonewishes–atanothertime,earlierorlater.Thehumanracehadtobepreparedforthisdeismforsomanymillennia,tobegraduallydrawnforthfromchildhood,barbarism,idolatry,andsensuality;itsforcesofsoulhadtobedevelopedthroughsomanynationalformations–Oriental,Egyptian,Greek,Roman,etc.–asstepsandapproachesbeforeevenmerelytheslightestbeginningstowardsperception,conception,andconcessionoftheidealofreligionanddutyandtheconnecting-togetherofpeoplescouldbemade.EvenjustconsideredasatoolitwouldseemthattheRomanspiritofconquesthadtoprecedeinordertoopenpathseverywhere,toestablishapoliticalconnectionbetweenpeopleswhichwaspreviouslyunheardof,tosetinmotiononpreciselythispathtolerance,ideasofinternationallawamongpeoplespreviouslyunheardofonthatscale!Inthiswaythehorizongotextended,enlightened,andwhennowtennewnationsoftheearththrewthemselvesonthisbrighthorizon,broughtwiththemquiteother,newreceptivitiespreciselyforthisreligion,neededit,collectivelyalloyeditwiththeirownessence–yeast!,howstrangelyyouareprepared!,andeverythingpreparedinadvanceforyou!,andmixedindeeplyandfromfararound!,hasworkedandfermentedlongandstrongly.Whatwillityetfermentinto?Thuspreciselythataboutwhichpeopleusuallymocksowittilyandphilosophically,“WherethenwasthisleavencalledChristianreligionpure?Wherewasitnotmixedwiththedoughof[apeople’s]own,themostdiverse,andoftenthemostawful,mannerofthought?”–preciselythatseemstometobetheclearnatureofthematter.Ifthisreligionwas,asitreallyis,thesubtlespirit,“adeismofhumanfriendship,”thatwassupposedtointerfereinnoindividualcivillaw;ifitwasthatphilosophyofheaventhat,preciselybecauseofitsloftinessanditsunearthlypurity,couldembracethewholeearth–itseemstomethatinthatcaseitwassimplyimpossibleAsBrummackandBollacherpointout,thisparagraphislargelydirectedpolemicallyagainstthedeistVoltaire,whoinhisLaphilosophiedel’histoirehadextolledthehumanisticvirtuesofRomanpeoples-religionoverChristianity.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()thatthissubtlevaporcouldexist,beapplied,withoutbeingmixedwithmoreearthlymaterials,and,sotospeak,needingthemasavehicle.Nowthiswasnaturallyeachpeople’smannerofthought,itsethicsandlaws,inclinationsandabilities–coldorwarm,goodorbad,barbaricorcivilized[gebildet]–everythingasitwas.TheChristianreligionwasonlyabletoandwasonlysupposedtopenetrateeverything,andwhoeveringeneralhasideasofdivinelyorganizedeventsintheworldandinthehumanrealmotherwisethan[asoccurring]throughworldlyandhumanmainspringsistrulymademoreforutopian-poeticthanforphilosophical-naturalabstractions.Wheninthewholeanalogyofnaturehasthedeityactedotherwisethanthroughnature?Andistherethereforenodeity,orisitnotpreciselydeitythattakeseffectsoentirelypouredforth,uniform,andinvisiblethroughallitsworks?–Onahumanstageletallhumanpassionsplay![Letthem]ineachperiodplayinamannerappropriatetotheage!Thusineverypartoftheworld,ineverynation!Religionissupposedtoeffectnothingbutpurposesthroughhumanbeingsandforhumanbeings–whetheritisleavenortreasure,eachhumanbeingcarriesitinhiscontainer,mixesitwithhisdough!,andthesubtleristhevapor,themoreitwouldevaporatebyitself,thenthemoreitneedstobemixedforuse.Icanseeinthecontraryopinionnohumansense.Andthusinthiscase,evenjustspeakingphysicallyandinahumansense,preciselythisadmixtureoftheChristianreligionwasthemostchoicethatonecanimaginealmost.Ittookcareofthepoorinthenecessitythatwasgaininggroundbytheday,sothatevenJuliancouldnotdenyitthisingrati-atingmerit.Instilllatertimesofdisorderitbecamethesoleconsolationandresortinthefaceoftheuniversalaffliction(Iamnotspeakingintheman-nerinwhichthepriestshavealwaysusedthat[term]).Indeed,fromthetimewhenthebarbarianswerethemselvesChristians,itgraduallybecamerealorderandsecurityoftheworld.Sinceittamedthetearinglionsandconqueredtheconquerors–whatacomfortableleavenforpenetratingdeeply,havingeffectfarandeternally!Thesmallconstitutionswhereitwasabletoembraceeverything;thedistantlyseparatedclasseswhereitbecame,sotospeak,theuniversalbetween-class;thegreatgapsinthemerelywarlikefeudalconstitutionwhereitfilledouteverythingwithscience,legality,andinfluenceonthemannerofthought,becameeverywhereindispensableand,sotospeak,thesoulofcenturieswhosebodywasnothingbutwarlikespiritHerderactuallywritesTeig,“dough,”butthecontextseemstorequirethatweunderstandthisasorreadSauerteig,“leaven.”\nPhilosophyofHistoryandslavishagriculture–couldanothersoulthanworshiphavebondedthoselimbs,haveenlivenedthatbody?Ifthebodyhadbeendecidedoninfate’scouncil,whatfoolishnesstofantasizeaboutthisbody’sspiritoutsidethespiritoftheage!Itwas,itseemstome,thesolemeansofprogress!Towhomhasitnotbecomeapparenthowineachcenturyso-called“Christianity”entirelyhadtheshapeoforanalogywiththeconstitutionwithorinwhichitexisted!HowpreciselythesameGothicspiritalsopenetratedtheinsideandoutsideofthechurch,formedclothesandceremonies,doctrinesandtemples,sharpenedthebishop’scrosierintoaswordwheneveryoneworeswords,andcreatedpriests’livings,fiefs,andslavesbecausesuchwerealltherewaseverywhere.Letoneimaginetooneselffromcenturytocenturythosemonstrousinstitutionsofpriestlyofficesofhonor,monasteries,monasticorders,finallylaterevencrusadesandtheclearruleovertheworld–monstrousGothicstructure!,over-freighted,oppressive,dark,tasteless–theearthseemstosinkbeneathit–buthowgreat!,rich!,roofedoverwiththought[uberdacht]¨!,mighty!–Iamspeakingofahistoricalevent!AmiracleofthehumanspiritandcertainlyProvidence’stool.IftheGothicbodywithitsfermentationsandfrictionsstirredupforcesatall,thencertainlythesoulthatenlivenedandbondeditmadeitsowncontribution.IfthroughthatbodyamixtureofhighconceptsandinclinationsgotdisseminatedinEurope,neveryeteffectedinthatmixtureandinthatscope,thencertainlythesoulwasweavingitsworkinthistoo.Andwithoutmybeingabletogointothevariousperiodsofthespiritofthemiddleageshere,wewanttocallitGothicspirit,northernchivalryinthebroadestsense–greatphenomenonofsomanycenturies,lands,andsituations.Inacertainsensestill“aggregateofallthoseinclinationswhichpre-viouslyindividualpeoplesandperiodshaddeveloped.”Theycanevenbedissolvedintothese,buttheeffectiveelementwhichbondedthemallandTheworduberdacht¨isapun;itcouldmeaneither()thoughtthrough,or()roofedover.HerderactuallywritesderGeist,“thespirit,”butnote()hehadwrittentwoparagraphsago“couldanothersoulthanworshiphavebondedthoselimbs,haveenlivenedthatbody?”(emphasischanged),and()intheverynextsentenceheusesthefemininesingularpronounsieinawaythatiswithoutanyclearreferenceandismostnaturallyexplainedintermsofhishavingmeanttowritedieSeelehere.Herdersimplywritessie,whosereferenceisquiteunclear.IthinktheexplanationisprettyclearlythathethoughtthathehadjustwrittendieSeeleintheprecedingsentenceratherthanderGeist.BrummackandBollacherinsteadtakethereferenceofsietobetoProvidence,butthisseemslessplausible.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()madethemallintoalivingcreatureofGodisnolongerthesameineachindividualone.Paternalinclinationsandholyreveringofthefemalesex;inextinguishableloveoffreedomanddespotism;religionandwarlikespirit;scrupulousorderandsolemnityandstrangepartialityforadventure–thisflowedtogether!,Oriental,Roman,Northern,Saracenconceptsandin-clinations!–oneknowswhen,where,andinwhatmeasuretheythenandthereflowedtogetherandmodifiedthemselves.–Thespiritofthecenturywovethroughandbonded–themostdiverseproperties–braveryandmonkery,adventureandgalantry,tyrannyandnobilityofmind–bondeditintothewholewhichnowforus–betweentheRomansandourselves–standsthereasaghost,asromanticadventure–[but]onceuponatimeitwasnature,itwas...truth.Thisspirit“ofnorthernknightlyhonor”hasbeencomparedwiththeheroictimesoftheGreeksk–andindeedpointsofcomparisonhavebeenfound.Butinitselfthisspiritremains,itseemstome,unique!inthesequenceofallthecenturies–onlylikeitself!IthasbeensoterriblymockedbecauseitstandsbetweentheRomansandourselves–quantiviri!–ourselves!;otherswithasomewhatfancifulbrainhaveraiseditsohighovereverything.Itseemstomethatitisnothingmoreorlessthanan“individualconditionoftheworld!”tobecomparedwithnoneofthepreceding,likethemwithitsadvantagesanddisadvantages,groundedonthem,itselfineternalalterationandstrivingforth–towardsagreaterwhole.Thedarksidesofthisperiodoftimeareregisteredinallthebooks:everyclassicalhumanist[Sch¨ondenker]whoconsidersourcentury’sciviladministrationthenonplusultraofhumanityhasanopportunitytoreducewholecenturiestobarbarism,miserablestateauthority,superstitionandstupidity,lackofethicsandtastelessness–inschools,incountryseats,intemples,inmonasteries,intownhalls,inartisans’guilds,inhutsandhouses,andtoraveaboutourcentury’slight,thatis,aboutitssuperficialityandunrestraint,aboutitswarmthinideasanditscoldnessinactions,aboutitsseemingstrengthandfreedom,andaboutitsrealweakness-unto-deathandexhaustionunderunbelief,despotism,andluxury.AllthebooksofourVoltaireandHume,Robertson’sandIselin’s,arefullofthis,anditbecomeskHurd,LettersonChivalry[andRomance()].Whatmeasureofmen!Theultimate.TheprecedingsentenceandthefirstpartofthisoneprovidegoodexamplesofHerder’scommonpracticeofvaryingthepatternsofhislists,ratherthanstickingtosomesingleorfewconventional\nPhilosophyofHistorysuchabeautiful[sch¨on]picturehowtheyderivetheenlightenmentandimprovementoftheworldfromthetimesofgloomuptothedeismanddespotismofsouls,i.e.uptophilosophyandtranquillity,thattheheartofeveryloverofhisagelaughsincontemplatingit.Allthatistrueandnottrue.Trueif,likeachild,oneholdscoloragainstcolorandofcoursewantstohavealight,brightlittleimage–inourcen-turythereis,unfortunately!,somuchlight!Untruthifoneregardsthatage,initsessenceandpurposes,enjoymentandethics,inparticularasatoolinthecourseoftime.Thereoftenlaythereintheseseeminglyviolentepisodesandconnectionssomethingfirm,bonding,noble,andsuperiorwhichwe,withour–Godbepraised!–refinedethics,dissolvedguildsand,tocompensate,boundlands,andinnatecleverness,andloveofpeo-plesrighttotheendoftheearth,trulyneitherfeelnorscarcelyanylongercanfeel.Behold,youmakemockofthatage’sserfdom,oftheprimitivecountryseatsofthenobility,ofthemanysmallislandsandsubdivisionsandwhatdependedonthem–youpraisenothingsomuchasthedissolutionofthesebonds,andyouknownogreatergoodthateverhappenedtohumanitythanwhenEuropeandwithittheworldbecamefree.Becamefree?Sweetdreamer!,ifitwereonlythat,andifonlythatweretrue!Butnowbeholdalsohowthroughthatconditioninthosetimesthingswereachievedoverwhichotherwiseallhumanclevernesswouldneces-sarilyhaveprovedstupid:Europepopulatedandcultivated;racesandfamilies,lordandserf,kingandsubject,pressedmorestronglyandclosertogether;theso-calledprimitivecountryseatspreventedtheluxurious,un-healthygrowthofthecities,oftheseabyssesforhumanity’slife-forces;thelackoftradeandofrefinementpreventedunrestraintandpreservedsimplehumanity–chastityandfecundityinmarriages,povertyandindustryandcompressiontogetherinhouses.Theprimitiveguildsandfreebaroniespro-ducedknight’sandartisan’spride,butsimultaneouslyrelianceononeself,firmnessinone’scircle,manlinessinone’scenter,fendedofftheworstafflic-tionofhumanity,theyokeoflandandsoul,underwhich,obviously,sincealltheislandshavebeendissolved,everyonesinkswithahappyandfreespirit.Thenofcourseinsomewhatlatertimessomanywarlikerepublicspattern(s),suchas“a,b,c,andd.”Hismotivesforthisaremainlyaesthetic–inparticularhewantstoavoidtheboringpredictabilityofdoingthelatter.Herdermeansustoaskourselveshere:Injoyorinridicule?ThelasttwotermshoverintheGermanasintheEnglishbetweenconnotationsofhighsocialstatusandofhighmoralqualities.Readingh¨atteforhatte.Orpossibly:built.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()andvaliantlyself-defendingcitieswereabletoarisethere!;oncetherehadbeenplanted,nurtured,andraisedthroughfrictiontheforceswhich,insadremains,youstillnowlivefrom.Ifheavenhadnotsentyouthebarbaricperiodsbeforehandandpreservedthemundersuchmanifoldmissilesandblows–poor,civillyadministeredEuropethateatsorexpelsitschildren,howwouldyoubewithallyourwisdom?–awasteland!“Thatitshouldbeunintelligibletoanyoneintheworldhowlightdoesnotnourishhumanbeings!,howtranquillityandluxuryandso-calledfreedomofthoughtcanneverbeuniversalhappinessandvocation!”Butsensation,movement,action–evenifsubsequentlywithoutpurpose(whatonthestageofhumanityhasaneternalpurpose?),evenifwithblowsandrevolutions,evenifwithsensationswhichhereandtherebecomefanati-cal,violent,evenawful–asatoolinthehandsofthecourseoftime,whatpower!,whateffect!Heartandnotheadnourished!Everythingbondedwithinclinationsanddrives,notwithsicklythoughts!Worshipandknightlyhonor,boldnessinloveandcitizenlystrength–stateconstitutionandlegisla-tion,religion.–Iwouldratherdoanythingthandefendtheeternalpeoples’migrationsanddevastations,vassal-warsandfights,monks’armies,pil-grimages,crusades–Iwouldonlyliketoexplainthem–howspiritbreathesineverything,though!,fermentationofhumanforces.Agreatcureofthewholespeciesthroughviolentmovement,andifImayspeaksoboldly,fatewoundup(certainlywithagreatdinandwithouttheweightsbeingabletohangtherepeacefully)thegreatwound-downclock!Sothewheelsrattledthere!HowdifferentlyIseethetimesinthislight!Howmuch[Isee]toforgivethem,sinceIseethemasthemselvesreallyalwaysfightingagainstshortcom-ings,strugglingforimprovement,andtrulythemmorethananothertime!Howmanyslandersdownrightfalseandexaggerated,sinceabuseseithergetfictionallyattributedtothemoutofanalienbrainorareoneswhichwereinthosedaysfarmilderandlessavoidable,compensatedforthemselveswithagoodontheotherside,orwhichwealreadynowclearlyperceiveastoolsforgreatgoodinthefuturethattheydidnotthemselvesthinkof.Whoreadsthishistoryanddoesnotoftencry“Inclinationsandvirtuesofhonorandfreedom,ofloveandbravery,ofpolitenessandword,whereareyounow!”Yourdepthscloggedwithslime!YoursolidityasoftbedofsandHerderactuallywritesthesingularihrratherthanthepluralihnen,inaslidefromthepluralintothesingularthatalreadybeganintheprecedingsentence:sie...mehralseineandere.Readingfremdemforfremden.\nPhilosophyofHistoryfullofgrainsofsilverwherenothinggrows!Howeveritmaybe,giveusinmanyrespectsyourworshipandsuperstition,darknessandignorance,disor-derandprimitivenessinethics,andtakeourlightandunbelief,ourenervatedcoldnessandrefinement,ourphilosophicalexhaustednessandhumanmisery!–Fortherest,though,certainly,mountainandvalleymustborderoneachother,andthedark,solidvaultcould–benothingbutadark,solidvault–Gothic!Agiganticstepinthecourseofhumanfate!Evenifwemerelytookitthatcorruptionsprecedeinordertoproduceimprovement,order–agreatstep!Inordertoyieldthatlight,suchagreatshadowwasnecessary;theknotneededtobetiedsofirmlyinorderthatafterwardstheunfoldingmightoccur;wasfermentationnotnecessaryinordertoyieldtheyeastless,pure,divinedrink?–itseemstomethatthiswouldfollowimmediatelyfrom“thepetphilosophy”ofthecentury.Youcanofcourseprovesplendidlytherehowsomanycornershadfirsttobeviolentlygrounddownbeforetheround,smooth,nicethingthatwearecouldappear!,howinthechurchsomanyoutrages,errors,bitsoftastelessness,andblasphemieshadtoprecede,allthosecenturieshadtostruggle,cryout,andstriveforimprovement,beforeyourReformationorlight,brightlyshiningdeismcouldarise.Theevilartofpoliticshadtorunthroughthewheelofallitsevilsandawfuldeedsbeforeour“artofpolitics”inthewholescopeofthetermmightappear,likethemorningsunfromnightandfog.–Still,therefore,abeautifulpicture,orderandprogressofnature,andyoushiningphilosopherofcourseontheshouldersofall!ButnotathinginthewholeofGod’srealm,amIabletopersuademyselfthough!,isonlymeans–everythingmeansandpurposesimultane-ously,andhencecertainlythesecenturies[areso]too.Ifthebloomofthespiritoftheage,“thesenseofchivalry,”wasinitselfalreadyaproductofthewholepastinthesolidformofthenorth,ifthemixtureofconceptsofhonorandloveandfaithfulnessandworshipandbraveryandchastitywhichwasnowtheidealhadpreviouslybeenunheardof,thenbeholdinthis,incomparisonwiththeancientworld,sincethestrengthofeachindividualnationalcharacterhadbeenlost,beholdpreciselyinthismixtureasubstituteandprogresstowardsagreaterwhole.FromtheOrienttoRomeitwastribalstem;nowbranchesandtwigscameforthfromthetribalstem–noneoftheminitselffirmlikethestembutmoreextensive,airier,higher!Despiteallthebarbarism,thecognitionswhichgottreatedscholasticallyweresubtlerandhigher,thesensationswhichgotappliedbarbarouslyandinapriestlyway\nThisTooaPhilosophy()weremoreabstractandhigher–fromthesetwothingsflowedtheethics,theirimage.Suchareligion,miserableasitstilllooked,hadnonethelessscarcelybeenknowntoanyagebefore;eventhesubtleraspectoftheTurkishreligion,withwhichourdeistscredititsohighly,hadonlyarisen“throughtheChristianreligion,”andeventhemostmiserablesophistriesofmonkery,themostfancifulimaginings,showthattherewasenoughsubtletyandskillintheworldtothinkout,tograsp,suchthings–thatpeoplereallyinearnestbegantobreatheinsuchasubtleelement.PoperycouldafterallneverhaveexistedinGreeceorancientRome,notmerelyduetothecauseswhichpeopleusuallylooktobutreallyalsobecauseoftheprimor-dialsimplicity,becauseforsucharefinedsystemtherewasnotyetanysense,anyspace–andthepoperyofancientEgyptwasatleastcertainlyamuchcruderandmoreclumsymachine.Suchformsofgovernment–despiteallGothictaste,theyhadnonethelessscarcelyyetexistedbefore–withtheideaofbarbarousorderingfromtheelementupwardsuptothepeak,withtheeverchangedattemptstobond[binden]everythinginsuchawaythatitwouldnonethelessnotbeinbondage[gebunden].–Contingency,orrather,primitivelyandfreelyoperatingforce,exhausteditselfinsmallformsofthegreatformsuchasapoliticiancouldhardlyhavethoughtout:chaos,inwhichallstroveforanew,highercreationwithoutknowinghowandinwhatform.–Theworksofthespiritandofgeniusfromthesetimesareofthesamekind,entirelyfullofthecompositescentofalltimes–toofullofbeauties,ofsubtleties,ofinvention,ofordertoremainbeauty,order,invention–theyareliketheGothicbuildings!Andifthespiritreachesrightdowntothesmallestinstitutionsandcustoms,isitwrongifthecrownoftheoldtribalstemshouldstillappearinthesecenturies?(Nolongertribalstem–itwasnotsupposedtobeandcouldnotbethat–butcrown!)Preciselytheaspectofnon-unity,theaspectofconfusion,therichexcessofbranchesandtwigs–thisconstitutesthisspirit’snature!Therehangthebloomsofthespiritofchivalry;thereatsomefuturetime,whenthestormblowsofftheleaves,willhangthemorebeautifulfruits.Somanybrothernationsandnomonarchyontheearth!–Eachbranchfromhere,sotospeak,awhole–andsentforthitstwigs!;allofthemsentforth[theirtwigs]besideeachother,wove,tangledtogether,eachwithitssap.–Thismultiplicityofkings’realms!,thisexisting-alongside-each-otherofbrothercommunities–allofoneGermanrace,allinaccordancewithoneidealofconstitution,allinfaithinonereligion,eachfightingwithitselfandwithitsmembers,andalmostinvisiblybutverypenetratinglydrivenand\nPhilosophyofHistorymovedbyoneholywind,papalrespect.–Howthetreeisshaken!Whither,oncrusadesandconversionsofpeoples,hasitnotcastbranches,bloom,andtwigs!–IftheRomansintheirsubjugationoftheearthhadhadtohelpthepeoples,notintheoptimalway,toatype“ofinternationallawofpeoplesanduniversalrecognitionoftheRomans”–thepapacywithallitsviolencebecameinthehandoffatethemachinefora“stillhigherconnection,fortheuniversalrecognitionofpeoplewhoshouldbeChristians!,brothers!,humanbeings!”Thesongcertainlyrosethroughdiscordsandscreechingtuningstoahighernote:certain,several,collected,abstracted,fermentedideas,inclinations,andconditionsspreadthemselvesoutovertheworld–howtheoneancient,simpletribalstemofthehumanspeciesbrokeoutintobranchesandtwigs!∗Finallytherefollowed,aswesay,thedissolution,theunfolding:long,eternalnightenlighteneditselfintomorning,therearoseReformation,Renaissanceofthearts,sciences,ethics!–theyeastsankandtherearose–ourthought!,culture!,philosophy!–oncommenc¸aitapensercommenous`pensonsaujourd’hui;onn’etaitplusbarbare.´Notemporalpointintheunfoldingofthehumanspirithasbeenmorebeautifullydescribedthanthis!–sinceallourhistories,discourspreliminaires´totheencyclopediaofallhumanknowledge,andphiloso-phiespointtoit,landfromeastandwest,fromthebeginningandyesterday,allthethreadsthataredrawnout,orthatwaveintheheadlikeautumnalcobwebs,knowtodrawtowardsitasthehighestpeakofhumanciviliza-tion[Bildung].Andsincethesystemisnowalreadysobrilliant,famous,lovinglyaccepted,andcompletelyevident,Idaretoaddnothing–Imerelysetafewsmallnotesalongside.lHume,TheHistoryofEngland[(–)],andVermischteSchriften[MiscellaneousWritings(Germaned.)];Robertson’sHistoryofScotland[DuringtheReignsofQueenMaryandKingJamesVIuntilhisAccessiontotheCrownofEngland()],and[HistoryoftheReignoftheEmperor]CharlesV[()];D’Alembert,Melangesdelitt´erature,[d’histoire,]etdephilosophie´[MiscellanyofLiterature,ofHistory,andofPhilosophy()];Iselin’s[VersuchphilosophischerMutmaßungenuberdieGeschichtederMenschheit[AttemptatPhilosophicalConjecturesonthe¨HistoryofHumanity()],vol.,[and]VermischteSchriften[MiscellaneousWritings()],andwhatlimpsandbabblesinimitationofthis.Peoplebegantothinkaswethinktoday;peoplewerenolongerbarbarians.Preliminarydiscourses.(ThisisanallusiontoD’Alembert’sDiscourspr´eliminairetoDiderot’sEncyclopedia.)Readinghinzuzusetzenforhinzusetzen.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()I.Firstofall,Imustsayconcerningtheexcessivelyhighrenownofthehumanunderstandingmthat,ifImayputthematterso,ithadlessandlesseffectinthisuniversalalterationoftheworldthanablindfatethatcastandguidedthings.Eithertheyweresuchgreat,sotospeak,cast-fortheventswhichwentbeyondallhumanforcesandprospects,whichhumanbeingsusuallyresisted,wherenoone[even]dreamedoftheconsequencesasaconsideredplan,ortheyweresmallaccidentalhappenings,morefindsthaninventions,applicationsofathingthatonehadhadforalongtimeandnotseen,notused–ornothingatallbutasimplemechanism,newknack,manualskill,thatchangedtheworld.Philosophersoftheeighteenthcentury,ifthatisso,thenwheredoesthatleaveyouridolatrytowardsthehumanspirit?WholaidoutVenicehereinthisplaceunderthedeepestpressureofnecessity?AndwhothoughtthroughwhatthisVenice,onlyinthisplace,couldandshouldbeforallpeopleoftheearthforawholemillennium?Thepersonwhocastthissoundofislandsintothemarsh,wholedthesefewfishermenthere,wasthesameashewhomakesfalltheseedsothatatthistimeandinthisplaceanoakmaygrow,hewhoplantedthehutbytheTibersothatRome,theeternalcapitaloftheworld,mightdevelopfromit.Itispreciselythesamepersonwhoatonetimebringsalongbarbarianssothattheyshoulddestroytheliteratureofthewholeworld,thelibraryatAlexandria(sotospeak,asinkingpartoftheworld!),andatanothertimebringsalongjustthesamebarbarianssothattheyshouldbeg,preserve,asmallremnantofliteratureandconveyittoEuropeonaquitedifferentside,onpathsthatnoonehaddreamedorwished.Justthesamepersonwhoatanothertimeonanothersidemakesanimperialcitybedestroyedbythemsothatthesciences,whichnoonesoughtthereandwhichhadbeensolongidlethere,mightfleetoEurope...Everythingisgreatfate!,neitherthoughtthrough,norhopedfor,noreffectedbyhumanbeings.Doyounotsee,youant,thatyouonlycrawlonthegreatwheelofdestiny?mGloiredel’esprithumain,sesprogres,r`evolutions,sond´eveloppement,sacr´eation,etc.[Gloryof´thehumanspirit,itsstepsofprogress,revolutions,itsdevelopment,itscreation,etc.]I.e.God.Readingdaßfordas.Herderherefollowsthe–nolongergenerallyaccepted–viewthatthedecisivedestructionoftheLibraryoccurredatthehandsoftheArabsundertheCalifOmarin/.ThisreferstotheArabs’communicationofGreekscienceandphilosophytoEuropeviaSpain.Constantinople,whichwasconqueredbytheTurksin,therebyleadingtotheflightofGreekscholarstoItaly.\nPhilosophyofHistoryWhenwepenetratemorecloselyintothecircumstancesoftheoriginsofallso-calledworldilluminations,thesamething.Thereonalargescale,hereonasmall,contingency,fate,deity!Whatbeganeveryreformationwassmallthingswhichneverhadfromthestartthegreat,monstrousplanthattheywonafterwards–bycontrast,asoftenastherehadbeenthegreat,reallyconsidered,humanplanbeforehand,itfailed.Allyourgreatchurchcouncils,youemperors!,kings!,cardinalsandlordsoftheworld!,willneverchangeanything,butthisunrefined,ignorantmonk,Luther,isdestinedtoaccomplishit!Andthatfromsmallthingsinrelationtowhichhehimselfanythingbutthinkssofarahead!,throughmeanswithwhichinthemannerofourage,speakingphilosophically,suchathingcouldneverbeaccomplished!,forthemostparthehimselfaccomplishingtheleastpart,onlyheimpelledothers,awakenedreformersinalltheotherlands,hestoodupandsaid“Imakeamove!Thereforethereismovement!”–thatishowwhatcameaboutcameabout.Atransformationoftheworld!HowoftensuchLuthershadearlierrisenupand–sunk.Theirmouthsstoppedupwithsmokeandflames,ortheirworddidnotyetfindanyopenairtoresoundin–butnowitisspringtime;theearthopensup,thesunincubates,andathousandnewplantsemerge...Humanbeing,youwereonlyever,almostcontrarytoyourwill,asmall,blindtool.“Whydidnot”criesoutthegentlephilosopher“eachsuchreformation,rather!,happenwithoutarevolution?Thehumanspiritshouldjusthavebeenallowedtofollowitsquietcourseinsteadof,asactuallyhappened,passionsinthestormofactiongivingbirthtonewprejudices,andevilbeingexchangedforevil.”–Answer!:becausesuchaquietcourseofprogressofthehumanspiritfortheimprovementoftheworldishardlyanythingbutaphantomofourheads,neverGod’scourseinnature.Thisseedfallsintotheearth!,thereitliesandbecomeshard;butnowthesuncomestoawakenit,thenitsplitsopen,thechambersswellapartviolently,itbreaksthroughtheground–thusbloom,thusfruit.Hardlyeventhehorribletoadstoolgrowsasyoudreamitdoes.Thebasisofeveryreformationwasalwaysjustsuchasmallseed,fellquietlyintotheearth,hardlyworthtalkingabout;humanbeingshadalreadyhaditforalongtime,sawitandpaidnoheedtoit–butnowinclinations,ethics,aworldofhabitsaredestinedtobechanged,createdanew,throughit–isthatpossibleI.e.cardinalsandpopes.Readingnichtsfornicht.Literally,andheresignificantly:free.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()withoutrevolution,withoutpassionandmovement?WhatLuthersaidhadlongbeenknown,butnowLuthersaidit!RogerBacon,Galileo,Descartes,Leibniz–whentheyinvented[erfanden],thingswerequiet;therewasarayoflight–buttheirinventionsweredestinedtobreakthrough,todoawaywithopinions,tochangetheworld–therearosestormandflame.Evenifthereformeralwayshadpassionswhichthematter,thescience,didnotitselfrequire,theintroductionofthematterrequiredthem,andpreciselythefactthathehadthem,hadenoughinordernowtogetthroughanothingtowhitherwholecenturieshadnotbeenabletogetbyinstitutions,machineries,andponderings–preciselythatisawarrantforhisvocation!“Mostlyjustsimple,mechanicalinventionswhichhadinpartbeenseen,possessed,playedwith,foralongtime,butwhichnowthroughabrightideaappliedinthiswayandnototherwisetransformedtheworld.”Thus,forexample,theapplicationofglassforoptics,ofthemagnetforthecompass,ofgunpowderforwar,oftheartofbookprintingforthesciences,ofcalculusforacompletelynewmathematicalworld–andeverythingtookonanewshape.Thetoolhadbeentransformed,aplacehadbeenfoundoutsidetheoldworld,andthusthisoldworldgotmovedahead.Theguninvented!,andbehold,theoldbraveryofTheseuses,Spartans,Romans,knights,andgiantsisgone–warisdifferent,andhowmuchisdifferentwiththisdifferentwar!Bookprintinginvented!,andtowhatagreatextenttheworldofthesciencesischanged!,facilitatedanddisseminated!,becomelightandlevel!Everyonecanread,spell–everyonewhocanreadgetstaught.Withthelittleneedleontheocean–whocancounttherevolutionsinallpartsoftheworldthathavebeeneffectedwiththis?Landsdiscovered,somuchlargerthanEurope!Coastsconqueredfullofgold,silver,gemstones,spices,anddeath!Humanbeingsmadeconvertsinto,orcultivatedinto,mines,slave-mills,andviciousethics!Europedepopulated,consumedinitsmostsecretforceswithdiseasesandluxury–whocancount!,whodescribe!Newethics,inclinations,virtues,vices–whocancountandde-scribe?ThewheelinwhichforthreecenturiestheworldhasmovedisOr:discovered.(TheprecedinglistofnamessuggeststhatHerderisthinkinginpartofdiscoveriesaswellasinventions,thoughtheemphasisinwhatfollowsiscertainlyoninventions.)HerderishereechoingthefamoussayingattributedtoArchimedes,whichhealsocitesinOntheCognitionandSensationoftheHumanSoulandelsewhere:“GivemeapointoutsidetheworldandIwillmovetheworld.”\nPhilosophyofHistoryendless–andwhatdiditturnon?,whatimpelledit?–theneedle-pointoftwoorthreemechanicalthoughts!II.Preciselyforthisreasonitmustfollowthatalargepartofthisso-callednewcivilization[Bildung]isitselfrealmechanics–morecloselyinvestigated,towhatanextentthismechanicsturnsouttobeourmodernspirit!Ifforthemostpartnewmethodsineverytypeandarttransformedtheworld–newmethodsmadesuperfluousforceswhichwerepreviouslynec-essary,butwhichnow–sinceeveryunusedforcesleeps!–intimegotlost.Certainvirtuesofthescienceofwar,ofcivillife,ofshipping,ofgovernment–theywerenolongerneeded;thereemergedamachine,andonlyonemangovernsthemachine.Withonethought!,withonesign!–andincom-pensationhowmanyforcessleep!Theguninvented,andtherebywhatsinewsofprimitive,bodilywar-strength,andsoul-war-strength,bravery,faithfulness,presenceofmindinindividualcases,feelingforhonorthatbelongedtotheoldworldexhausted!Thearmybecameahired,thought-less,forceless,will-lessmachinewhichonemandirectsinhishead,andwhichheonlypaysasapuppetofmovement,alivingwall,tothrowbulletsandcatchbullets.Henceatbottom,aRomanorSpartanwouldperhapssay,virtuesintheinnermosthearthoftheheartburnedoff,andawreathofmilitaryhonorwithered–andwhatreplacesthem?;thesoldieristhefirstpaidservantofthestateinahero’slivery–beholdhishonorandhisvocation!Heis...andwithlittleefforttheremainsofindividualexistencesexploded–theoldGothicformsoffreedom,classes,andproperty,thismis-erablebuildinginbadtaste!,shotintothegroundanddestroyed,getssotightlyblocked[blockiert]initssmallruinsthatland,inhabitant,citizen,fatherlandisnodoubtsometimessomething,butlordandserf,despotandliveriedservantineveryoffice,vocation,andclass–fromthefarmertotheministerandfromtheministertothepriest–iseverything.Itiscalledsovereignty!,refinedstatecraft!,newphilosophicalformofgovernment!–anditreallyisthis.Theprince’shatandcrownofmoderncenturies–onwhatdotheyrest!–asthatmostfamoussun-eagleonallourcoinsshows,ondrums,flags,bullets,andever-readysoldiers’caps.Herderseemsheretobeusingthisverbinthedoublesense()dividedintoblocks(anunusualsense)and()blockedup(ausualsense).Thegeneraloverallideaisoneofmanylittlepositionsinsocietythatarejammedtogethersothattheyhavenofreedomofmovementbutareunderconstantmechanicalconstraint.HerderisreferringheretothecoinsofFredericktheGreat,whichfromonshowedonthereversethePrussianeagleoverandbeforewarimplements,includingdrums,flags,soldiers’caps,andcannons.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()Thespiritofmodernphilosophy–thatitmustbemechanicsinmorethanonewayisshown,Ithink,bythegreaterpartofitschildren.Despitetheirphilosophyandlearning,oftenhowignorantandforcelessinmattersoflifeandofthehealthyunderstanding!Insteadofthephilosophicalspiritasinancienttimesneverexistingforitselfalone,beginningfromoccupationsandrushingtooccupations,andhencealsoonlyhavingthepurposeofcreatingfull,healthy,effectivesouls,sinceitstandsaloneandhasbecomeatrade–itisatrade.Thehowevermanyethpartofyouconsiderslogic,metaphysics,moraltheory,physicsaswhattheyare–organsofthehumansoul,toolswithwhichoneshouldtakeeffect!,exemplarymodelsofthought-formswhicharejustsupposedtogiveoursoulamorebeautifulthought-formthatbelongstoit.Instead,apersonbeatshisthoughtsintothesemechanically,plays,andjuggles–thestrangestofpugilisticfellows!Hedanceswithhisdaggerontheacademictightropetotheadmirationandjoyofallwhositaroundandcheeratthegreatartistthathemaynotbreakhisneckandleg–thisishisart.Anoccupationintheworld–ifyouwanttoseeitbadlytakencareof,thengiveittothephilosopher!Onpaperhowpure!,howgentle!,howbeautifulandgreat–buthopelessinexecution!,ateachstepamazedandstaringfrozenbeforeunseenobstaclesandconsequences.Meanwhile,thechildwasreallyagreatphilosopher,couldcalculateandplaywithsyllogisms,figures,andinstrumentsfluently,oftensohappilythatnewsyllogisms,results,andso-calleddiscoveriesemerged–thefruit,thehonor,thepeakofthehumanspirit!–throughmechanicalplay!Thatwasthemoredifficultphilosophy–andnowtheeasyone,thebeautifulone!Godbepraised!,whatismoremechanicalthanthis?Insci-ences,arts,habits,modeoflifeintowhichithaspenetrated,whereitisthesapandbloomofthecentury,whatmoremechanicalthanit?Preciselyancienttradition,thesenselessprejudiceoflearning,slowmaturation,deeppenetration,andlatejudgment,ithasofcoursecastofflikeayokefromtheneck!,hasbroughttoourjudicialbars,insteadofsmall,dusty,detailedknowledgeinwhicheachincidentissupposedtobetreatedandinves-tigatedasthatwhichitis–hasbroughtintothemwhatabeautiful,easy,freejudgment,oneofmeasuringanddealingwitheverythinginlightoftwoincidents!,ofsticking–passingbeyondwhatisindividual,inwhichaloneconsistsspeciesfacti–tothebright,splendiduniversal,ofbeing,insteadThisisalegalexpressionconnoting“therepresentationofacontroversialmatterasitexistsinallitscircumstances”(Zedler).\nPhilosophyofHistoryofajudgeaphilosopher(bloomofthecentury!).Hasbroughtintoourstateeconomicsandscienceofgovernment,insteadoflaboriouslyachievedknowledgeoftheneedsandtrueconditionoftheland,whataneagle’seye!,whatavisionofthewhole,asthoughonamapandaphilosophicaltable!HasdevelopedfirstprinciplesthroughthemouthofMontesquieu,fromandaccordingtowhichahundreddiversepeoplesandregionsgetcalculatedex-temporeintwomomentsaccordingtotheone-times-oneofpolitics.–Thusallfinearts,manualtrades,andalmostthesmallestdaylabors–whoneedstoclamberabout,towork,laboriouslyintheirdepthsasinavaultedcellar?Onerationalizes!Dictionariesandphilosophiesaboutallofthem,withoutunderstandingasingleoneofthemwiththetoolinone’shand.Theyhaveoneandallbecomeabreg´eraisonn´e´oftheirformerpedantry–abstractedspirit!,philosophy[made]outoftwothoughts–themostmechanicalthingintheworld.DoIhavetoprovewhatanoble,mechanicalthingmodernwitis?Doesthereexistamoreformedlanguageandsententialform,thatis,amorenarrowlastforthoughts,formodeoflife,forgeniusandtaste,thaninthecaseofthepeoplefromwhommodernwithasspreadintheworldmostbrilliantlyunderahundredshapes?Whatdramahasbecomemorethepuppetofabeautifulregularity–whatmodeoflifemoretheapingofalight,mechanicalpoliteness,gaiety,andverbalornamentation–whatphilosophymorethedisplayoffewsentimentsandatreatmentofeverythingintheworldaccordingtothesesentiments,thanthese...apesofhumanity,ofgenius,ofhappiness,ofvirtue?Andpreciselybecausetheyarenothingbutthis,andcanbesoeasilyapedinturn,theyarethisforallofEurope.III.Thenceitofcoursenowbecomesreadilyintelligibletowards“whichcenter”thiscivilization[Bildung]strivesandevergetsguided:“philosophy!,thought!–easiermechanics!,rationalizingthatreachesrightdowntotheCriticalsummary,epitome.Inmanuscriptathisparagraphreads,moresuccinctly:“Thespiritofphilosophy,whichhaspenetratedintoallsciences,arts,habits,houses,andtradesfromwhatsmallbeginnings–whathasitnotchangedanddestroyed.Tradition,meaninglessprejudice,paternalethicsthrownlikeayokefromtheneck;whatbeautiful,easy,freejudgment,whatclevernessandgoodsense,broughttoourjudicialbarsinsteadofsmall,dusty,detailedknowledge!Instateeconomicsandthescienceofgovernment,insteadofknowledgeattainedwitheffort,whatan[reading:welcher]eagle’seye,whataviewoftheneedsofthelandasthoughonamapandaphilosophicaltableorontheone-times-oneofananalysisinthemostbeautifulsystematicmanner,arisen.Thusarts,manualtrades,andvirtuallythesmallestdaylabors–theyareanabreg´eraisonn´eoftheirformereffort,´precision,andorder.Thisishowtheworldhasmadethingseasierforitselfandimproveditself.”I.e.theFrench.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()foundationpillarsofsocietywhichformerlyjuststoodandcarried!”AndheretooIcanintensortsofwayshardlyunderstandhowthiscanbesouniversallyanduniquelyrationalizedasthepeakandpurposeofallhumancivilization,ofallhappiness,ofallgood.Isthewholebodydestinedtosee,then?Andifhandandfootwanttobeeyeandbrainmustnotthewholebodysuffer?Rationalizingspreadtoocarelessly,toouselessly–coulditnotweaken,andhasitnotreallyweakened,inclination,drive,activityforliving?Neverthelessnow,thisexhaustionmaywellbecomfortableforthespiritofsomelands:exhaustedlimbshavetogoon,havenoforcesexcept...forexample,forcounterthought.Eachcogremainsinitsplacefromfearorhabitorluxuryandphilosophy,andwhat,then,ismanyagreatphilosophy-governedflockbutaforced-togetherpile–livestockandwood!Theythink!,perhapsthinkinggetsspreadabroadamongthem–uptoapoint,sothatfromdaytodaytheyfeelthemselvesmorethanamachine,butfeelaccordingtogivenprejudices,learntogrind,andmustgoon.Theygrind–butalas,theycandonothingbutgrind,andcomfortthemselveswithfreethinking[Freidenken].Dear,weak,annoying,uselessfreethinking–substituteforeverythingthattheyperhapsneededmore:heart!,warmth!,blood!,humanity!,life!Nowleteachpersoncalculate.Lightinfinitelyincreasedandspreadabroad,whileinclination,driveforliving,isdisproportionatelyweakened!Ideasofuniversalloveofhumanity,ofpeoples,ofenemiesincreased!,andthewarmfeelingoffather’s,mother’s,brother’s,child’s,friend’sinclinationsinfinitelyweakened!Firstprinciplesoffreedom,honor,virtuespreadsofarandwidethateverypersonrecognizesthemmostclearly,thatincertainlandseveryonerightdowntothemostinsignificanthasthemonhistongueandlips–andeachofthematthesametimeboundwiththeworstchainsofcowardice,shame,luxury,servility,andmiserableplanlessness.Handyknacksandfacilitationsinfinitelyspread–butallthesehandyknacksconvergeintothehandofonepersonorseveralpeople,whoistheonlyonetothink;forthemachine,thedesiretolive,totakeeffect,toliveinahumanlynobleandbeneficialway,withpleasure,hasdisappeared.DoesthemachineOrpossibly:sothattheyfeelthemselvesmorefromdaytodayasamachine.ThesenseofFreidenkenhereismainly()freedomofthought,butHerderisalsoblendingwiththisthesense()freethinking(i.e.religiousagnosticismoratheism).Thereferenceherecouldbeeithertothefirstprinciplesortothepeopleinquestion.\nPhilosophyofHistoryliveanylonger?Inthewholeandinthesmallestpart,thesolethoughtofthemaster.Isthis,then,thebeautifulidealconditiontowardswhichwehavebeenformedthrougheverything,whichspreadsabroadfurtherandfurtherinEurope,whichsailstoallpartsoftheworld,andwantstocivillyadministerev-eryonetobewhatweare...Humanbeings?,citizensofafatherland?,beingswhoareindependentlysomethingintheworld?–tobethese?Perhaps!Butatleastandcertainly,alloftheminnumber,needs,purpose,anddestinypoliticalcalculation;eachofthemintheuniformofhisclassmachines!–Therestandnowthoseresplendentmarket-placesfortheformationofhumanity,pulpitandstage,hallsofjustice,libraries,schools,andofcourseespeciallythecrownsofthemall:illustriousacademies!Inwhatsplendor!,totheeternalafter-renownoftheprinces!,towhatgreatpurposesoftheformationandenlightenmentoftheworld,ofthehappinessofhumanbeings!,splendidlyconsecrated.Whatdotheydo,then?,whatcantheydo?–theyplay!IV.Soaboutseveralofthemostfamousmeanswhich–thehonorofourcentury!–havethecreativeplan“toformhumanity”–oneword!Withthisweatleastcometoaverypracticalsideofthebook.IfIhavenotwritteninvainfromthebeginning,thenitcanbeseenthattheformationandprogressiveformationofanationisneveranythingbutaworkoffate–theresultofathousandcooperatingcausesofthewholeelementinwhichtheylive,sotospeak.Andifthisisso,thenwhatchild’splaytopresentthisformationasmerelyconsistinginandoccurringthroughafewbrighterideastowardswhichpeoplehavebeentrottingalmostsincethereinstitutionofthesciences!Thisbook,thisauthor,thismassofbooksissaidtoform;theirwholeresult,thephilosophyofourcentury,issaidtoform.Whatwouldthatmeanbut:awakenorstrengthentheinclinationsthroughwhichhumanityisblessed?Andwhatagulfforthistohappen!Ideasactuallyyieldonlyideas–moreclarity,correctness,andorderforthought.Butthatisalsoallthatonecancountonwithcertainty.Forhow,then,allthatmightmixinthesoul;whatitshouldfindbeforeitandchange;howstrongandlastingthischangemightprove;andthenfinally,howthischangemightmixandcastitselfintothethousand-formedoccasionsandcontextsofhumanlife,letaloneofanage,ofawholepeople,ofallEurope,InthissentenceHerderisusingarhetoricaldeviceofdeliberatelychangingthegrammaticalconstructionandthoughtofasentenceinmidstream–adevicethatisparticularlycharacteristicofSophocleanpoetry.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()ofthewholeuniverse(asourhumilityimagines)–yegods,whatanotherworldofquestions!Ahumanbeingwhobecameacquaintedwithourcentury’sartificialmannerofthoughtwouldreadallthebooksthatweread,praise,and–asitissaid–formourselvesinaccordancewithfromchildhoodup,wouldcollectthefirstprinciplesthatweallexplicitlyortacitlyconcedeandalsoprocesswithcertainforcesofoursouls,etc.,wouldwantnowtoinferthencetothewhole,livingmechanismofthecentury–pitifulfallacy!Preciselybecausethesefirstprinciplesaresocommonplace,passasplaythingsfromhandtohandandasplatitudesfromliptolip–preciselyforthisreason,itprovesprobablethattheycannotanylongerachieveanyeffect.Doesoneusewhatoneplayswith?Andwhenonehassomuchgrainthatonedoesnotsow,plantthefieldbutmustinundateitasagranaryfloor–barren,drygranaryfloor!–cananythingtakeroot?,sprout?,doesagrainevenentertheearth?WhyshouldIseekexamplesforatruthforwhichalmosteverything,unfortunately!,wouldbeanexample–religionandmoraltheory,legislationandcommonethics.Howdelugedwithbeautifulfirstprinciples,developments,systems,expositions–delugedtothepointthathardlyanyoneanylongerseesthebottomandhasafooting–butjustforthisreasonalsosimplyswimsacross.Thetheologianleafsthroughthemoststirringrepresentationsofreligion,learns,knows,proves,andforgets–weareallfromchildhoodupformedtobethesetheologians.Thepulpitresoundswithfirstprincipleswhichweallconcede,know,beautifullyfeel,and–leaveonandbesidethepulpit.Likewisewithbooks,philosophy,andmoraltheory.Whoisnotfedupwithreadingthem?Andwhatauthordoesnotalreadymakeithismainbusinesstodress[things]upwell,tosilver-coatbeautifullytheforce-lesspillatallcosts.Headandheartarenowseparated;thehumanbeinghas,unfortunately!,reachedthepointofactingnotaccordingtowhatheknowsbutaccordingtowhathelikes.Whathelpdoestheillmangetfromallthatstoreoftreatswhichhecannotenjoywithhissick-heartedness[mitsiechemHerzen],indeedwhoseexcesswaspreciselywhatmadehimsick-hearted.Onecouldstillallowthedisseminatorsofthemediumofthisforma-tionthelanguageandthedelusionthattheyform“humanity,”andofcourseespeciallythephilosophersofParisthelanguageandthedelusionLikeitsstrainedEnglishtranslation“withhissick-heartedness,”theGermanphrasemitsiechemHerzencanbearnotonlyaveryliteralphysicalmeaningbutalsoapsychologicalone.Butalsoimportanthereisanintermediatemeaning:“withhisnausea”(cf.Frenchmaldecoeur:nausea).\nPhilosophyofHistorythattheyformtoutel’Europeandtoutl’univers.Oneknowsofcoursewhatthislanguagemeans–tone!,conventionalphrase!,beautifulexpres-sion,oratmostusefuldelusion.Butwhensuchletter-culturemeansarealsolighteduponbythoseforwhomquitedifferenttools...whentheywiththosemeansgivethecenturyabeautifulfog,directeyestotheshineofthisineffectivelight,preciselyinordertohaveheartsandhandsfree–errorandloss,youarelamentable!Therewasanagewhentheartoflegislationwasseenasthesolemeansforformingnations,andthismeans,takeninhandinthestrangestmanner,wasforthemostpartsupposedtobecomeonlyauniversalphilosophyofhumanity,acodexofreason,ofhumanity,andwhatallmoreIdonotknow.Thematterwascertainlymoredeceptivethanuseful.Certainly,onewasablewiththis“toexhaustallcommonprinciplesofwhatisrightandgood,maximsofloveofhumanityandofwisdom,prospectsfromalltimesandpeoplesforalltimesandpeoples”–foralltimesandpeoples?–andthus,unfortunately!,preciselynotforthepeoplewhomthislegalcodeissupposedtofitasitssuitofclothing.Suchauniversalladled-offthing–isitnotperhapsalsofoamthatflowstobitsintheairofalltimesandpeoples?Andwhatadifferentmattertopreparenourishmentforthearteriesandsinewsofone’speoplesothatthisnourishmentstrengthensitsheartandinvigoratesitsveryboneandmarrow!Betweeneveryuniversallystated,eventhemostbeautiful,truthanditsleastapplicationthereisagulf!Andapplicationinthesinglerightplace?,fortherightpurposes?,inthesinglebestway?–TheSolonofavillagewhohasreallyeliminatedonlyonebadhabit,setinmotiononlyonestreamofhumansensationsandactivities–hehasdoneathousandtimesmorethanallyourationalizers[Raisonneurs]aboutlegislation,withwhomeverythingistrueandeverythingfalse–amiserableuniversalshade.Therewasatimewhentheerectingofacademies,libraries,hallsofartwascalledformationoftheworld.Splendid!,thisacademyisthenameofthecourt,thedignifiedprytaneumofmeritoriousmen,asupportofThewholeofEuropeandthewholeoftheuniverse.MittelderLetternkulturcouldmeaneither()meansconsistinginletter-culture,or()meansforletter-culture.Also,thewordLetternkulturitselfcontainsasignificantpun:()cultureofletters(i.e.ofbelles-lettres),()culturethatisnomorethanalphabeticalletters(cf.“tone!,conventionalphrase!,beautifulexpression”).HerderhasinmindtheacademiesofbothFranceandFredericktheGreat’sPrussia.TheprytaneumwasapublicinstitutioninAthensatwhichOlympianvictorsandotherhonoredcitizenswereentertainedatpublicexpense(seeespeciallyPlato,Apology,d–e).\nThisTooaPhilosophy()valuablesciences,asplendidhallatthebirthdaycelebrationofthemonarch.Butwhat,then,doesitdofortheformationofthisland,ofthispeople,ofthesesubjects?Andevenifitdideverything–towhatextentdoesthisprovidehappiness?Canthesestatues,evenifyouputthemalongthewayandatdoorjambs,turneachpasserbyintoaGreeksothathelooksupontheminthatway,feelstheminthatway,feelshimselfintheminthatway?Hard!Canthesepoems,thesebeautifulrecitationsintheAtticmannercreateatimewhenthesepoemsandspeechesworkedmiraclesandhadeffect?Ithinknot!Andtheso-calledrestorersofthesciences,evenifpopeandcardinals,alwaysstillletApollo,theMuses,andallthegodsplayinthemodernLatinpoems–theyknewthatitwasplay.ThestatueofApollowasalwaysstillabletostandbesideChristandLeda–allthreehadoneeffect:none!Iftheatricalperformance,thestage,couldproducerealRomanheroismandcreateBrutusesandCatos,doyouthinkthatyourstagewouldstand?,thatyourpulpitwouldstand?–Finally,peopleinthenoblestsciencespileOssaontopofPelion–agreatundertaking!–peoplehardlyknowforwhatpurposetheypile.Thetreasuresliethereandarenotused;atleastitiscertainlynothumanitythatnowusesthem.Therewasatimewheneveryonestormedforeducation–andeducationwasequatedwithbeautifulpracticalknowledge,instruction,enlightenment,facilitationadcaptum,andofcoursewithearlyrefinementtopoliteethics.Asifallthatcouldchangeandforminclinations!Withoutthinkingaboutasingleoneofthedespisedmeansbywhichgoodhabits,evenprejudices,trainings,andforcescouldberestoredornewlycreatedandtherebya“betterworld”beformedforall.–Theessay,theplangotwritten,printed,forgotten!–atextbookofeducationlikeathousandwehave!–acodexofgoodruleslikeamillionmorethatwewillhave,andtheworldwillremainasitis.Howdifferentlyagesandpeoplesformerlythoughtaboutthiswheneverythingwasstillsonarrowlynational.Allformationroseoutofthemostparticularindividualneedandreturnedbacktoit–pureexperience,action,life-applicationinthemostdefinedcircle.Hereinthepatriarch’shut,thereinanarrowagriculturalarea,there[again]inasmallrepublicofhumanbeings,whereapersonknows,feels,andhencewasalsoabletoAccordingtomyth,LedawaswifeofTyndareus,aqueenofSparta,andthemotherofClytemnestra,Helen,Castor,andPollux.InmyththeGiantstriedtoreachheavenbyputtingPelionandthenOssaontopofMountOlympus.Thephrase“pileOssaontopofPelion”ishenceproverbialformakinggreatefforts.adcaptum[vulgus]:toenticethemasses.\nPhilosophyofHistorycause[others]tofeel,everything,hadcontrolofthehumanheart,andsurveyedwhathetalkedabout!ItwasconsequentlythereagoodreproachthatourenlightenedcenturymakesagainstthelessenlightenedGreeksthattheyphilosophizednothingproperlyuniversalandpurelyabstractedbutalwaysspokeinthenatureofsmallneedsonanarrowstage.Therepeoplealsospokeinanappliedway,everywordfoundarole–andinthebetterperiodswhenpeopledidnotyetspeakthroughwordsatall,[but]throughaction,habit,exemplarymodel,thousandfoldinfluence–howdifferently!Definedly,strongly,andeternally.Wespeakaboutahundredranks,classes,periods,humanracesatonce,soastosayforeachofthemnothing.Ourwisdom,sorefinedandimmaterial,isabstractedspiritwhichwithoutusefliesaway.Thereitwasandremainedcitizen’swisdom,historyofahumanobject,sapfullofnutrition.Henceifmyvoicehadpowerandspace,howIwouldcalltoallthosewhoworkattheformationofhumanity:notcommonplacesaboutimprovement!,paper-culture!,orpossiblyinstitutions–[but]act!Letthosetalkandformfanciesintothesky’sbluewhohavethemisfortunetobeabletodonothingelse.Hasnotthemaid’sloveramorebeautifulrolethanthepoetwhocelebratesherinsongorthesuitorwhoseeksherhand?Behold,hewhocanmostbeautifullysingthepraisesofhumanfriendship,loveofpeoples-andfaithfulnesstofathersperhapsintendstoinflictonitthedeepestdagger-thrustforcenturies.Inappearancethenoblestlegislator,perhapsthemostferventdestroyerofhiscentury!Noquestionofinnerimprovement,humanity,andhappiness–hestrovetofollowthecurrentofthecentury,becamethesaviorofthehumanspeciesaccordingtothedelusionofthecentury,hencealsoachievedforhimselfthebriefrewardofall–thewitheringlaurelofvanity,tomorrowdustandashes.–Thegreat,divineworkofforminghumanity–quietly,strongly,hiddenly,eternally–itcouldnotshareborderswithpettyvanity!V.DoubtlessafterwhatIhavewrittenthecommonplacewillbecitedthatpeoplealwayspraisewhatisdistantandcomplainaboutthepresent,thatitischildrenwhofallinlovewiththedistanceoftinselandgiveupforittheapplewhichtheyhaveinhandbecausetheydonotknowtheformer.ButperhapsIamnotthischild.Irecognizeeverythinggreat,beautiful,anduniqueinourcentury,anddespiteallmyscoldinghavealwaysatbottomkeptit–“philosophy!,disseminatedclarity!,mechanicalskillandfacilitytowonderat!,gentleness!”Howhighourcenturyhasriseninthissincetherestorationofthesciences!,withwhatstrangelyeasymeansit\nThisTooaPhilosophy()hasreachedthisheight!,howstronglyithasreinforceditandsecureditforposterity!IbelievethatIhaveprovidedobservationsaboutthisinsteadoftheexaggeratedeulogythatonefindsinallfashionablebooks,especiallyFrenchones.Trulyagreatcenturyasmeansandpurpose–withoutdoubtthehighestpeakofthetreeinrelationtoalltheprecedingonesonwhichwestand!Howwehaveexploitedforourselvesasmuchsapfromroot,stem,andbranchesaseverourthinpeak-twigscantakein!,standhighoverOriental,Greek,Roman,especiallyovertheGothicbarbarianswhocomeinthemiddle!,henceweseehighovertheearth!Allpeoplesandpartsoftheworldunderourshade,sotospeak,andwhenastormshakestwosmalltwigsinEuropehowthewholeworldquakesandbleeds!Whenhasthewholeeartheversouniversallyconvergedtogetheronsofewunitedthreadsasnow?Whenhavemorepowerandmechanismbeenpossessedforshakingwholenationstothecorewithonepress,withonemovementofafinger?Everythingfloatsonthepointoftwoorthreethoughts!Atthesametime,whenhastheearthbeenasuniversallyenlightenedasnow?–andconstantlyproceedstobecomemoreenlightened.Ifbeforewisdomwasalwaysstillonlynarrowlynational,andhencealsodugdeeperanddrewtoitselfmorefirmly–howfaritsraysnowextend!,whereiswhatVoltairewritesnotread!,alreadyalmostthewholeearthshineswithVoltaire’sclarity!Andhowthisseemstoadvancefurtherandfurther!WhitherdoEuropeancoloniesnotreach,andwhitherwilltheynotreach!Everywherethesavages,themoretheybecomefondofourbrandyandluxury,be-comeripeforourconversiontoo!Everywhereapproach,especiallythroughbrandyandluxury,ourculture.Willsoon,Godhelpus!,allbehumanbeingslikeus!–good,strong,happyhumanbeings!Tradeandpapacy,howmuchyouhavealreadycontributedtothisgreatbusiness!Spaniards,Jesuits,andDutchmen–youhuman-friendly,unselfish,noble,andvirtuousnations!–howmuchhasnotthecivilization[Bildung]ofhumanitytobegratefultoyouforalreadyinallpartsoftheworld!Ifthatworksintheremainingpartsoftheworld,thenofcoursewhynotinEurope?ShameforEnglandthatIrelandforsolongremainedsavageandbarbarous;itiscivillyadministeredandhappy.ShameforEnglandthattheHighlandScotsforsolongwentwithoutpants;theynowbearthese,atleastwiththemonastake,andarehappy.Inourcenturywhatrealm\nPhilosophyofHistoryhasnotcivilized[gebildet]itselftothepointofgreatnessandhappiness!Asingleonelaythereinthemiddletotheshameofhumanity–withoutacademiesoragriculturalsocieties,woremoustaches,andaccordinglynurturedregicides.Andbehold!,whatnoble-mindedFrancehadalreadyundertakenalonewithsavageCorsica–thiswasdonebythree:civilize[bilden]moustachesintohumanbeingslikeus!–good,strong,happyhumanbeings!Alltheartsthatwepractice–risenhowhigh!Canoneimagineanythingbetterthanthatartofgovernment,thatsystem!,thatscienceforthefor-mation[Bildung]ofhumanity?n–thewholesingledrivingmotiveofourstates:fearandmoney.Withoutintheleastneedingreligion(thatchildishmotive!)–orhonororfreedomofsoulorhumanhappiness.Howweknowtoseizethesinglegodofallgods,Mammon,asasecondProteus!,andhowtochangehim!,andhowtoextorteverythingfromhimthateverwewant!–highest,happyartofgovernment!Beholdanarmy!,thefairestoriginalmodelofhumansociety!Allofthemhowcolorfullyandeasilyclothed,easilyfed,harmoniousinthought,freeandcomfortableinalllimbs!,movingnobly!Whatbright,spot-ontoolsintheirhands!Epitomeofvirtues,whichtheylearnineverydailywielding.Apictureofthehighestsuperiorityofthehumanspiritandofthegovernmentoftheworld–resignation!BalanceofpowerinEurope!,yougreatdiscoveryofwhichnoagebeforehadanyknowledge!Howthesegreatbodiesofstate,inwhichwithoutdoubthumanitycanbestbecaredfor,nowrubagainstoneanotherwithoutdestroyingthemselvesoreverbeingabletodestroythemselves,inthemannerofwhichwehavesuchsadexamplesinthemiserablestatecraftoftheGoths,Huns,Vandals,Greeks,Persians,Romans,inshort,ofallperiodsbeforeourselves!Andhowtheycontinueforthontheirnobleroyalcoursetoswallowupthiswaterbuttfullofinsectsinordertocreateuniformity,nHume,PoliticalWritings[i.e.PolitischeVersuche,inVermischteSchriften,vol.],essays,,,,andhisHistory.I.e.Poland.ThelasttwosentencesconcernthedivisionofPolandinbyRussia,Prussia,andAustria(“thiswasdonebythree”).Forsomehelpfuldetails,seeG:–.Herder’swordResignationishereprobablysupposedtobear,inadditiontothemeaningofitsEnglishcounterpart,alsostrongerconnotationsofdeath.InLatintheverbresignarecanmeantodestroy,andcanalsorefertotheunsealingoftheeyesofthedeadaftertheydie.VoltairehadpraisedthebalanceofpowerbetweenstatesasadistinctiveachievementofmodernEurope.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()peace,andsecurity.Poorcity?Tormentedvillage?Salvationbeours!–forthepreservationofobedience,ofpeace,andofsecurity,ofallcardinalvirtuesandhappinesses:mercenaries!,allies!,balanceofpowerinEurope!Therewillandmustremain–salvationbeours!–eternaltranquillity,peace,security,andobedienceinEurope.Thenourpoliticalhistoriansandhistoricalepicpoetsofmonarchyonlyneedtopaintthegrowthofthisconditionfromagetoage!o“Formerly,sadtimes!whenpeoplemerely,forexample,actedaccordingtoneedandtheirownfeeling;saddertimeswhenthepowerofregentswasnotatallyetboundless;andsaddesttimesofallwhentheirincomeswerenotyetentirelytheirarbitrarychoice–when–howlittlethereisforthephilosophicalepic-writinghistoriantorationalizeuniversallyortopaintontothewholeofEurope!;noarmieswhichwouldbeabletounsettledistantborders,norulerofthelandwhowouldbeabletoleavehislandtoconquer–henceeverythingsetupmerelyformiserableresistanceandself-defense;nopolitics!,noregardfordistanttimesandlands,nospeculationtothemoon!,hencenounifyingoflandsthroughthesehuman-friendlyregardsforone’sneighbor–inshort,no–andthisisthewordforthemodernest,highesttaste!–nosocietallifeinEurope.Godbepraised!sinceindividualforcesandlimbsofthestatehavebeenabolished;therehasoccurredsuchagloriouscounterweighingandoutweighing,andshepherdingintothatmiraculousthingthemachine,ofthenobilitybycities,ofcitiesbyfreeland,andofthenobility,cities,andfreelandbypeoples;andnooneanylongerknowsormayknowaboutautonomousjustice,autonomousdignity,andautonomousdetermination–salvationbeours!,whatasocietallifeinEurope!Wherethemonarchhasthestatesoentirelyinhispowerthatthestateisnolongerhispurposebutexternalactionthroughthestateisthepurpose–wherehehencesees,calculates,deliberates,actsinthisscope;everyonegetsstirredtoenthusiasmandledthroughsignalsofwhichheunderstandsandknowsnothing;nostatecansomuchasraiseadownfeatherwithouttheotherregardingit–withouttheremotestcauseleadingtotheautomaticdecisionofauniversalbloodlettinginallpartsoftheworld!Greatuniversality!,whatconcise,humane,passionlesswarsarisingtherefrom!,whatjust,humane,fairnegotiationsarisingtherefrom!”AndoRobertson’sHistory[oftheReign]of[theEmperor]CharlesV,theintroduction,fromwhichthisisonlyafaithfulepitomewiththeoddjudgmentonhisjudgment.Tarasseitousanthrˆopousoutapragmataallataperi[tˆon]pragmatˆondogmata–Epictetus.Or:since(causal).\nPhilosophyofHistoryhowthehighestvirtue,theresignationofeachindividual,getspromotedinthis–highsocietallifeinEurope!Andthroughwhatgloriousmeansppeoplehavereachedthepoint!“thatthepowerofthemonarchyhasgrowninequalstepwiththeweakeningofindividuallimbsandthestrengthofthemercenaryclass!,throughwhichmeansthemonarchyhasbroadeneditsprivileges,increaseditsincome,subjugatedorsteereditsinternalenemies,extendeditsborders–thisisshownbymedievalandmodern,andespecially–theforerunnerofallEurope–French,history.”Gloriousmeansandhowgreatthepurpose:thescalesofEurope!,Europe’shappiness!Onthesescalesandinthishappinesseachindividualgrainofsanddoubtlessmeansalot!“Oursystemoftrade!”Canoneimagineanythingsuperiortothesub-tletyofthisall-embracingscience?WhatmiserableSpartanstheywerewhousedtheirHelotsforagriculture,andwhatbarbaricRomanswhoshutuptheirslavesinprisonsintheearth!InEuropeslaveryhasbeenabolishedqbecauseithasbeencalculatedhowmuchmoretheseslaveswouldcostandhowmuchlesstheywouldbringinthanfreepeople.Onlyonethinghavewestillpermittedourselves:touseasslaves,totrade,toexileintosilverminesandsugarmills,threepartsoftheworld–butthosearenotEuropeans,notChristians,andinreturnwereceivesilverandgemstones,spices,sugar,and–secretdisease;thusforthesakeoftradeandforthereciprocalbrotherlyhelpandcommunityofthelands.“Systemoftrade”–thegreatnessanduniquenessoftheinstitutionisclear!Threepartsoftheworldlaidwasteandcivillyadministeredbyus,andwethroughthemdepopulated,emasculated,sunkinluxury,oppression,anddeath–thatisrichandhappytrading.WhoistherewhoisnotconstrainedtoparticipateinthegreattornadothatissuckingEuropedry,whoisnotconstrainedtopresshiswayintoit,and,ifhecannotdothistootherchildren,todrainouthisownchildren,asthegreatestmanoftrade?Theoldtitle‘shepherdofthepeople’hasbeenturnedinto‘monopolist’–andwhen,now,thewholetornadobreaksloosewithahundredstormwinds–greatgodMammon–whomweallnowserve–helpus!“Modeoflifeandethics!”Howmiserablewhentherewerestillna-tionsandnationalcharacter,rwhatreciprocalhate,aversiontoforeigners,pStillmerelyanepitomefromRobertson.qMillar,[Bemerkungen]uberdenUnterschiedderSt¨ande[inderb¨urgerlichenGesellschaft]¨[ObservationsconcerningtheDistinctionsofRanksinSociety()],section.rHume,VermischteSchriften,vol.,no..\nThisTooaPhilosophy()fixednessonone’scenterofgravity,ancestralprejudices,clingingtothelumpofearthonwhichwearebornandonwhichwearedestinedtorot!Nativemannerofthought!,narrowcircleofideas–eternalbarbarism!Withus,Godbepraised!,allnationalcharactershavebeenextinguished!Weloveallofus,orrathernooneneedstolovetheother.Wesocializewitheachother;arecompletelyeachother’slike–ethicallyproper,polite,blissful!;indeedhavenofatherland,noour-peopleforwhomwelive,butarefriendsofhumanityandcitizensoftheworld.AlreadynowallofEurope’sregentsdoso,andsoonwewillallspeaktheFrenchlanguage!Andthen–bliss!–theGoldenAgebeginsagain“wheneveryoneintheworldhadonetongueandlanguage!,therewillariseasingleflockandasingleshepherd!”Nationalcharacters,whathashappenedtoyou?“Europe’smodeoflifeandethics!”HowlatetheyouthmaturedintheGothicperiodsofChristianity;hardlyattainingmajoritybytheirthirtiethyear;peoplelosthalfoftheirlivesinamiserablechildhood.Philosophy,education,andgoodethics,whatanewcreationyouhavemade!Wearenowmatureinourthirteenthyear,andthroughsilentandloudsinspastourbloominourtwentieth.Weenjoyliferightinitsdawnanditsfairestbloom!“Europe’smodeoflifeandethics!”WhatGothicvirtue,modesty,youthfulbashfulness,shame!sWeearlyongetridoftheambiguous,clumsycoatofvirtue;socialgatherings,women(whonowaremostlackinginrespectofshame!,andwhoalsoleastneedit!),evenourparentswipeitoffourcheeksearlyon.Orifthatdoesnothappen,wegoonjourneys,thoseteachersofgoodethics!,andwhowillbringbackhisoutgrowngarmentofchildhood,outoffashionandsuiting[Anstand]?Wehaveboldness,societalgoodtone,facilityinhelpingourselvestoeverything!,beautifulphilosophy!,“delicacyoftasteandofthepassions!”tHowcrudetheGreeksandRomansstillwereintheirtaste!,hadleastofallthegoodtoneofsocialintercoursewiththefairsex!PlatoandCicerowereabletowritevolumesofconversationsaboutmetaphysicsandmasculineartsandnowomaneverspoke.Whowithusshouldendureaplay,evenifitwerePhiloctetesonhisdesolateisland,withoutlove!Voltaire–butletonereadhowseriouslysHurd’sconversationsontraveling[i.e.DialoguesontheUsesofForeignTravelsconsideredasaPartofanEnglishGentleman’sEducation()].tHume,PolitischeVersuche[inVermischteSchriften,vol.],nos.,,.Genesis:.John:.Anstandheremeansboth()suiting(ofapersonbyhisclothes)and()suitability,decency,propriety.\nPhilosophyofHistoryhehimselfwarnedagainstimitating[here].Womenareourpublic,ourAspasiasoftasteandphilosophy.WeknowhowtodressCartesianvorticesandNewtonianattractionsinacorset,writehistory,sermons,andwhatnotelse,forandaswomen.Thesubtlerdelicacyofourtasteisproved.“Fineartsandsciences!”uTobesure,theancients,andindeedthatmiserable,unstableformofconstitution,smallrepublics,wereabletodevelopthecruderones.Butbeholdalso,howcrudethatoratoryofDemosthenes!,thatGreektheater!–crudeeventhatpraisedantiquityit-self!Andwheretheirpaintingandmusicareconcerneditwasevenjustabloatedfairytaleandhue-and-cry.Thesubtlerbloomoftheartswaitedfortheblissofmonarchy!AtthecourtsofLouisdidCorneillecopyhisheroes,Racinehissensations.Anentirelynewspeciesoftruth,ofemotion-stirring,andoftastegotinventedofwhichthefabled,cold,splendorlessancientsknewnothing:theopera.Salvationtoyou,opera!Youcollecting-placeandcompetitionofallourfinearts!Ithappenedintheblissofmonarchy,wheretherewerestillfurtherinventions.vInsteadoftheold,pedanticuniversities,brilliantacademieswereinvented.Bossuetinventedahistory,entirelydeclamationandsermonandregisterofyears’numbers,whichsofarexcelledsimpleXenophonandLivy;Bourdaloueinventedagenreofspeech[thatwas]howmuchbetterthanDemosthenes!Anewmusicwasinvented–harmonythatneedednomelody;anewartofbuilding;whateveryonehadthoughtimpossible,anewcolumn;and–whatposteritywilladmiremost–anarchitectureontheflatandwithalltheproductsofnature:landscapegardening!Fullofproportionsandsymmetry!Fullofeternalenjoymentandentirelynewnaturewithoutnature.Salvationbeours!,whatwewereonlyabletoinventundermonarchy!uHume,Versuche[inVermischteSchriften],vol.,nos.,;Voltaire,[Le]siecledeLouisXIV,`XV,andXX;andthearmiesofpangyristsofmodernliterature.[TheactualtitleofVoltaire’sbookis:Lesi`ecledeLouisXIV.Healsowroteabook:Pr´ecisdusi`ecledeLouisXV.The“andXX”isclearlyhumorous.]vVoltaire,[Le]siecledeLouisXIV.`Voltairehadchampionedatragedywithoutlove.ThisisanallusiontoFontenelle,Entretienssurlapluralit´edesmondes(),whichcontainedfemale-orientatedpopularizationsofscience.ThisisanallusiontothecomposerRameau(–).I.e.anewcolumninadditiontothetraditionalIonic,Doric,etc.Herderisapparentlyreferringtothe“German”columninventedbyL.C.Sturm(–).ThisisanotherexampleofHerderusingtherhetoricalfigureofdeliberateoxymoron(thecon-tradictionbeing,ofcourse,superficialratherthanfundamental).\nThisTooaPhilosophy()Lastofallpeoplebegantophilosophize.wAndhowmodernly!–withoutsystemorfirstprinciples,sothatitmightremainfreeforonealwaysatanothertimetobelievetheopposite.Withoutdemonstration!,wrappedinwit,for“allthestrictphilosophyhasneverimprovedtheworld.”xFinallyeven–splendidinvention!–inmemoirsanddictionarieswhereeveryonecanreadwhatandhowevermuchhewants–andthemostsplendidofsplendidinventions–thedictionary,theEncyclopediaofallsciencesandarts.“Ifatsomefuturetimeallbooks,arts,andsciencesperishthroughfireandwater,thenfromandinyou,Encyclopedia!,thehumanspirithaseverything!”Whattheartofprintingbecameforthesciences,theEncyclopediahasbecomefortheartofprinting:ythehighestpeakofdissemination,completeness,andeternalpreservation.NowIoughtinadditiontopraisethebestthing,ourhugestepsofprogressinreligion–nowthatwehaveevenbeguntocountupthereadingsofbiblicalpassages!Inthefirstprinciplesofhonor–sincewehaveabol-ishedridiculouschivalry,andhaveelevatedorders’ribbonstobeingleashesforboysandcourtgifts.Butaboveall[Ioughtto]praiseourhighestpeakofhuman–paternal,wifely,child’s–virtues.Butwhoinsuchacenturyasoursiscanpraiseeverything?Enough,wearethe“peakofthetree!,weavingawayinheavenlyair–theGoldenAgeisnigh!”Thirdsection.AdditionsTheheavenlyairissorefreshingthatoneisinclinedtohoverabovetree-topandtreesfortoolong.Downtothesadgroundinorderperhapstocastaviewatthewholeorthenot-whole!GreatcreatureofGod!Workofthreepartsoftheworldandalmostsixmillennia!Thedelicate,sap-filledroot;theslender,bloomingshoot;themightystem;thestronglystriving,entwinedbranches;theairy,wide-spreadtwigs–howeverythingrestsoneachother,hasgrownfromeachother.–GreatcreatureofGod!Butforwhat?Forwhatpurpose?Thatobviouslythisgrowth,thisprogressfromeachother,isnot“perfectioninthenarrowsenseoftheschoolshas,itseemstome,beenshownbyourwholeview.”Itisnolongerseedwhenitisshoot,nolongerw[D’Alembert,]Disc[ours]pr´elim[inaire]oftheEncyclopedia;Voltaire,Tableauencyclopediquedes´connaissanceshumaines[EncyclopedicPictureoftheFormsofHumanKnowledge].[NoworkofthistitlebyVoltaireisknown.Forapossibleexplanationofthemystery,seeG:–.]xHume,Versuche[inVermischteSchriften],vol.,essay.[Herderprobablymeantvol.,essay.]yDisc[ours]prelim[inaire]andM´elangedelitt[´erature]pard’Alembert,vols.´,.\nPhilosophyofHistoryadelicateshootwhenitisatree.Overthestemisthecrown;ifeverybranch,everytwig,ofthiswantedtobestemandroot,whatwouldhappentothetree?Orientals,Greeks,Romanswereonlyintheworldonce,weredestinedtotouchtheelectricalchainthatfatedrewoutonlyinasinglepoint,atasingleplace!–We,therefore,ifwewanttobeOrientals,Greeks,Romansatasingletime,wearereliablynothing.“InEuropethereissupposednowtobemorevirtuethanthereeverwasinthewholeworld?”Andwhy?Becauseithasmoreenlightenmentinit.Ibelievethatjustforthatreasontheremustbeless.Whatisit–evenifoneonlyaskstheflatterersoftheircentury–whatisthis[alleged]morevirtueofEuropethroughenlightenment?“Enlightenment!Wenowknowsomuchmore,hear,readsomuch,thatwearesopeaceful,patient,gentle-hearted,inactive.–Tobesure–tobesure–indeed–andthattooaswell;butforallthis,thebasisofourheartsstillalwaysremainssosoftthough!”Eternalsweeties,thatiswhatitallamountsto–wearethethin,airytwigsupthere,freelyshakingandwhisperingwitheverywind.Butsurely,thesun’srayplayssobeautifullythroughus!,westandsohighoverbranch,stem,androot,seesofar,and...ofcourse,donotforget:canwhispersofarandbeautifully!Dopeoplenotseethatwelackallthevicesandvirtuesoftimespastbecausewe–altogetherlacktheirfirmfooting,forcesandsap,spaceandelement?Indeednoflaw,butwhy,then,dopeoplealsohavetolieoutofthisforthemselvespraise,absurditiesofpresumption?Whydotheyde-ceivethemselveswithourmeansofformation[Bildung]asthoughthesehadachievedthis?Andmakeeveryeffortinordertodeceivethemselvesconcerningthetinseloftheirownweightyimportance?Finally,why,then,dotheyimportthe“fictionofaone-sidedmockinglie”intoallcenturies,ridiculeanddisfigurewiththistheethicsofallpeoplesandtimeperiods,sothatasound,modest,unprejudicedhumanbeingreallygetstoreadinalmostalltheso-calledpragmatichistoriesofthewholeworldnothingmoreintheendthanthedisgustingrubbishofthe“praisedidealofhisowntime”?Thewholefaceoftheearthbecomesadungheaponwhichweseekkernelsandcrow!Philosophyofthecentury!“Wehavenohighwaymen,nocivilwars,noatrocitiesanylonger.”Butwhere,how,andwhyshouldwehavethem?OurlandsaresowellcivillyHerderprobablyintendsapunhere:Preisidealcouldalsomeanpriceideal(inallusiontomoder-nity’sexcessivedevotiontoeconomicandmaterialgoals).\nThisTooaPhilosophy()administered,cutthroughwithhighways,stoppedupwithgarrisons,fieldsaresowiselydividedup,ourwisejudicialsystemissoalert–whereshouldthepoorvillain,evenifhehadthecourageandforceforthatroughtrade,practiceit?Butalso,whypracticeit?Forofcourseinaccordancewiththeethicsofourcenturyhecaninamuchmorecomfortable,indeedhonorableandglorious,waybecomearobberofhouses,chambers,andbeds–getpaidbythestateintheseformsofservice.Whynotratherhavehimselfpaid?Whythatunsafetrade–forwhichhe–andthisiswhatitboilsdownto–hasneithercouragenorforcenoropportunity?MayGodhavemercyonyourmodern,freelywilledvirtue!Havewe“nocivilwars”becauseweareallsuchsatisfied,fullysated,happysubjects?Orisitnotpreciselyduetocauseswhichoftenaccompanypreciselytheopposite?Novicebecauseweallhavesomuchcaptivatingvirtue,Greekfreedom,Romanpatriotism,Orientalpiety,knightlyhonor,andallinthegreatestmeasure?Orisitnotexactlybecausewehavenoneofalltheseandhenceunfortunatelyalsocannothavetheirone-sided,distributedvices?Thin,shakingbranches!Andassuch,weadmittedlyalsohavetheadvantageofbeingcapable“ofpreciselythatexhausted,short-sighted,all-despising,solelyself-satisfied,nothing-achieving,and,preciselyinitsinefficacy,consolingphilosophy.”Orientals,Greeks,andRomanswerenotcapableofit.Assuch,wehavetheadvantageofassessingandcreditingourmeansofformationsomodestly.Aclassofpriestssothattheworldhasneverbeenashumanely,theologicallyenlightenedasnow;atemporalclasssothatithasneverbeenashumanely,uniformlyobedientandorderly;ourjusticesothatithasneverbeenashumaneandpeace-loving;finally,ourphilosophysothatithasneverbeenashumaneanddivine.Throughwhom?Hereeachpersonpointstohimself!“Wearethedoctors,thesaviors,theenlighteners,thenewcreators–thetimesofmadfeverarepast.”Nowofcourse,Godbepraised!–andtheconsumptivepatientliestheresopeacefullyinhisbed,whimpers,and–givesthanks!Givesthanks,butdoeshealsothank?Andifhedid,couldnotpreciselythisthanksbeseenasamarkofhisdegeneration,meekness,andofthemosttimidhumanity?Whatifeventhesensationforsomethingelsebetterhaddepartedalongwiththeenjoyment?–sothatIperhapsexposemyselfinwritingthis“Givesthanks”and“thank”bothtranslatetheverbdankenhere.ItakeitthatHerder’spointturnsontheambiguitybetweenmerelyexpressingthanksandreallyfeelingit.\nPhilosophyofHistorytothemostpoisonous,mostmockingdistortions?Ifonlyitwerealreadyenoughforustothink,havemanufactures,trade,arts,peace,security,andorder...Ourgovernmentswithnocauseinthemanylongerforfighting;ourstateconstitutionsgrowup!–suchfar-reachingvisionroundabout!–playingsofar-reachinglyroundabout,sofarinadvance.Whatagewasabletodothat?So!,thatisthewayourstate-,trade-,andart-historiestalk.Onethinksoneisreadingsatire,butoneisreadingnothingbutpeople’struemannerofthought.Whatistheuseofmyspeakingfur-ther?Ifonlyitwerejustillness,andnotsimultaneouslyanobstaclethatdoesawaywitheverymeansforcounteringit!Butwheninthesweatofdeath,dreamwithopium!–whydisturbtheinvalidwithouthelpinghim?∗Soratherwhatwillalsopleasetheinvalidmore.Weareinthisadvanceadmittedlyalsoinourplaceapurposeandtooloffate.Generally,thephilosopherismostananimalwhenhewouldwishtobemostreliablyaGod–thusalsointheconfidentcalculationoftheperfectionoftheworld.Ofcourse,ifonlyitweretruethateverythingproceededprettilyinastraightlineandthateverysucceedinghumanbeingandeverysucceedingracegotperfectedaccordingtohisidealinabeautifulprogressionforwhichhealoneknewtogivetheexponentofvirtueandhappiness!Theninthatcaseitalwayscametohimlastofall–hethelast,highestmemberwithwhicheverythingconcludes.“Behold,theworldhasrisentosuchenlightenment,virtue,happiness!I,highontheswing-bar!,thegoldenpointeroftheworld-scales–beholdme!”Andthiswisemandidnottakeintoaccountwhat,really,eventhefaintestechofromheaventoearthwouldhavehadtoteachhim,thatprobablyhumanbeingalwaysremainshumanbeing,inaccordancewiththeanalogyofallthingsnothingbuthumanbeing!Angelicanddevilishformsinthehumanbeing–fictionalforms!–Henothingbutthemiddlethinginbetween!–defiantandfainthearted,strivinginneed,tiringininactivityandluxury,withoutoccasionandpracticenothing,graduallyprogressingthroughthemalmosteverything–hieroglyphofgoodandbad,ofwhichhistoryisfull–humanbeing!–alwaysonlytool![He]didnottakeintoaccountthatthishiddendoublecreaturecanbemodifiedathousandfold,and,giventhestructureofourearth,almostmustbe–thatthereisacreationofclime,ofcircumstancesofanage,hence\nThisTooaPhilosophy()nationalandgenerationalvirtues,bloomswhichgrowunderthatskyandthriveonalmostnothing,dieoutormiserablyturnyellowthere(aphysicsofhistory,scienceofthesoul,andpoliticsatwhichourcenturyhasofcoursealreadyfictionalizedandponderedsomuch!)–thattherecanandmustbeallthisbutthatinsidebeneaththemanyfoldtransformedhuskthesamekernelofessentialnatureandofcapacityforhappinesscanstillbepreserved,andaccordingtoallhumanexpectationalmostwillbeso.[He]didnottakeintoaccountthatitshowsinfinitelymoresolicitudeofthefatherofallifthishappened,ifinhumanitythereliesoneinvisibleseedofreceptivityforhappinessandvirtueonthewholeearthandinallageswhich,differentlydeveloped,indeedappearsindifferentformsbut[is]inwardlyonlyonemeasureandmixtureofforces.Finally,[he]didnottakeintoaccount–all-knowingcreature!–thatwiththehumanspeciestherecanbeagreaterplanofGod’sinthewholewhichanindividualcreaturepreciselydoesnotsurvey,preciselybecausenothingisrunningtowardssomethingmerelyindividualasitsultimatefinishingline,especiallynottowardsthephilosopherorthroneoccupantoftheeighteenthcentury–becauseallthescenesonlyineachofwhicheachactorhasaroleinwhichhecanstriveandbehappyperhapsstill...allthesescenesstillperhapscanformawhole,amainperformanceofwhichindeedtheindividual,selfishplayercouldknowandseenothingbutwhichtheaudiencememberwiththerightviewpointandtranquillyawaitingthesequence’swholecouldwellsee.Beholdthewholeuniversefromheaventoearth–whatismeans?,whatispurpose?Isnoteverythingmeansformillionsofpurposes?Isnoteverythingthepurposeofmillionsofmeans?Thechainofalmighty,all-wisegoodnessisentwinedonepartintoandthroughtheotherathousandfold–buteachmemberinthechainisinitsplaceamember–hangsonthechainanddoesnotseewhereintheendthechainhangs.Eachinitsdelusionfeelsitselftobethecentralpoint,initsdelusionfeelseverythingarounditselfonlytotheextentthatitpoursraysorwavesonthispoint–beautifuldelusion!Butthegreatcircleofallthesewaves,rays,andseemingcentralpoints:where?,who?,why?Woulditbeotherwiseinthehistoryofthehumanspecies?,evenwithallwavesandperiodsinthesequence,otherwisethanpreciselythe“building-planofalmightywisdom”?Iftheresidentialhousereveals“divinepicture”rightdowntoitssmallestfitting–hownotthehistoryofitsresident?Theformeronlydecoration!,pictureinasingleact,view!Thelatteran\nPhilosophyofHistory“endlessdramaofscenes!,anepicofGod’sthroughallmillennia,partsoftheworld,andhumanraces,athousand-formedfablefullofagreatmeaning!”Thatthismeaning,thisvisionofthewhole,mustatleastliebeyondthehumanspecies–insectofalumpofearth,lookagainatheavenandearth!Doyouinthewholeuniverse,asitweavesitsworkdeadandaliveallatonce,findyourselftheexclusivecentralpointtowardswhicheverythingoperates?,ordonotyouyourselfcooperate(where?,how?,andwhen?–whohasaskedyouaboutthis?)intheserviceofhigherpurposesunknowntoyou!,ofpurposesintheserviceofwhichthemorningstarandthelittlecloudbesideit,youandthewormthatyouarenowsquashing!,cooperate.Given,now,thatthisisundeniableandbeyondinvestigationinthegreat,all-extensivetogether-worldofamoment,canyoususpectanythinglessordifferentinthegreat,all-extensivesequential-world,inalltheeventsandprogressivewindingsofthehumanspecies,inthedramafulloftheinventor’swisdomandknottyplot?Andifthewholewereforyoualabyrinthwithahundreddoorwaysclosed,withahundredopen–thislabyrinthisa“palaceofGodforhisall-fulfillment,perhapsforhispleasurableviewing,notforyours!”Thewholeworld,thevisionofGodatonemoment,anabyss.–AbyssinwhichIstandlostonallsides!,seeagreatworkwithoutanameandeverywherefullofnames!,fullofvoicesandforces!Idonotfeelmyselfinthatplacewheretheharmonyofallthesevoicesresoundsintooneear,butwhathereinmyplaceIhearbywayofabbreviated,confusingsound–thismuchIknowandhearwithcertainty–alsohassomethingharmoniousinit!,alsoresoundsasasongofpraiseintheearofHimforwhomspaceandtimearenothing.–Thehumanearstaysaroundforfewmoments,andonlyhearsfewnotes,oftenonlyavexatioustuningoffalsenotes,forthisearcamepreciselyatthetimeoftuning-upandunfortunatelyperhapslandedinthewhirlwindofonecorner.Theenlightenedhumanbeingoflatertime–hewantstobenotonlyahearerofallbuthimselfthefinalepitomizingnoteofallnotes!,mirrorofallthepastandrepresentativeofthepurposeofthecompositioninallitsscenes!Theprecociouschildslandersandblasphemes–alas,ifitwereevenonlypossiblytheafter-echoofthelastleft-overdeath-soundorapartofthetuning!Amongthegreattreeofthefatherofallzwhosepeakreachesabovealltheheavensandwhoserootsreachbeneathworldsandhell,amIaneaglezAgreatideaintheNorseEdda.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()onthistree?,amItheravenwhoonhisshoulderdailybringstheworlds’eveninggreetingtohisear?WhatalittlestrandoffoliageofthetreeImaybe!,asmallcommaordashinthebookofallworlds!WhateverImaybe!,callfromheaventoearththat,likeeverything,similarlyItoomeansomethinginmyplace.Withforcessetasideforthewhole,andindeedonlywiththefeelingofhappinessaccordingtotheextentoftheseforcestoo!Whichofmybrothershadaprivilegebeforeheexisted?AndifthepurposeandharmonyofthehouseholdeffectsrequiredthathebecameagoldencontainerandIanearthenwareone–Inow,pre-ciselyanearthenwarecontaineralsoinpurpose,sound,duration,feeling,andcompetence,canIarguewiththecraftsman?Ihavenotbeenpassedover,noonehasbeenpreferred–thecapacityforfeeling,activity,andcompetenceofthehumanspeciesisdistributed.Heretherivercurrent[Strom]breaksoff,thereitbegins.Hetowhommuchisgivenalsohasmuchtoaccomplish.Whoeverisenlivenedwithmanysenseshastostrug-glewithmanysenses.–Idonotbelievethatasinglethought,withwhatitexpressesandkeepsquiet,whatitpresentstoviewandwhatitpullscloud-coverover,yieldsgreatersensation[Empfindung]thanthisoneinthelightofthewholeofhistory!∗Thatthethoughtshouldappeartherein–thatatleastiswhatmywishrunstowards,thisgreatOlympianracecourse!Ifourageisnoblyusefulinanyrespectatallthenitis“itslateness,itsheight,itsprospect!”Whatallhasalreadybeenpreparedforitformillennia!,throughwhatalldoesitinturninsuchahighersenseprepareforanotherage!–thestepstowardsandfromit.Philosopher,ifyouwanttohonorandbenefityourcentury’ssituation–thebookofprecedinghistoryliesbeforeyou!,lockedwithsevenseals,amiraclebookfullofprophecy–theendofdayshasreachedyou!,read!TheretheOrient!,thecradleofthehumanspecies,ofhumaninclinations,andofallreligion.Ifreligionshouldbedespisedandburnedoutinthewholecoldworld–itswordweavingthence,weavingthenceaspiritoffireandflame.aaWithpaternaldignityandsimplicitywhichespeciallystillaaThatdespisedbook–thebible!ReadingrufforRuf.Herderseemstomeanthiswordinatwofoldsensehere:()sensationquaafeelingofwonder,consolation,etc.,andalso()sensationquainterpretativesensitivityinrelationtohistory.I.e.intheaforementionedlight.\nPhilosophyofHistoryleadsonitsway“theheartoftheinnocentchild”!Thechildhoodofthespecieswilltakeeffectonthechildhoodofeachindividual–thelastminorstillborninthefirstOrient!Theyouthsofallso-calledfineliteratureandartaretheGreeks–whatliesfurtherbackisperhapstoodeep,toochildishforthevisionofthecentury,buttheyintheproperrosydawnofworldevents,whataneffecttheyhavehadonalltheirposterity!Thefairestbloomofthehumanspirit,ofheroiccourage,ofloveofone’sfatherland,offeelingfree,ofloveofart,ofsong,ofthepitchofpoetry,ofthesoundofnarration,ofthethunderoforatory,ofthestartingofallcitizenlywisdom,asitisnow,istheirs.Thisaside,giventothemsky,land,constitution,afortunatepointintime,theyformed,invented,named–westillformandnameinimitationofthem–theircenturyaccomplished!Butaccomplishedonlyonce!Whenthehumanspiritwithallitsforceswantedtoawakenitforasecondtime–thespiritwasdust,theshootremainedashes;Greecedidnotreturn.Romans–thefirstcollectorsanddistributorsofthefruitswhich,grownelsewherebeforehand,nowfellripeintotheirhands.Tobesure,theyhadtoleavebloomandsapinitsplace.Buttheyreallydiddistributethefruits–relicsoftheprimevalworldinRomandress,intheRomanmanner,inRomanlanguage.WhatifeverythinghadcomeimmediatelyfromGreece?Greekspirit,Greekculture[-bildung],Greeklanguage?HoweverythingwouldhavebeendifferentinEurope!Itwasnotsupposedtobe!Greecestillsodistantfromthenorth,initsbeautifularchipelagoofaregionoftheworld;thehumanspiritinitstillsoslenderanddelicate–howwasthisspiritsupposedtowrestlewithallpeoples?,forceuponthemtheemulationofitself?,howcouldthecrudenorthernhuskgraspthesubtleGreekvapor?HenceItalywasthebridge–Rometheintermediateperiodofthehardeningofthekernelandofitsdistribution–eventheholylanguageofthenewChristianworldwitheverythingthatadherestoitwasforamillenniuminallofEuropeRoman.EvenwhenGreecewasduetohaveaneffectonEuropeforasecondtime,itwasnotabletohaveaneffectimmediately:Arabiabecametheslime-cloggedcanal–ArabiathesubplotinthehistoryoftheformationofEurope.If,asisactuallythecase,Aristotlewasdestinedtoruleforhiscenturiesaloneandtoproducethewormsanddecay-mothsofthescholasticmannerofthoughtineverything,whatifithadbeenfatethatPlato,Homer,Or:discovered.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()thepoets,historians,oratorshadbeenabletohaveaneffectearlier?Howinfinitelydifferenteverythingwouldhavebeen!Itwasnotdestined.Thecirclewasduetojumpoveratthatpoint;theArabreligionandnationalculturehatedtheseflowers;perhapstheywouldalsonotyethavethrivedinEuropeinthosetimes,whereasbycontrastAristotelianhairsplittingandMoorishtasteharmonizedsowellwiththespiritofthetime–fate!InEuropethegrownharvestoftheancientworld-centurieswasdueonlytobedriedandpressed–buttocomefromthereamongthepeoplesoftheearth.Howstrange,now,thatnationsthrongedtotheplacefortheworkwithoutknowinghoworwhy.Fatesummonedthemforthelabortothevineyard–gradually,eachmanathishour.Everythingwasalreadyinvented,felt,subtlythoughtupthatperhapscouldbethoughtup;hereeverythingnowgotcastintomethod,intoscientificform.Andnow,next,therecameinadditionpreciselythenew,coldestmechanicalinventionswhichwriteverythinglarge:machinesofcoldnorthernEuropeanabstraction,greattoolsforthehandofHimwhoguideseverything!–nowtheseedslietherealmostamongallnationsoftheearth–atleastfamiliartoall,accessibletoall–theywillhavethemwhentheirpointintimecomes.Europedried,strung,eternalizedthem.Strangeball!What,youlittlenorthernpartoftheworld,formerlyanabyssofgrovesandislesofice,haveyouhadtobecomeonthisball!Whatwillyouyetbecome!Theso-calledenlightenmentandcivilizing[Bildung]oftheworldonlytouchedandheldathinstripoftheearth’sball.Also,wecannotchangesome-thingintheworld’scourse,situation,andcirculationwithouteverythingchangingatthesametime.Whatif,forexample,merelytheintroductionofthesciences,ofreligion,oftheReformation,hadbeendifferent?,thenorth-ernpeopleshadmixeddifferently,followedeachotherdifferently?,thepapacyhadnothadtobeavehicleforsolong?WhattentimesmorecouldInotaskinaddition?–Dreams!Itwasnotso;andinretrospectwecanalwayspenetratesomewhatwhyitwasnotso.Admittedly,though,asmallsomewhat!Onecanalsoseewhyinrealitynonationafteranother,evenwithalltheaccoutrementsofthelatter,everbecamewhattheotherwas.Evenifallthemeansoftheircultureswerethesame,theirculturewasneverthesameHerderishereechoingtheparableofthevineyardatMatthew:–inwhichtheworkersgetsummonedtoworkinthevineyardatdifferenttimesoftheday(thoughallthenreceivethesamepay).I.e.theearth.\nPhilosophyofHistorybecausealwaysalltheinfluencesoftheold,now-changednatureneededforthatwerealreadymissing.GreekscienceswhichtheRomansdrewtothemselvesbecameRoman;AristotlebecameanArabandascholastic;andinthecaseoftheGreeksandRomansofmoderntimes–whatamiserableaffair!Marsilius,thouartPlato?Lipsius,thouZeno?WherearethyStoics?,thyheroeswhoformerlydidsomuch?AllyoumodernHomers,orators,andartists–whereisyourworldofmiracles?Also,intonolandhascivilization[Bildung]beenabletotakeastepbacksoastobecomeasecondtimewhatitwas–thepathoffateisironandstrict.Thesceneofthattime,thatworld,wasalreadyover;thepurposesforwhichtheyweredestinedtoexist,past–cantodaybecomeyesterday?SinceGod’scourseamongthenationsproceedsforthwithgiantsteps,willchildishbackwardpathsbecapableofbeingeffectedbyhumanforces?YouPtolemieswereunabletore-createEgypt!YouHadriansunabletore-createGreece!NorwasJulianabletore-createJerusalem.–Egypt,Greece,andthoulandofGod!–howmiserablyyoulie,withnakedmountains,withoutatraceorvoiceofthegeniusthatformerlyroamedoveryouandspoketothewholeworld.Why?Becauseithassaidwhatithadtosay!Itsimpressontheageshashappened–theswordiswornout,andtheshattered,emptysheathliesthere!Thatwouldbeananswertosomanyuselessdoubts,astonishments,andquestions.∗“God’scoursethroughthenations!Spiritofthelaws,ages,ethics,andarts–howtheyhavefollowed!,prepared!,developed,anddisplaced!onean-other.”Ifonlywehadsuchamirrorofthehumanspeciesinallfaithfulness,fullness,andfeelingofGod’srevelation.Enoughpreliminaryworks,buteverythinginhuskanddisorder!Wehavecreptandrummagedthroughourpresentepochofalmostallnationsandsimilarlythehistoryofalmostallearliertimesalmostwithoutourselvesknowingwhywehaverummagedthroughthem.Historicalfactsandinvestigations,discoveriesandtraveldescriptions,liethere–whowillseparateandsiftthem?“God’scoursethroughthenations!”Montesquieu’snoblegiantworkwasnotabletobecomethroughoneman’shandwhatitshouldhavebeen.I.e.MarsilioFicino(–),ahumanistwhotaughtatthePlatonicAcademyinFlorence.J.Lipsius(–),Dutchneo-Stoicphilosopher.HerderishereechoingthetitleofMontesquieu’swork,discussedbelow.Montesquieu,Del’espritdeslois[OntheSpiritoftheLaws]().\nThisTooaPhilosophy()AGothicstructureinthephilosophicaltasteofhiscentury,esprit!,oftennothingmore!Tornfromitsproperplace,andcastasruinsontothreeorfourmarket-placesunderthebannerofthreemiserablecommonplaces–words!–moreover,empty,useless,indefinite,all-confusingesprit-words!Hencethroughtheworkareelingofallages,nations,andlanguages,asaroundthetowerofconfusion,thateachmighthanghisbeggar’sload,riches,andsatchelonthreeweaknails–thehistoryofallpeoplesandages,thisgreatlivingworkofGod,initssequencetooaheapofruinswiththreepeaksandcovers–butcertainlyofverynoble,worthymaterials–Montesquieu!WhoistherewhomightconstructforusGod’stemplethroughoutallcenturiesasitisinitsbuilding-forth!Theoldesttimesofhumanchildhoodarepast,butthereareremainsandmonumentsenoughthere–themostsplendidremains,thefather’sowninstructiontothischildhood–revelation.Ifyousay,humanbeing,thatthisrevelationistoooldforyouinyouroverlyclever,old-man’syears–lookaroundyou!–thegreatestpartofthenationsoftheearthisstillinchildhood,allstillspeakthatlanguage,havethoseeth-ics,providetheparadigmsofthatlevelofcivilization[Bildung]–whereveryoutravelandlistenamongso-calledsavagesthereresoundsoundsfortheelucidationofscripture!,therewaftlivingcommentariesonrevelation!TheidolatrythattheGreeksandRomansenjoyedforsomanycenturies,theoftenfanaticalzealwithwhichintheircaseeverythinggotsoughtout,illuminated,defended,praised–whatgreatpreparatoryworksandcontributions!Whenthespiritofexaggeratedreverencewillhavebeenblunted,thefactionalismwithwhicheachpersoncuddleshispeopleasaPandorasufficientlybroughtintobalance–youGreeksandRomans,thenwewillknowyouandclassifyyou!AbypathtotheArabshasmadeitsappearance,andaworldofmon-umentsliesavailablefromwhichtoknowthem.MonumentsofmedievalI.e.thetowerofBabel.Herder’srepeatedcomplaintinthisparagraphthatMontesquieuimposesasimplisticandsuper-ficialthreefoldschemaofclassificationpresumablyreferstoMontesquieu’sfourfolddistinctioninDel’espritdesloisbetween()democracy,basedontheprincipleofvirtue,()aristocracy,basedontheprincipleofmoderation,()monarchy,basedontheprincipleofhonor,and()despotism,basedontheprincipleoffear–afourfolddistinctionwhichoftenseemstocollapseintoathreefoldonewhenMontesquieueithersubsumesboth()and()underthesingleconceptofarepublic,orsharplydistinguishes(),(),and()astheonlymoderateandlegitimateformsofgovernmentfrom().Accordingtomyth,PandorawaschosenbyEpimetheustobehiswifeforherbeauty,butherboxprovedtobethesourceofallevilsforhumankind.\nPhilosophyofHistoryhistoryhavebeenforthcoming,thoughforquitedifferentpurposes,andinpartwhatstillliesinthedustwillcertainlybefoundsoon,perhapsinhalfacentury(ifonlyeverythingcouldbehopedforfromourenlightenedtimewithsuchcertainty!).Ourtraveldescriptionsmultiplyandimprove;everyonewhohasnothingtodoinEuroperunsovertheearthwithasortofphilosophicalrage–wecollect“materialsfromtheendsofthewholeworld”andwillonedayfindinthemwhatwesoughtleastofall,treatmentsofthehistoryofthemostimportanthumanworld.Ouragewillsoonopenanumberofeyes,driveusingoodenoughtimetoseekatleastidealspringsforthethirstofadesert.–Wewilllearntoseethevalueofagesthatwenowdespise–thefeelingofuniversalhumanityandblisswillstir–theresultofruin-filledhistorywillbecomeprospectsofahigherthanhumanthis-worldlyexistence,willshowusplanwhereweformerlyfoundconfusion.Everythingoccursinitsproperplace–historyofhumanityinthenoblestsense–youwillcometobe!Sountilthenletthegreatteacherandlawgiverofkingsleadandleadastray.Hehasgivensuchabeautifulmodelformeasuringeverythingwithtwoorthreewords,ofguidingeverythingtowardstwoorthreeformsofgovernmentinwhichitiseasilyvisiblewhencetheycomeandhowlimitedtheirextentanddurationare.Howpleasanttofollowafterhiminthespiritofthelawsofalltimesandpeoples,andnotofhispeople–thattooisfate.Oneoftenholdsthetangleofthreadsinone’shandforalongtime,andtakespleasureinbeingabletopluckatitinamerelyindividualwayinorderjusttoconfounditthemore.Afortunatehandthathasthedesiretounraveltheconfusedmassgentlyandslowlyinonethread–howfarandevenlythethreadruns!–historyoftheworld!,whither,itnowturnsout,thesmallestandthegreatestrealmsandbirds’nestsstrive.∗Alltheeventsofourageareatagreatheightandstrivefarafield–itseemstomethatinthesetwothingsliesthecompensationforthefactthatadmittedlyweareabletohaveeffectasindividualswithlessforceandfeelingofjoy.Hencetrulyencouragementandstrength.Socratesofourage!,youcannolongerhaveeffectlikeSocrates–foryoulackthesmall,narrow,stronglyactive,compressedstage!,thesim-plicityofthetimes,ofethics,andofnationalcharacter!,thedefinednessofThisdescriptionreferstoMontesquieuagain.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()yourcircle!–Acitizenoftheearth,andnolongeracitizenatAthens,younaturallyalsolacktheperceptionofwhatyoushoulddoinAthens,thecertainfeelingofwhatyoudo,thesensationofjoyatwhatyouhaveaccomplished–yourdemon!Butbehold!,ifyouactlikeSocrates,strivewithhumilityagainstprejudices,disseminatetruthandvirtuehon-estly,withloveforhumankind,self-sacrificingly,howyoucan...Thescopeofyoursphereperhapscompensatesforthelessdeterminatequal-ityandlackingqualityofyourbeginning!Ahundredpeoplewillreadyouandnotunderstandyou,ahundredreadandyawn,ahundredreadanddespise,ahundredreadandslander,ahundredreadandprefertohavethedragon-chainsofhabitandremainwhotheyare.Butkeepinmindthatperhapsahundredstillremainleftoverwithwhomyoubearfruit–whenyouarelongsincedecayed,stillaworldofposteritywhichreadsyouandappliesyoubetter.WorldandworldofposterityisyourAthens!Speak!Worldandworldofposterity!AneternalSocrates,havingeffect,andnotmerelythedeadbustwreathedwithpoplarfoliagewhichwecallimmortality!Socratesspokevividly,lively,inanarrowdistrict–andwhathesaidfoundsuchagoodplace.–XenophonandPlatofictionalizedhimintotheirmemorabiliaanddialogues–theywereonlymanuscripts,luck-ilyforusbetterescapedfromthestreamoftimethatwashesawaythanahundredothers.Whatyouwriteshoulddeservetheworldandeternitywordafterwordbecause(atleastintermsofmaterialsandpossibility)youwritefortheworldandeternity.Intowhosehandyourtextcancome!,howworthythemenandjudgesareinwhosecircleyoushouldspeak!TeachvirtueinsuchalightandclarityasSocratesinhisagewasnotyetableto!;encouragetoaloveofhumankindwhich,ifitcouldexist,wouldbetrulymorethanloveoffatherlandandfellowcitizens!;disseminateblisseveninconditions,eveninsituations,inwhichthosepeoplewiththeirthirtysaviorsofthefatherland,whohadtheirstatuesdedicatedtothemaswell,hardlylikedtofindthemselves–Socratesofhumanity!Teacherofnature!,howmuchmoreyoucanbethanAristotleorPliny!Howverymuchmoremiraclesandworksareopentoyou!,whataidsthatthosepeopledidnothavetoopenthemforothers’eyes!,onwhataheightThisisanallusiontoSocrates’daimonion,ordivinesign.ThisisanallusiontotheThirtyTyrantswhoruledoverAthensin–BC.Herder’spointisthatthemodernauthorshoulddaretospreadhismessageevenundertheprevailingmodernconditionsofmonarchicaltyranny.\nPhilosophyofHistoryyoustand!ThinkofNewton!,whatNewtonbyhimselfeffectedforthewholeofthehumanspirit!,whatallthathaseffected,changed,borneasfruiteverywhere!,towhataheighthehasraisedhiswholespecies!–Youstandontheheight!,youstrive–insteadofconfiningGod’sgreatcreationintoasmallstructurebelongingtoyourownhead(ofcosmogony,theoriginsofanimals,theshapingofforms,andthatsortofthing)bb–merelyafterthecurrentofGod’sforce,tofeelit,andtoallowotherstofeelit,deeplyandfaithfullyinallitsforms,shapes,andcreations,toservetheCreatorandnotyourself.–Messengerofgloriousmajestythroughalltherealmsofbeings!Onlyfromthisheightintimewereyouabletotakethisflighttotheheavens,discover,speakwiththisfullnessandnobilityandwisdom!,refreshwiththisinnocent,mighty,perfectlybeneficentdivinevisionhumanheartswhichcouldnotberefreshedfromanyotherpuddle.Thisyoudofortheworldandtheworldofposterity!Admittedly,amongalldiscoverersandinvestigatorsonlyasingleperson,asinglesmallname!–butfortheworldandtheworldofposterity!,andhowloftily!,howgloriously–asPlinyandAristotlewerenotableto–angelofGodinyourage!WhatahundredmoremeansthedoctorandknowerofhumannaturehasnowthanhadHippocratesandMachaon!IncomparisontotheseheiscertainlyasonofJupiter,agod!Andwhatifnowheweretobecomethiswithallthesensationofthosemorehumantimesinaddition!–god,dis-coverer,andsaviorforthesickpersoninbodyandsoul!,savinghereayouthwhonowfoundaserpentoffireamongthefirstrosesoflifewhichhethoughthewaspicking–weretorestorehim(perhapshealonecandothis!)tohimself,tohisparents,totheposteritythatthroughusawaitsanexistencefulloflifeordeath,totheworld,tovirtue!Weretosupportherethemanwhobecameavictimofhisownmeritsthroughlabororsorrow,weretogivehimthesweetestrewardthathecouldenjoynow,thoughoftenonlyasthewholethanksforhislife:abrightoldage!Weretosavehim–perhapsthesolepillaragainstahundredcalamitiesofhumanitywhichwillattendthelastlookthathiseyestake–fromthegraveforjustafewyears!Thegoodoftheseyearshis;theconsolation,thebrightness,thatthismanawakenedfromthedeaddistributes,his!Intimeswhenasinglesavedmancandosomuch,andinwhicheventhemoreinnocentpartofhumanitycansomiserablycometogriefbbBuffon.MachaonisahealerinHomer’sIliad.Readingretteteorrettet’forrettet.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()inwhatahundredways–whatareyouinthesetimes,doctorwithahumanheart!WhyshouldIgothroughallranksandclassesofjustice,ofreligion,ofthesciences,ofindividualarts–thehighereachoneisinitskind,thefurtheritseffectscanreach,thenhowmuchbetteranddeareritis!Preciselybecauseyouhadtohaveeffectinthiswayonlyofyourfreewill,becausenothingrequiredorforcedyoutoactsowellandgreatlyandnoblyinyourrankandclass,preciselybecausenothingevenawakenedyouandrathereverythingpressedtomakeyouintoamerelymechanicalservantofyourart,andtoputtosleepeverydeepersensation–andperhapsthisunusualcasethatevenplantedonyourhead,insteadoflaurel,thorns–somuchthepurer,thequieter,thedivinerisyourhidden,moretestedvirtue.Itismorethanthatvirtueofotherageswhich,awakenedbypromptingsandrewards,wasintheendreallyonlyacitizen’sappurtenanceandnoblefineryofthebody!–yoursisthelife-sapoftheheart.HowIwouldhavetospeakifIwantedtodescribethemeritofthosewhoarereallypillarsorhingesofourcenturyaboutwhomeverythingmoves.Regents!,shepherds!,guardiansofthepeoples!–theirforce,withthemain-springsofourage,issemi-omnipotence!Justtheirimage,theirlook,theirwish,theirsilentmannerofthoughtthatsimplyletsthingshappen–simplytheirgeniustellsthemthattheyarethereforsomethingnoblerthantoplaywithawholeflockasamachinefortheirown–howeverglorious–purposes;alsotopasturethisflockasapurpose!,andifmore,totakecareofagreaterwholeofhumanity–regents,shepherds,guardiansofthepeoples!,withthescepterofomnipotenceintheirhands!,withfewhumanforces!,inyears!,todobymeansofmereintentionandencouragementhowinfinitelymuchmorethanthatmoguldoesonhisgoldenthroneorthatdespotnowwantstodoonathroneofhumanheads!WhoeversuccumbstomerelypoliticalintentionsisperhapsinthehighestranksuchacommonersoulasIfIunderstandthissentencecorrectly,itstartsoutintendingtoillustratetheprecedingcommentthat“theirforce...issemi-omnipotence”byreferringtothepowerof“justtheirimage,theirlook,theirwishetc.”butbeforetheillustrationgetscompletedtheconstructionandthethoughtgetchangeddueto“–simplytheirgeniustellsthemetc.”whichineffectmakes“genius”sumupthelist“theirimage,theirlook,theirwishetc.”andhencetransformsthatlistintopartofthefollowingconstructionandthought:“Justtheirimage,theirlook,theirwish,theirsilentmannerofthoughtthatsimplyletsthingshappen...tellsthemthattheyarethereforsomethingnobleretc.”ThesentenceishenceanotherexampleofHerderusingSophocles’techniqueofamidstreamswitchinconstructionandthought.Theneteffectistoconveytwoclaims:()that“justtheirimage,theirlook,theirwishetc.”demonstrateinvirtueoftheirpowerfuleffectstheserulers’“semi-omnipotence,”and()thatthey–thereby–showthattheremustbesomehigherpurposetotheserulers’functioningthanmerelytheirselfishplay.\nPhilosophyofHistorythatlentil-throwerwhoisonlyhappytohavethrownorthatflute-playerwhomerelyhitstheholes...Iprefertospeakwithyou,shepherdofyourflock,father,motherinthepoorhut!Youtoohavehadtakenawayfromyouathousandpromptingsandenticementswhichformerlymadeyourfatherlyoccupationintoaheavenforyou.Youcannotdeterminethedestinyofyourchild!–youfindthatitgetsmarkedearly,perhapsalreadyinthecradle,withanhonoraryshackleoffreedom–ourphilosophers’highestideal!Youcannoteducateitforthepaternalflock,paternalethics,virtue,andexistence–henceyouhaveallalonglackedacircleand,sinceeverythingisandrunsconfused,yourmostfacilitatingmotiveofeducation,acleargoal.Youhavetoworrythatassoonasyourchildistornoutofyourhandsitwillsuddenlysinkintothecentury’sgreatoceanoflight,abyss!–sunkenjewel!,unrecoverableexistenceofahumansoul!,thebloom-richtreetorntooearlyfromitsmother-earth,transplantedintoaworldofstormswhicheventhehardeststemoftenhardlywithstands,perhapsevenimplantedthitherwithinvertedend,crowninsteadofroot,andthesadrootintheair–itthreatensshortlytostandthereforyouwithered,horrible,withitsbloomandfruitontheearth.Donotdespairinthedregsoftheage!,whatevermaythreatenandimpedeyou–educate.Educateallthebetter,themoresurely,themorefirmly–forallthesituationsandmiseriesintowhichhemaybethrown!,forstormswhichawaithim!Afterall,youcannotbeinactive–youhavetoeducateeitherbadlyorwell–well–andhowmuchgreaterthevirtue!,howmuchgreatertherewardthanineveryparadiseofeasierpurposesandmoreuniformformation.Howmuchmorethaneverbeforetheworldnowneedsasinglepersoneducatedtosimplevirtue!Whereallethicsarethesameandallequallyeven,right,andgood–whatneedisthereofeffort!Habiteducatesandvirtuegetslostinmerehabit.Buthere!Ashiningstarinthenight!Adiamondamongheapsofearth-stonesandlimestones!Ahumanbeingamongbandsofapesandpoliticalghouls–howmuchhecanformhimfurtherthroughquiet,godlikeexample!,spreadwavesaboutHerderisherealludingtoastory,ultimatelyduetoQuintilian,accordingtowhichamanwhopossessedtherathertrivialskillofthrowinglentilsthroughtheeyeofaneedledisplayedthisskilltoAlexandertheGreatandreceivedfromhimthe“reward”ofalargemeasureoflentils!Thestoryisproverbialfortrivial,pointlessskillandeffort.AccordingtoSuphan,inEastPrussiaboysdestinedformilitaryservicealreadyearlyinlifereceivedthehonorofhavingaredribbonplacedaroundtheirnecks.Erdsteinearedistinguished–significantly–byhavingalooseorhollowcenter(formedofclayorsimilarmatter).\nThisTooaPhilosophy()andafterhimselfperhapsreachingintothefuture!–Inaddition,thinkhowmuchpureryourvirtueisandhowmuchnobler!,howmanymoreandgreatertheaidstoeducationarefromcertainsides,themoreontheothersideyouandyouryouthlackexternalmotives!–thinkwhatahighervirtueyouareeducatinghimtothanLycurgusorPlatocouldormighteducatepeopleto!–thefairestageforthevirtuethatisquiet,reticent,mostlyunrecognized,butsohigh,sofarspreading!Sothisalwaysseemscertaintome:thefewerentirelyandgreatlygoodpeopletheremaybeinourcentury,theharderthehighestvirtuemustbecomeforus,andthequieter,themorehiddenitnowcanonlybecome–whereitexists,thenthatmuchhigher,nobler,perhapsatsometimeinfinitelyusefulandconsequence-bearing,[a]virtue[itis]!Byourforthemostpartabandoningandrenouncingourselves,beingunabletoenjoyanumberofimmediaterewards,strewingtheseedoutintothewideworldwithoutseeingwhereitfalls,takesroot,whethereventhereiteveneventuallybearsfruitforthegood.Noblertosowintohiddennessandthewholewideworldwithoutoneselfexpectingaharvest!,andcertainlythatmuchgreatertheharvestinthewholewideworld!Entrusttheseedtothewaftingzephyr–itwillcarryitthatmuchfurther;andwhenatsometimethereawakenallthegermstowhichthenoblerpartofourcenturyalsoquietlyandsilentlymadeitscontribution–inwhatablessedagemyviewlosesitself!∗Itispreciselyonthetree’shighesttwigsthatthefruitsbloomandbud–beholdtherethebeautifulprospectofthegreatestofGod’sworks!,enlight-enment–althoughthisdoesnotalwaysbenefitus,althoughwiththelargersurfaceandscopeweloseinthedepthandscouringoftheriver–certainlypreciselyinorderthatwe,alreadyourselvesasmallsea,mightapproachagreatocean.Associatedconceptsfromthewholeworld–aknowledgeofnature,oftheheavens,oftheearth,ofthehumanspecies,almostasrichasanyouruniversecanofferus–itsessence,itssubstanceandfruit,remainsforposterity.ThecenturyhasbeenpassedbeyondinwhichItalyformeditslanguage,ethics,poetry,politics,andartsunderconfusion,oppression,rebellion,anddeception–whatgotformedhassurviveditscentury–hadfurthereffectandbecameEurope’sfirstform.ThemiseryandwoeunderThissentenceisanotherexampleofHerder’suseofbrachylogy.\nPhilosophyofHistorywhichthecenturyofFrance’sgreatkinggroanedisinpartover;thepurposesforwhichhewantedandneededeverythingareforgotten,orstandthereidleasdollsofvanityandderision;allhisbrazenseaswhichhehimselfboreandthewallswherehewashimselfalwayspresentaresurrenderedtothethoughtofanyonewhodoesnotintheprocessevenwanttothinkwhatLouiswanted.–Butthespiritoftheartspracticedonthemhasremained.Theresearchesoftheexpeditionsforplantsandcoinsandgemstonesandspirit-levelsandsurveyingremainwheneveryonehasperishedwhoparticipatedinthisandsufferedbecauseofitandeverythingforwhichitwasdone!Thefuturestripsusofourhuskandtakesthekernel.Thelittletwigdoesnotbenefitfromthisatall,butitisfromitthatthelovelyfruitshang.What,then,ifatsomefuturetimeallthelightwhichwesowintotheworld,withwhichwenowblindmanyeyes,makemanymiserableandgloomy,weretobecomeeverywheremoderatedlife-lightandlife-warmth–themassofdeadbutbrightcognitions,thefieldfullofbonesthatlieson,around,andunderus,weretobecome–whence?,forwhat?–enlivened–madefertile?–whatanewworld!,whathappiness[foraperson]toenjoytheworkofhishandsinit!Everythingdowntoinventions,delights,dis-tress,fate,andcontingencystrivestoraiseusaboveacertaincrudersensualityofearlierages,todishabituateusintheinterestofahigherabstractioninthinking,willing,living,andacting–somethingthatisnotalwayspleasantforus,oftenirritating!ThesensualityoftheOrient,themorebeautifulsensualityofGreece,thestrengthofRomeispassedbeyond–andhowmiserablyweareconsoledbyourwretchedabstractconsolationsandmaximswhichoftenbythemselveshavetoconstituteourreasonstoact,motives,andblisses–thechildgetscruellydishabituatedevenfromalastsensu-ality...Butbeholdthehigheragethatbeckonsforth.Nofoolcandenyit–ifthesubtlereasonstoact,thehigher,heavenlyvirtue,themoreabstractedenjoymentofearthlyblissesarepossibleforhumannature,theyaremostexaltingandennobling!Maybethereforemanynowwillperishonthisreef!Maybe,andcertainly,infinitelyfewernowhavethisvirtue`alaF´enelonLouisXIV.ThereferencetoLouisXIV’s“brazenseas”and“walls”recallsKingSolomon’sbuildingprojectatKings.ThephraseseinerH¨andeWerkechoesPsalm,v.(inLuther’sbible),wherethe“his”inquestionmeansGod’sratherthanahumanbeing’s.Thereisthereforeprobablyanintentionalandsignificantambiguityofreferenceinthe“his”here:()aperson’s,()God’s.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()thanthoseSpartans,Romans,andknightshadthesensuousbloomoftheirworld’sandage’sspirit.–Thebroadhighwaysbecomeevernarrowerstepsandsteepclimbsonwhichfewcanroam–buttheyareclimbsandstrivetowardsthepeak!Whataconditionatlastonthemeanderingsnake’spathofProvidencewhen,skinandobstaclesleftbehind,arejuvenatedcrea-tureburstsforthwithlifeinanewspringtime!–alesssensuoushumanitymorelikeitself!,nowcompletelyinpossessionofaworldaroundit,ofalife-forceandprinciple,forwhichweonlystrivewitheffort,withinit–whatacreation!Andwhoistherewhowouldhavetodenytheprob-abilityandpossibilityofthis?Therefinementandthepurifyingprogressofconceptsofvirtuefromthesensuousagesofchildhoodupthroughallofhistoryisclear,theirspreadingaboutandprogressintoawiderworldclear–andallthiswithoutapurpose?,withoutanintention?Thattheconceptsofhumanfreedom,sociability,equality,andtotalblissarebecomingenlightenedandwidespreadiswellknown.Notimmediatelywiththebestconsequencesforus–thebadoftentobeginwithoutweighingthegoodatfirstsight.But!...Sociabilityandeasyintercoursebetweenthesexes–hasitnotloweredthehonor,decency,anddisciplineofbothparties?,explodedallthecastlesofthegreatworldforrank,money,andpolitemanners?,howmuchhave[not]thefirstbloomofthemalesexandthenoblestfruitsofthefemalesexinmaritalandmaternalloveandeducationsuffered?,whitherhas[not]theirdamagespreadafield?–abyssofirreparableills!,sinceeventhesourcesofimprovementandrecovery–youth,life-force,andbettereducation–arestoppedup.–Themoreslenderbranches,whichhenceplayabouteasily,cannotbutwitherintheirprematureandforcelesslife-playamidtheraysofthesun!Irreparableloss!–perhapsbeyondcompensationforallpolitics!,beyondsufficientregretforallloveofhumankind–butforthehandofProvidencestillatool.Ifahundredpoorcreaturesheresinkdown,thirst,andlanguishwithadried-uppalatearoundthefirstsourceoflife,ofsociability,andofjoy–thesourceitself,aboutwhichtheyunhappilydeceivedthemselves,purifies!Beholdhowinlateryearsthey,perhapseveninanexaggeratedway,nowseekotherfruitsofdelight,idealizenewworldsforthemselves,andwiththeirdisasterimprovetheworld!Aspasiaswornoutbylifeeducate[bilden]Socrateses;IgnatiushisJesuits;theEpaminondasesofalltimeproduceforthemselvesbattlesofReadingderfordenen.IgnatiusofLoyola(–),founderoftheJesuitorder.\nPhilosophyofHistoryLeuktra–heroes,philosophers,wisemen,andmonksofsuchunsensuous,highervirtue,upwards-striving,andmeritoriousness–howmanymerelyforthisreason!Whoeverwantstocalculateandweighfortheworld’sbenefit,lethimdoso!Hehasbeforehimalargesumwith,forthemostpart,anotuncertainoutcome–thecourseofProvidenceproceedstoitsgoalevenovermillionsofcorpses!Freedom,sociability,andequalityastheyarenowsproutingupevery-where–theyhavecausedharmandwillcauseharminathousandmisuses.AnabaptistsandfanaticswroughthavoconGermanyinLuther’stimes;andnow,withthegeneralmixingoftheclasses,withtheupwardsdriveofthelowerpeopletotheplaceofwithered,proud,anduselesshighonesinordersoontobecomestillworsethanthese–thestrongest,mostessentialfoundationalpositionsofhumanitybecomeemptier,themassofcorruptedlife-sapflowsdeepdown.Evenifaguardianshipofthisgreatbodypaysattention,praises,andpromotesforthesakeofatimelyincreasedappetiteoraseemingadditionofforces,orevenifitweretoexerciseoppositioninthedirestway–still,itwillnevereliminatethecauseofthe“advancingrefinementandofthedrivingforrationalization,luxury,freedom,andimpudence.”Howmuchthetrue,voluntaryrespectfortheauthorities,elders,andhighestclassesintheworldhasfallensincejustonecenturyagoisinexpressiblewhenoneundertakesasmallcomparison–ourgreatpeople,boththesmallandthegreatones,con-tinuetocontributetothisinatenfoldway:barriersandturnpikestorndown;prejudices–astheyarecalled–ofclass,ofeducation,andnatu-rallyofreligiontrampledunderfoot,andevenmockedtotheirharm;weareallbecoming–throughonesortofeducation,philosophy,irreligion,enlightenment,vice,andfinally,asabonus,throughoppression,bloodthirsti-ness,andinsatiableavarice,whichcertainlyawakensmindsandbringsthemtoself-feeling–weareallbecoming–salvationbeours!,andaftermuchdisorderandmisery,salvationbeours!–whatourphilosophysopraisesandstrivesfor–lordandserf,fatherandchild,youthandthemostfor-eignmaiden,weareallbecomingbrothers.ThesegentlemenprophesylikeAttheBattleofLeuktrainBCEpaminondas,aThebanpoliticianandgeneral,ledhisThebanstoasurprisingdecisivevictoryovertheSpartans.Readingungewissemforungewissen.ThisisanotherexampleofHerderusingatypeofdeliberateoxymoron(theappearanceofcontradictionbeingofcoursemerelysuperficialratherthanfundamentalwhenonekeepsinmindthedifferencebetweendifferentsensesofthegreat/smalldistinction).\nThisTooaPhilosophy()Caiaphas,thoughindeedinthefirstinstanceabouttheirownheadsortheheadsoftheirchildren!Evenifour“humangovernment”hadgainednothingmorethanabeau-tifulcovering–thisgoodseemingandappearance,thelanguage,thefirstprinciplesanddispositionsandorder,whichnoweverybookandeveryyoungprince,asthoughhewerealivingbook,carriesonthetongue–greatprogress.LetsomeonemaketheexperimentofreadingMachiavelliandAntimachiavellitogether–thephilosopherandfriendofhumankindwillhonorthelatter,willgladlyoverlookhisuntouchedrottenspotscoveredoverwithflowersandgreenbrushandhisunplumbedwoundswhereithasnotbeendesiredorlikedtogettothebottomofthematter,andsay:Whatabook!,whataprincehewhowouldthinklikethatbook!,wouldonlyconfess,acknowledge,know,actinaccompanyingdispositions–whataprincefortheworldandtheworldofposterity!Itistruethatinsteadofcrude,inhumanlycruelmadnessillnessescouldgovernwhicharejustasoppressiveandmoredamagingbecausetheycreep[uponone],getpraisedandnotrecognized,andeatintothesoulrightdowntoboneandmarrow.Theuniversaldressofphilosophyandloveofhumankindcanhideoppressions,attacksonthetrue,personalfreedomofhumanbeingsandlands,citizensandpeoples,ofjustthesortthatCesareBorgiawouldwishfor.Allthatinaccordancewiththeacceptedfirstprinciplesofthecentury,withadecentappearanceofvirtue,wisdom,loveofhumankind,andcareforpeoples.Sinceitcanhappenthatwayandalmostmust–Idonotliketobeaeulogistofthesecoveringsasthoughtheywereactions.Doubtless,evenMachiavelliwouldinourcenturynothavewrittenashewroteandCesarewouldinadifferentcontextnothavebeenallowedtoactashedidinhisday–atbottomevenwithallthisstillnothingbutthedresswouldbechanged.Butevenjustthechangingofthisisamercy.ThefactthatinourcenturyanyonewhowrotelikeMachiavelliwouldgetstoned...butItakebackwhatIjustsaid...HewhowritesmoreharmfullyforvirtuethanMachiavellidoesnotgetstoned–hewritesphilosophically,wittily,French,andofcourse–withoutreligion.Hence“likeoneofus”!And–ofcoursedisavowshiswritings!John:–:Caiaphas,highpriestofthePharisees,prophesiedthatJesuswoulddie.FredericktheGreat,Antimachiavelli().CesareBorgia(–),sonofapope,andhimselfaRenaissanceprince,provided,throughhisuseofcunningandviolence,amodelforMachiavelli’sPrince.\nPhilosophyofHistoryWildnessinthinking,aslongasithappenswithcertainproprietiesofprosperity(thetrueprosperitymaybeallthefurtheroff!)–evenonthispoisonous,undisciplinedtreetheresproutgoodfruits!Doyounotbe-lievethatthissenseandnonsensewhichisnowspokensouninhibitedlyagainstreligionwillatsomefuturepointhaveexcellenteffects?Abstract-ingfromelucidations,justifications,andproofsofreligion,whichoftendonotprovemuch,Idonotknowwhatgreatmanwouldprophesyanextcenturyofsuperstitiongiventhatourcenturyexhausteditselfintosuchstupidunbelief.–Buthoweverthismayturnout(anditwouldbegrimifonlysuperstitioncouldagaintakeoverfromunbeliefandtheeternal,miserablecircularcourseyieldednoprogress!),religion,reason,andvirtuemustinevitablyonedayprofitthroughthemaddestattacksoftheirfoes!–Wit,philosophy,thefreedomtothinkwerecertainlyonlycontrarytotheirknowledgeandvolitionaframeforthisnewthrone–suddenlyonedaythecloudparted,andiftheythenstandtheirgroundtherewillemergeinfullglorytheall-illuminatingsunoftheworld.Alsothegreatscopeandtheuniversalityinwhichallthatproceedscan,wesee,clearlybecomeanunrecognizedframeforthis.ThemoreweEuropeansinventmeansandtoolstosubjugate,todeceive,andtoplunderyouotherpartsoftheworld...Perhapsitwillonedaybepreciselyyourturntotriumph!Weaffixchainswithwhichyouwillpullus;theinvertedpyramidsccofourconstitutionswillturnuprightonyourground;withusyouwill...Enough,itisevidentthateverythingistendingtoalargerwhole!Weembracethecircleoftheearth–whateverwemaydothiswith–andwhatcomesnextcanprobablyneveranylongernarrowthiscircle’sfoundation!Weareapproachinganewact[oftheplay],evenifadmittedlyonlythroughdecay!Preciselythefactthatourmannerofthoughtbecomesrefinedingoodandbadandthatpreciselytherebyourstronger,moresensuousfirstprinciplesandmotivesgetworndown,withoutthegreatermasshavingthedesireorforcetoopposethiswithanythingnoryettoputanythinginitsplace–whithermustthisbringus?Thesensuous,strongbondsoftheancientrepublicsandagesarelongsince(anditisatriumphofourtime!)dissolved;everythinggnawsatthefinerbondsofourtime:philosophy,freethinking,luxury,andaneducationinallthisthatisfrommembertomemberdeeperandmorewidelyspread.–EvenpeacefulwisdomalreadyccTheknight[William]Templecomparedacertainformofgovernmentwiththisimage!\nThisTooaPhilosophy()hastodamnordespisemostofourpoliticalmotives,andwhatanoldreproachandscrupleonbothsidesisthequarrelbetweenChristianityandworldliness!Hence,sinceweaknesscanendinnothingbutweakness,andanoverstrenuousresorttoandmisuseoftheforces’lastpatientthrowcanonlyhastenthatcompletethrowingdown...Butitisnotmyofficetoprophesy!Stilllesstoprophesy“whatalonecan,will,andalmostmustbethesubstituteandsourceofnewlife-forcesonasobroadenedstage–whencenewspiritcanandwillbringallthelightandthehumandispositionthatweareworkingfortowarmth,topermanence,andtocompletebliss.”WithoutadoubtIamstilltalkingaboutdistanttimes!Letus,mybrothers,workwithcourageous,happyheartsevenrightinthemiddleofthecloud[Wolke]–forweareworkingforagreatfuture.Andletusacceptourgoalaspure,asbright,asfreeofaccretionsaswecan–forweruninthelightofawill-o’-the-wispandtwilightandfog.∗WhenIthereseedeeds,orratherintuitsilentcharacteristicmarksofdeeds,proceedingfromamindthat,toogreatforitsage’senvelope,andtooquietandshyforitsage’scryofpraise,goesforthandsowsindark-ness–seedswhich,likeallofGod’sworksandcreations,beginfromasmallsporebutinwhichatthefirstlittleshootoneseesandsmells,solovely,thattheywillprovetobeGod’screationinconcealment–andespe-ciallyiftheyweredispositionstothenoblestplantofhumanity,civilization[Bildung],education,strengtheningofnatureinitsneediestnerves,loveofhumanbeings,sympathy,andbrotherlybliss–holyplants,whoistherethathasroamedamongyouwhowouldnotbegrippedbyashudderofabetterfutureandwouldnotblessyourauthor–bothsmallandgreat,kingandserf–inthequietestevening-,morning-,andmidnight-offering.Allmerelybodilyandpoliticalpurposesfallapart,likeshardsandcorpses–thesoul!,themind!,contentforthewholeofhumanity–thisremains–andhappyforhimwhoreceivedmuchtherefromthepure,uncloudablespringoflife!Thisimageofthecloud[Wolke]includes,besides()itscentralconnotationofaconditionofignoranceanduncertainty,also()anallusiontothecloudoftheLordthat,accordingtotheOldTestament,accompaniedtheIsraelitesontheirjourneythroughthedesert,and()anallusiontothemoderntornadotowhichHerderreferredearlierinthisessay,andforwhichheusedthesimilarwordZiehwolke.\nPhilosophyofHistory∗Itisalmostunavoidablethatpreciselythehigher,widelyspreadqualityofourcenturymustalsoyieldambiguitiesofthebestandworstactionswhichwouldbeabsentinnarrower,deeperspheres.Preciselythatnooneanylongerknowshardlytowhatendheoperates–thewholeisaseawherewavesandsurges–whither?,buthowviolently!–roar–doIknowwhitherIamgoingwithmylittlesurge?–Notonlyenemyandslandererwilloftenbeabletocastthebeginningsmadebythemosteffective,bestmaninadoubtfullight–perhapstherewillalsoappearfogandhalf-lighteventothewarmadmirerinhiscolderhours.Allradiiarealreadysofarfromthecenter–allrunwhither?,andwhenwilltheyarrivethere?Itisknownwhatallreformersofallageshavebeenreproachedwith:thatwhentheytookanewsteptheyalsoalwaysleftgapsbehindthem,produceddustandquakingbeforethem,andtrodwhatwasinnocenttopiecesbeneaththem.Thisappliestothereformersofthelastcenturiesmoreobviouslyanddoubly.Luther!,GustavusAdolphus!,PetertheGreat!Whatthreehaveinmoderntimeschangedmore?,changedwithnoblerintentions?Andhavetheir–especiallytheirunforeseen–consequencesalwaysatthesametimebeenincontrovertibleincreasesinthehappinessoftheirposterity?Whoeverisfamiliarwithlaterhistory–willhenotsometimeshavegravedoubts?AmonarchwhosenameourtimecarriesmoreandmoredeservestocarrythantheageofLouis–whomforushiscenturypreservesalongwithitself!–whatanewcreationofEuropehehaseffectedfromhislittlespotinthirtyshortyears!–Intheartofwarandofgovernment,inthetreatmentofreligionandarrangementofthelaws,asApollooftheMuses,andasprivatemanunderthecrown–accordingtotheuniversalimpression,theparagonofmonar-chies–whatgoodhehascaused!Hasspreadenlightenment,philosophicalspirit,andmoderationallaroundfromthethrone!HashowterriblyruinedandchasedoffOriental,stupidsplendor,revelry,andluxury,whichwasformerlyoftenthesolegoldenpreserveofthecourts!HaseverywherehowFredericktheGreat.I.e.LouisXIV.Herderisagainusingbrachylogyhere;hemeans“thantheageofLouiscarriesanddeservestocarrythenameofLouis.”TheselinesaretakenfromKlopstock’sode“AnGleim[ToGleim].”\nThisTooaPhilosophy()deeplywoundedfatignorance,blindzeal,andsuperstition!Hasraisedhowhighthriftandorder,regularityandindustry,fineartsandaso-calledtasteforfreethinking!–Thecenturywearshisimageasitdoeshisuniform–centurywithoutadoubtthegreatesteulogyofhisname.–However,preciselythiscoin,withtheportraitturnedawayandthemereresultofhiscreationasafriendofhumankindandaphilosopherconsidered,willalsowithoutdoubtatsomepointrevealsomethingmoreanddifferent!Willrevealperhapshow,throughanaturallawoftheimperfectionofhumandeeds,withtheenlightenmentalsojustasmuchluxuriatingexhaustionoftheheartinevitablyspreadabroad;withthrift,itsbadgeandtrooppoverty;withphilosophy,blind,shortsightedunbelief;withfreedominthought,al-waysslaveryinaction,despotismofsoulsunderchainsofflowers;withthegreathero,conqueror,andspiritofwar,deadness,Romanconstitution,asarmieswereeverythingthere,decline,andmisery.Willrevealwhatloveofhumankind,justice,moderation,religion,wellbeingofsubjects–alluptoacertainpointtreatedasmeanstoachievement–whatsortofconsequencesallthishadtohaveonhisage–onrealmswithquitedifferentconstitutionsandorders–ontheworldandtheworldofposterity.Thescaleswillhover?Rise–sink–whichpan?HowdoIknow?“Theauthorofahundredyears”ddwhowithoutquarrelorcontradictionhashadaneffectonhiscenturylikeamonarch–read,learned,admired,and(whatisstillmore)followedfromLisbontoKamchatka,fromNovayaZemlyaasfarasthecoloniesofIndia–withhislanguage,withhishundred-foldtalentsforwording,withhislightness,withhiszestinideasforsheermetaphors–aboveallthroughhavingbeenbornattherightpointtousetheworld,tousepredecessorsandcompetitors,touseopportunities,occasions,especiallyprejudicesandpetweaknessesofhisage,andofcourseespe-ciallythemostusefulweaknessesofthefairestbridesofhisage,theregentsinallofEurope–thisgreatauthor,whathashenotalsowithoutdoubtdoneforthebenefitofthecentury!Lightspreadabroad,so-calledphilosophyofhumanity,tolerance,facilityinindependentthought,gleamofvirtueinahundredamiableshapes,thinnedandsweetenedlittlehumaninclinations–asanauthorwithoutdoubtonthegreatestheightofthecentury!–Butnowatthesametimewiththat,whatmiserablerecklessness,weakness,uncertainty,andcoldness!,whatshallowness,planlessness,skepticismaboutvirtue,happiness,andmerit!–whatlaughedoffwithhiswit,withoutinpartddVoltaire.\nPhilosophyofHistorywantingtolaughitoff!–gentle,pleasant,andnecessarybondsdissolvedwithamischievoushandwithoutgivingus,whodonotallresideattheChateaudeFernay,theleastthingintheirplace?Andthroughwhatmeansandrouteshasheachievedevenhisbest?Intowhosehands,then,doeshedeliveruswithallthisphilosophyandaestheticisminmannerofthoughtwithoutmoralityorfirmhumansensation?Oneisfamiliarwiththegreatcabalsagainstandforhim,knowshowdifferentlyRousseaupreaches–perhapsitisgoodthatbothpreachfarapartfromeachotherandinmanythingsbothcancelingeachother–thisisoftentheendofhumanbeginning!,thelinescanceleachotherbuttheirfinalpointremains!Tobesure,nogreatmindthroughwhichfateeffectschangecanbemeasured,witheverythingthatitthinksandfeels,accordingtothecommonruleofeverymediocresoul.Thereareexceptionsofahigherkindandforthemostparteverythingdeservingofnoteintheworldhappensthroughtheseexceptions.Thestraightlinesalwaysjustcarryonstraightahead,wouldleaveeverythingwhereitis!,ifthedeitydidnotalsocastextraordinaryhumanbeings,comets,intothespheresofthepeacefulorbitaroundthesun,didnotmakethemfallandintheirdeepestfallriseupagainwhithernoeyeonearthfollowsthem.Also,onlyGodoramonghumanbeingsafoolputsontheaccountofthemeritandtheinitialintentionoftheagenteveryremotestmoralorimmoralconsequenceofanaction!–otherwisewhowouldfindineverythingintheworldmoreaccusersthanthefirstandsoleagent,theCreator!–But,mybrothers,letus,though,notabandonthepolesaroundwhicheverythingturns–truth,consciousnessofgoodintention,happinessofhumanity!Letus,mostofall,onthehighestofhighseasonwhichwearecurrentlyfloating,inalightofwill-o’-the-wispandfogthatisperhapsworsethancompletenight–letustherelookdiligentlytothesestars,thepointsofalldirection,security,andpeace,andthensteerourcoursewithfaithfulnessandindustry.∗Greatmustbethewholewherealreadyineveryindividualitythereappearssuchawhole!,butineveryindividualitytherealsostillonlyrevealsitselfsuchanindeterminateOne,solelyforthewhole!Wherelittleconnectionsalreadyyieldgreatmeaning,andyetcenturiesareonlysyllables,nationsVoltaire’sresidencenearGeneva,Switzerland.\nThisTooaPhilosophy()onlylettersandperhapsinterpunctuations,whichmeannothinginthem-selvesbutsomuchfortheeasiermeaningofthewhole!What,Oindividualhumanbeing,withyourinclinations,abilities,andcontribution,areyou?–Andyouhavepretensionsthatperfectionshouldexhaustitselfinyouinallitsaspects?Preciselythelimitednessofmypointontheearth,theblindingofmylooks,thefailureofmypurposes,theriddleofmyinclinationsanddesires,theworstingofmyforcesonlyservingthewholeofaday,ofayear,ofanation,ofacentury–preciselythisisaguaranteeformethatIamnothingbutthewholeiseverything!Whataworktowhichbelongsomanyshade-groupsofnationsandages,colossus-statuesalmostwithoutviewpointorview!,somanyblindtools,whichallactintheillusionoffreedomandyetdonotknowwhattheydoorwhy,whichhavenooverviewandyetactalongaszealouslyasiftheirantheapweretheuniverse–whataworkthiswholeis!Inthetinieststretchofitofwhichwehaveanoverview,somuchorderandsomuchconfusion,knot,anddispositionforuntying[Aufl¨osung]–bothpreciselyassuranceandguaranteefortheboundlessgloriousmajestyintheuniversal.ItwouldhavetobemiserablysmallifI,flythatIam,couldhaveanoverviewofit!–howlittlewisdomandmanifoldnessifonewhoreelsthroughtheworldandhassomuchdifficultyinholdingfirmevenasinglethoughtwerenevertofindacomplication!–Inastretchthatisnothingandwhereneverthelessathousandthoughtsandseedsstrivesimultaneously,inahalf-measureofthemusicalartoftwobeatswhere,though,perhapspreciselytheheaviestnotesentwineforthesweetestresolution[Aufl¨osung]–whoamItojudge,sinceIpreciselyonlypassobliquelythroughthegreathall,andeyeaside-cornerofthegreatcoveredpaintingintheobscurestshimmer?AsSocratessaidaboutthewritingsofahumanbeingwho,limitedlikehimself,wroteinasinglemeasureofforceswithhimself–whatamIsupposedtosayaboutthegreatbookofGodwhichtranscendsworldsandtimes![Abook]ofwhichIamhardlyaletter,hardlyseethreelettersaroundme.Infinitelysmallforthepridethathaspretensionstobe,know,effect,andformeverything!Infinitelygreatforthemeeknessthatdoesnothaveconfidencetobeanything.BothnothingbutindividualtoolsintheplanofanimmeasurableProvidence!AccordingtoDiogenesLaertius,EuripidesgaveSocratestheworksofHeraclitustoreadandthenaskedhimwhathethoughtofthem,towhichSocratesreplied:“WhatIunderstoodofthemisexcellent;IbelievethesameofwhatIdidnotunderstandaswell.”\nPhilosophyofHistoryAndifonedaywefoundastandpointtotakeanoverviewofthewholemerelyofourspecies!–whitherthechainbetweenpeoplesandregionsoftheearthwhichinitiallyadvancedsoslowly,thenwounditswaythroughnationswithsomuchclashing,andfinally,withagentlerbutstricterdrawing-together,wasdestinedtobind,and–whither?–tolead,thesenations–whitherthischainreaches–wewillseetheripeharvestoftheseedswhich,strewnamongthepeoplesoutofablindsieve,wesawsproutsopeculiarly,bloomsovariously,yieldsuchambiguoushopesoffruit–wewillourselvesbeinapositiontosavorwhatsortofgoodtastetheleaventhatfermentedsolong,socloudily,andwithsuchbadtasteintheendproducedfortheuniversalformationofhumanity.Fragmentoflife,whatwereyou?–quantasubnocteiacebatNostradies!Buthappyhewhoeventhendoesnotregrethisfragmentoflife!Blepomengarartidi’esoptrouenainigmati,totedeprosˆoponprosprosˆopon–artiginˆoskˆoekmerous,totedeepignˆosomai,kathˆoskaiepegnˆosthˆen.Nunidemeneipistis,elpis,agapˆe,tatriatauta;meizˆondetoutˆonhˆeagapˆe.Thefutures“wewillsee...wewillourselvesbeinaposition”areinfactpresenttensesintheGerman.HerderisexploitingthenormalabilityofthepresenttensetobearafuturemeaninginGerman,butheisalsostretchingthis,probablyinimitationoftheancientGreekuseofapropheticpresenttense.Howdeeplybeneaththenightlayourday!Or:Howgreatlayourdaybeneaththenight!(ThelinesareadaptedfromLucan.Herdernodoubtintendsboththepossiblemeanings.)Corinthians:–:“Fornowweseethroughaglass,darkly;butthenfacetoface:nowIknowinpart;butthenshallIknowevenasalsoIamknown.Andnowabidethfaith,hope,charity,thesethree;butthegreatestoftheseischarity”(AuthorizedVersion).\nPartVPoliticalPhilosophy\n\nLettersconcerningtheProgressofHumanity()[excerptsonEuropeanpolitics]Whatspirit[Geist]is,myfriend,cannotbedescribed,drawn,painted–butitcanbefelt,itexpressesitselfthroughthoughts,movements,throughstriving,force,andeffect.Inthecorporealworldwedistinguishspiritfromthebodyandattributetospiritwhatensoulsthebodydowntoitsel-ements,whatholdslifewithinitandawakenslife,whatattractsforcesandreproducesforces.Henceintheoldestlanguagesspiritwastheexpressionforinvisible,strivingmight;ontheotherhand,flesh,person,body,corpsewasthedesignationofdeadinertnessorofanorganicdwelling,ofatool,whichthespiritusesasapowerfuloccupantandartist.Timeisathought-formationofsuccessive,mutuallylinked,condi-tions–itisameasureofthings,thethingsthemselvesareitsmeasuredcontent.Hencespiritofthetimesmeansthesumofthoughts,dispositions,strivings,andlivingforceswhichexpressthemselvesinaparticularpro-gressionofthingswithgivencausesandeffects.Weneverseetheelementsofevents,butwedoseetheirappearancesandindoingsonotetheirformandorganizationinaperceivedconnection.Henceifwewanttotalkaboutthespiritofourtimewemustfirstdeterminewhatourtimeis,whatscopewecanandliketogiveit.Onourroundearthallthehoursofthedayexistatonce,andthusalsothespiritofthetimeinthepresentmomentisnotoneandthesameinJapanandChina,inTataryandRussia,inAfricaandTahiti,inNorthAmericaandThisdraft,likethepublishedversionwhichfollows,iswrittenintheformoflettersbetweenanumberoffictionalletterwriters,notallofwhoseviewsrepresentHerder’sownconsideredpositions.ThethreeexcerptsincludedhereareallassignedtodifferentwritersbyHerder.However,theydoallseemtoreflecthisownconsideredviews.\nPoliticalPhilosophySouthAmerica.Allthemodificationstakeoverfromeachotherwithinit,theyhavetakenover,theywilltakeover,dependingonwhetherthestreamofeventsdrivesthewavesslowerorfaster.IfwerestrictourselvestoEurope,thenevenwithinthisthespiritofthetimeisverydifferentdependingonlandsandsituations,foreverywhereitisaconsequenceofprecedingconditionsmodifiedinaccordancewiththestateofthingsintoatransientNow.ThistransientNowcancertainlybeledandguided,justasitforitspartalsoleadsandguides.Itgetsusedandmisused;itgovernsandserves.HenceinordertomakethisProteustalkwemustbindhimandaskhim:WhatsortsofdispositionsandfirstprincipleshavegovernedsinceagiventimeinthepartofEuropethatiscalledtherichestinthoughts,thefullestindeeds,thegoverningpart?Whatsortsofcommonstrivingsandmovementsprovevisibleinitdespitethedifferingcharactersofthepeoples?Inwhichpartofthesepeoplesandsincewhenhavetheystirred?Whatdidtheyundertake?Didtheyalreadybringitabout?Whatdotheydrivetowards,andwithwhatprobablesuccess?ThecommoneventwhichfoundedEuropewas,fromthefifthtothetenthorthirteenthcentury,thesettlementofsavageorbarbaricpeoplesinthispartoftheworld,theirpoliticalorganization,andtheirso-calledconver-sion.Itisonthismaineventthat,withafewmodificationsbroughtbythesubsequentperiod,thepresentarrangementofEurope–thepow-ers’andproperty-owners’situationsofownership,thevariousrightsandprivilegesofthehumangroups–isgrounded.Thequestionistherefore:Whatdoesthepresenttimethinkofthisattainment,oftheseprivilegesandrights?Howarethesethingsusedandhowhavetheybeenusedforcenturies?Istheirpresentconditionjust,permitted,advantageousfortheuniversal,thatis,fortheindividualinthemajority,ornot?Historyhastoday–fromtheeleventh,twelfth,fifteenth,butmostofallfromthesixteenth,centuryon–largelydecidedaboutonebranchofthesequestions:religiousandchurchinstitutions.Thereligiouscommu-nity’scomplaintsaboutthehypocrisy,theemptiness,andtheburdenoftheceremonies,aboutthepresumptions,thepride,theluxury,andtheoppres-siveruleoftheservantsofthechurch,aroseinseverallands;thiswasan-sweredwithpersecutionandtorture;riversofbloodflowed;butthevoiceThewords“theyhavetakenover,theywilltakeover...slowerorfaster”seemtobeanotherexampleofHerderusingchiasmus.\nEuropeanPoliticsofthecommunitywasnotsuffocatedthereby,thespiritoftruthnotkilled.Themasswasledbyevermore,wiser,moreintelligentmen;intheend,insightfulorselfishprincesthemselvescameovertotheirside;aftermanybattlesthespiritofthetimeswasvictoriousinalargepartofEurope.Inotherlands,itwassuppressedforthemoment;darknessbandedtogetherandreinforceditself.Butitisasclearasdaythattheretooitcannotremainsuppressedforever.Nofog,nohypocrisy,noorder,orratherdisorder,ofthingsthatisbuiltonillusioncanmaintainitselfeternally;thethickestdarknessgiveswaytolight.Itisobviousthatsincetherevivalofthesci-encesthespiritofthetimesnowstrivesinthisdirectioninallthelandsofEurope.Necessarilyfromdaytodaymoreconsequencesofthedisordercometolight;moreoppressionsmakethemselvesfelt.TheProtestantlandshavemadeprogress;thelandsleftbehindwanttoandmustfollowthem;iftheadvancedoesnotsucceedonlegalpaths,theninevitablyitgetsattemptedonthemostviolentdeviations.Theconcealed,neglectedpoisoncreepsandragesinwardly,forathatmuchmorehorrible,morecertaindeathforthetroubledbody.Thereiscoming,thereiscomingatimewhichtheclergy,evenasitisnow,andtheparson-regimecanaslittlesurviveasthemuchmorevenerableclassofancientdruidscouldsustainitselfintheirdarkgroves.Hencethedutyofeverypersonendowedwithunderstandingistoforestallgreaterevil,andtoadvancetheunhypocrit-icaltruthintotheworldonthegentlestpath.Forwhatcanasingleguilddoagainstthewholepressingnumberoflivingandfuturegenerations?Ifthetimehasalreadydecidedconcerningthis,thechurchly,branchofhumanarrangements,thenitsvoteconcerningtheotherbranch,thatofpoliticalarrangements,mayalsonolongerseemdoubtfultousassoonasthefirstprincipleswhichareinforcetherealsogetappliedhere.Arehypocrisyandoppression,areluxury,mockery,andemptypresumption,areinjusticesandarealstatusinstatu,whetheritbecalledcourtortheguildofaethelings(thatiswhattheywerecalledinoldentimes)–aretheylessdiscordant,dotheybecomelessharmful,becausetheyareattachedtonon-priests?–sinceitshouldberememberedthatitwaspreciselythepriestlyclassthatespeciallyandobviouslyhadsomanygoodprejudicesintheinterestofthehumanspeciesspeakingforit,andveryusefullyprovedThisisanotherexampleofHerderusinganadiplosis.Statewithinastate.Likethetranslation,Herderhereusesanantiquatedtermforaristocrats,Edelinge,insteadofmoremodernandcivilized-soundingalternativessuchasAdelorEdelm¨anner.\nPoliticalPhilosophythemthroughbeneficentdeedsforwhichitcanneverbethankedenough.NowisitlikelythatamiserablesystemofconquestandwarfoundedonahordeofbarbaricvassalswhichluckilyfortheworldforthemostpartnolongerexistsatallinEurope–isitlikelythatthiswouldbeafirmerrockagainstthefloodsoftimethanachurchsystemwhich,inappearanceandlargelyalsoinfact,wasfoundedforthequietingandformationofminds,forthepeaceofthepeoples,hencefortherealandmostnoblepurposeofhumanity,withinexpressibleartandamillenniumoflabor?Thatwenolongerliveinthefifth,ninth,eleventhcenturyiscertain;thatthevassalswhowerethenpowerfularenolongeroursisestablished;thattheoldsystemoffeudalismandconquestdoesnotsuitourtimesisclear;thattherightofbloodgivesneithercompetenceforthemoreimportanttasksnormorefaithfulnessanduprightnessisunfortunatelyalltooprovenbyhistoryandexperience–sowhydowewanttocloseoureyestothemidday,alongwitheverythingthatisandhappensaroundus,intheillusionthatwereallystilllivedinthetimesofwarring,oftheHuninvasionsandthecrusades?Everythinginhumanitythatisgreat,good,andnobleworkstotheendthatthesetimesshouldandcanneveranylongerreturn–andwewouldwishtobelievethattheoldframeofthesetimes,newlywhitewashedandpainted,iseternalinnature?Thereexistsinthestateonlyasingleclass:thepeople(nottherabble)–toitbelongsthekingasmuchasthefarmer,eachinhisplace,inthecircledes-tinedforhim.Naturecreatesnoble,great,wisemen,educationandoccu-pationsformtheirabilities–theseareheadsandleadersofthepeople(aristodemocrats)arrangedbyGodandthestate.Anyotherapplicationordivisionofthisexcellentnameisandshouldeverremainatermofabuse.Now,thattheseirrefutableconceptsarereceivinggreaterandgreaterexpression,aregettingarticulatedevermoreclearlyandluminously,thatinsightfulprincesarethemselvesacknowledgingthemandgivingthemapplicationasfarastheyareable,thatthedisadvantagedorevenoppressedpartofhumansocietyiscryingouteverlouderandlouder,“Weliveattheendoftheeighteenth,nolongerintheeleventh,century!”–thisisindeedthevoice-voteofthetime,oftheoldandnewcalendar.AndThisisprobablyaneologismofHerder’s.Thephrase“oftheoldandnewcalendar”ispresumablyareferencetothelastdayofthelunarmonthintheGreekcalendar,whichborethename“theoldandthenew”duetothefactthatitmarkedboththelastwaningoftheoldmoonandthefirstwaxingofthenewone(seeespeciallyAristophanes’Clouds).Hencehere:thepointatwhichtheoldpoliticalsystemdiesandanewonearises.\nEuropeanPoliticsIknowofnoonewhocouldconvictthisgeniusoflyingorrefutethealmanac.Butwhataprophetofdoomyouareintakingthebarbaricsystemofwarandconquesttobethesole,immovablebasisofallthestatesofEurope!Ifthatisso,thenforthepeaceofhumanitymayunhappyEuropeperish!Hasitnotcauseditselfandtheworldtroubleforlongenough?Notforlongenoughconductedsenselesswarsforthesakeofreligionorfamilysuc-cession?Donotallpartsoftheworlddripwiththebloodofthosewhomitkilled,withthesweatofthosewhomittorturedasslaves?Onnature’sboardsstandswrittenthegreatlawofjusticeandrequital:“Letitmakegoodthebadthatithasdone,orletitatonethroughitsowncrimesandvices.”Ihopeforthefirst.Itwillmakegoodthebadthatithasdone–clearreason,eventhelawofcalculation,theone-times-one,worksinthatdirection,evenassumingthatwewereunwillingtohearthevoiceofjustice.Thestu-pidityofwars,bothwarsofreligionandsuccessionandwarsoftradeandministers,willbecomeobvious,andalreadyissonow;innocent,indus-triouspeopleswillpolitelydeclinethedutyandhonorofstranglingotherinnocent,peaceful,industriouspeoplesbecausetheregentorhisministeristemptedtoreceiveanewtitle,afurtherpieceoflandinadditiontothoselandswhichhealreadycannotgovern.ItwillseemtoEuropehorribletobleedtodeathortowithermiserablyinhospitalsandbarracksforafewfamilieswhoregardthegovernmentbusinessofthelandsasagenealogicalleaseholdproperty.Regentswillthemselvesbecomeenlightenedenoughtoacknowledgethestupidityinthis,andtoprefertoruleoveranumberofindustriouscitizensratherthanoveranarmyofmutuallymurderinganimals–forifbesidesthehumanspecieswhichissupposedtogovernitselftherewereinnatureakindofanimalsthatcutitselftopiecesuponorderforthesakenotofhungerbutofartorfun,whatwouldwethinkoftheauthorofnature?Soletmebelieve,myfriend,thatthemad,rag-ingsystemofconquestisnotthebasicconstitutionofEurope,oratleastneednotbeso,andalsowillnotbesoforever.Speremusatqueamemus.Theproblemswhich,quietlyandinpeace,IabstractformyselffromthecolossalrevolutioninFrance,andwhosesolutionornonsolutionIawaitwithoutpartialityorcontentionbutwithanxiousandhappylonging,are:Thisreferstothefictionalauthorofapreviousletternotincludedhere.Or:oughtnotto.Letushopeandlove.\nPoliticalPhilosophy.WhichisthebetterconstitutionthatFrancegivesandisabletogiveitself?Isitamoderatedmonarchy(adubiousname!)ormustitbebroughtback,contrarytoitswill,asfondasitisofthepreviousnameinaccordancewithitsolddelusion,toarepublic,thatis,toasystemcommontoall?Theearlierthishappensthebetter,itseemstome–foronlydespotismorcommonsystemarethetwoextremes,thepoles,aroundwhichthesphererevolves;moderatedmonarchyismerelytheirregularvacillationfromtheonepoletotheother..Canthiscommonsystem,contrarytotheusualtheory,alsooccurinsuchalargeterritoryoflandsandformerprovincesasFranceis?Domoun-tainsandvalleys,oldhabitsandprivileges,makenodifferenceinthis?Ifthisproblemgetssolvedandallpartsoftherepublicfindthemselvesingoodshapeintheprocess,thenineffectagreatstephasbeentakeninspeculationabouttheadministrationofstates;wehaveanew,highercanonthanthatwhichhasbeenacknowledgedsinceAristotle.AndIdonotseewhyitcouldnotexist,sincethelargestrealmshavelong,albeitunhappily,existedunderthemostmiserableconstitution,despotism,orwhatisstillworse,aristocraticdespotism..TowhatextentcanFrancereachanaccommodationaboutthiswithotherEuropeanstates,since,unfortunately!,itisnotsituatedinAmericanorlikeBritainborderedbythesea.WillEuropeallowittofalloutofitsownso-calledbalance–whichispreciselynotthebalanceofjustice,butofthirstforconquestandofancientfamilialrights–withouthostilityandbloodshed?Tobesure,noonehaseverguaranteedthekingofFrancehisrealmortheusurpationsthereof,norbeenableorallowedtodoso;also,thekingwasnotableorinclinedtocallonanyonefortheirsakebecausehewasunawareofanyguaranteeforthem.ButallthemoreisittobeexpectedthatEurope’spoliticswill,invirtueofthefruitfulfictionofabalancethatneverhasexistednorevercanorwillexistwithoutslaveryandcrippling,inventsomethingofthesortanddisallowFrancefromcleaningoutitsold,entirelyautonomous,throne.Butwhatmaybetheresultinourtimesofthisstrange,extremelytensed,crisisinwhichwithoutrightorauthoritymastersofforeignhousesinterfereintheadministrationofahousethatisforeigntothem,shelterandarmitsdesertersandtraitors?.How,inthecaseofsuccessfulresistance,wouldFrancebehaveaccordingtoitsfirstprincipleswhichsaythatithasrenouncedthesystemofconquest?Themoregenerously,firmly,andnobly,thebetter.Itwouldtherebyafford\nEuropeanPoliticsthefirstexampleofarightandjustwar,forwhoserunningitsownconstitutionhasmadeitselfapledgeandwatchman..Howwillitdistributeitslegislative,judicial,andexecutivepower?In-evitably,reason,justice,andorderwouldbeboundtoreceiveanevident,enduringpredominanceifinsolargearealmsuchadistributioncouldpersistwithoutdespotism.Amightystepintheorderingofthingsunderthelawofacommonorder!Sothatthisstepcanbemadeorattempted,weshouldwishthatnoforeignpowerinterfereinthefreeexperimentofanindependentnationwhichundertakesthisexperimentonitselfordisturbthisexperimentthroughprematurewisdomandinterloping..Nonationthatconstitutesapoliticalwholecanbewithouttaxes;howwillthesebejustlydistributed,howwilltheybeleviedinawaythatmostsparespeople?Willtheeconomisticsystem,againstwhichmanydoubtshavebeenraisedwiththegreatestplausibility,persist?OrwillitsufferchangeeveninFrance?WillFrancetherebysinkorriseasatradingstate?Howandinwhatrespectwillitgainbysinkingorrisingasatradingstate?–InGermanywecanawaitthesolutiontothesequestionswithgreattranquillitysinceextremelyfewofourlandsarerealtradingstatesandourtaxes,meansoflivelihood,andproductsareofacompletelydifferentkindthantheyhavebeeninFrance.Onlythepuresttheorycanserveforus–andthisneithergetsmadeoutthroughquarrelingnortestedintwoyears..WhatwillFrance’sattitudebeinregardtoworship?Andwhatwillbetheconsequencesofthisnewarrangementofthings?WenolongerliveinthesixteenthcenturyanditisnownolongerpossibleforreformationtotaketheformthatittookunderHenryVIIIinEngland.Somuchthebetter;themoreoriginallyanddeeplythethingisdone,themoreinstructiveanundertakingitwillbeforothers.Ithaslongbeendisputedwhetherunbelieforsuperstitionyieldsworseconsequences;thedeityhastoleratedshamefulidolatries,thewickedestsuperstition,insomanytimesandlands;sowecanalsowithoutworryingleaveittothedeitywhetheritwilltolerateaEuropeanChinamen’sstate,atypeofConfucius-religion.WeProtestantsdonotwanttoundertakeanycrusadesforthefallenaltars,thesecularizednunneries,theoath-breakingpriests–orelseboththeDuetotherulesgoverningpunctuationinGerman,itisnotpossibletotellwhethertheEnglishtranslationshouldhaveacommahereornot.ThedecisionwhethertoincludeitorexcludeitmakesasignificantdifferencetothestrengthandcharacteroftheclaimthatHerderismaking.I.e.mercantilism.\nPoliticalPhilosophypopeandthehighclergyoftheFrenchwouldlaughatusfortakingvengeanceforthatwhichwehavedoneourselvesandinthepossessionofwhichwecontinuetopreserveourselves.Wewanttocompareinanexaminingwaythisreformationwiththeonethathappenedtwohundredyearsago,andtotakenoteofwhatisbestfromthisonetoo..Finally,literature.LetusnotbelievethatFrancewillbecomeanunliteraryape-land,aGreenlandorSiberia,inthreeorfour,insixorseven,years.Ithassuchdecidedadvancesaheadofmany,indeedmost,Europeanlands,despitethefactthattheytoolayclaimtobedescribedascivillyadministered;itslanguageissorefinedandformed[gebildet]eveninthemouthsofthecommonpeople;somanyconceptsofphilosophy,ofethicalpropriety,andevenofdelicatetastehavesinceacenturyagobecomesuchafirm,habitualpossessionofallclassesofthenation–thatitistrulyanunnecessaryfearthatallthismightbedisplacedthroughthreeorfouryears.Moreover,thecustomaryuseofcultureandliteraturehasalsoofcourseuptothispointanythingbutceased;preciselythesethingsarebeingsetinmotionamongallclassesofthepeopleandarenowbeingmightilypracticedonthemostimportantobjectsofhumanknowledge.Thusinconditionsofgreatmiseryitisatleastthecasethatauniversalschooloftheartofreasoningandoratoryhasineffectbeenopenedforthewholenation;whoevercanspeakspeaks,andgetsheardbyEurope.Childrenandyouthsreceivethisimpression,andthesecondgenerationwillcertainlybefurtheradvancedthanthefirstwas.Bookpublishingisnotinhappyshape,andmenofdecidedvalueintheconductingofthesciencesarecurrentlyattheheadofaffairsalongwithothers.InmorepeacefultimestheywillreturntotheirMusesaftertheyhavemadedangeroussacrificestothegodsoftheirfatherlandinstormytimes.Iftheylettheoldgrandiloquenceonpulpitsandjudges’benches,inacademiesandonthetragicstage,dieout–itseemstomethatwealreadyhaveinourhandsallthemasterpiecesofwhichthesegenreswerecapable,andthatmanyagenrehadalreadyoutliveditself.Aneworderofthingsnowbeginseveninthesearts;letwordbecomedeed,letthedeedyieldwords.Whatwillnowstaystandingorsink,whatrotorbebornanew?–thesolutiontothisproblemcanbenothingbutsalutaryandinstructiveforus;forofcourseweGermansdonotlivesolelyandexclusivelyonFrance’sliteraryproducts.Onlyletnoforeignumpireinterfereinthisnativequarrel,andReadingsieforSie.\nEuropeanPoliticsletnodangerthreatenordestroytheoldresidencesandshrinesoftheFrenchMuse.AmongallmodernEuropeanlanguagesitwasthefirsttolendthisprimitivepartoftheworldmorerefinedreason,wit,taste,decorum;inthisittookprecedenceevenoverItaly’slanguage,andinallthesciences,themostdifficultandusefulaswellasthepleasingandeasyones,Francehasimmortalmerits.JustasAlexanderinconqueredThebessparedPindar’shouse,justasallsavagebarbarians,notexceptingtheHuns,reveredandshrankbeforetheancientmajestyofRome,likewiseletnoone,eveninthemostfuriousrebellion,beforgetfulofthegloryofoldentimes–otherwisehisownnamewouldtherebybecomeimmortalinaterribleway.ThispronouncouldrefertotheFrenchMuseortotheFrenchlanguage–or,verylikely,tobothambiguously.\nLettersfortheAdvancementofHumanity(–)[excerptsconcerningfreedomofthoughtandexpression]Themoreandthemoreeasilymessengersreacheverywherehere,every-wherethere,thenthemorethecommunicationofthoughtsisadvanced,andnoprince,nokingwillseektohinderthiswhounderstandstheinfi-niteadvantagesofthemind-industry,ofmind-culture,ofthereciprocalcommunicationofinventions,thoughts,suggestions,evenofmistakescommittedandweaknesses.Everyoneofthesethingsbenefitshumannature,andhencealsosociety;themistakegetsdiscovered,theerrorgetscorrected,thoughtawakensthought,sensationsanddecisionsstimulateandmotivate.Freeinvestigationofthetruthfromallsidesisthesoleantidoteagainstdelusionanderrorofwhateversorttheymaybe.Letthedeludedpersondefendhisdelusion,thepersonwhothinksdifferentlyhisthought;thatistheirbusiness.Evenifbothofthemfailtobecorrected,fortheunbiasedpersontherecertainlyarisesoutofeverycriticizederroranewreason,anewviewofthetruth.Letitonlynotbebelievedthattruthcaneverbecaptured,orevenkeptfastinjailforeternity,bymeansofarmeddelu-sion!Truthisaspiritandcommunicatesitselftospiritsalmostwithoutabody.Oftenitssoundmaybestirredatasingleendoftheworld,anditresoundsinremotelands;buttherivercurrentofhumancognitionalwayspurifiesitselfthroughoppositions,throughstrongcontrasts.HereSeeforthissubjectalsotheexcerptonpatriotismwhichfollows,especiallysection.ExcerptfromG:.\nFreedomofThoughtandExpressionitbreaksoff,thereitstarts;andintheendalong-andmuch-purifieddelusionisregardedbyhumanbeingsastruth.[ThroughChristianity]thepeoplesofEuropenotonlycametoknoweachotherbetter,butalsobecame,throughreciprocalneeds,withcom-monpurposesandstrivings,indispensabletoeachother;theirtendencybecameevermoreandmoredirectedatasinglepoint.Inventionscameinaddition,whichgiventhesecommonneedsonepeopleborrowedfromtheother,inwhichonesoughttospeedaheadoftheother;therearoseintheirperfectingacompetitionamongthenations.Nowthoughts,experiments,discoveries,trainingscouldnolongersoeasilyperishasintheperiodsofthepeopleswhowereformerlyseparatedfromeachother;theseedthatdidnottakeroothereandnowwascarriedbyafavorablezephyrtoagentlergroundwhereitperhapsthrivedunderanewname.Severalteachersinasinglefaculty,severalfaculties,severaluniversitiesfacingoneanotherarecommonlyincompetition.Withtheyearsthiscom-petitioninevitablydoesnotdeclinebutgrows.Themoretherestrictionsofthetradeareweakened(theymustnecessarilybeso),themoretheworkoftheacademiesbecomesaworkofthemindandofafreepractice,thenthemorethecompetitioncatchesfirewithapurerflame.Universitiesarewatchtowersandlighthousesofscience;theyspyoutwhatishappeninginthedistanceandabroad,advanceitfurther,andthemselvesshineapathforwardforothers.Universitiesaregathering-andmeeting-placesofscience;outoftheirbringing-togetherandreciprocalfightingorfriendshiparisethereandthennewresults.Finally,universitiesshouldbethelastsanctu-ariesandabulwarkofthesciencesiftheyweretofindasanctuarynowhere[else].Whatwentunrecognizedeverywhere,whatindailybusinessraiseditsvoicehereandtherewithoutprotection,shouldhereenjoyanunbi-asedattentionandasupportthatwouldbedisturbedbynoinfluence.IfIamnotmistaken,thishashappenedonseveraloccasions;thecounselsofteachershavestoppedpersecutionswhichthecounselsofthewisemenofstatecouldnotsuppress;andthusforthefuturetoodoIseecounselsofteachersinuniversitiescomingforthwhichthecounselsofstupidwisemencanhardlywithstand.ExcerptfromG:.ExcerptfromG:–.Or:didnotliketo.ExcerptfromG:.\nPoliticalPhilosophyThepublicofauthorsisthusofadistinctivekind:invisibleandomnipresent,oftendeaf,oftendumb,andperhapsafteryears,aftercenturies,veryloudandactive.Lostandyetunlost,indeedunlosable,isthatwhichgetsdepositedinitslap.Onecannevertallyupwithit;itsbookisneverclosed,thetrialbeforeandwithitnevergetsconcluded;itisalwayslearningandneverarrivesatthefinalresult.Peoplehavewantedtoappointguardiansforthiseternalminor,thecensors–butasexperiencehasshown,withfruitlesseffortandforthemostpartwiththemostunpleasantoutcome.Theminormostlikestotastewhatonedeniedhim;hesearchesoutwhatonewantedtohidefromhim;theprohibitionofapresentationtothispublicispreciselythemeanstoaffordevenauselesswordrespect,weight,andattention.Andwhatmodestmanwilldaretobeaguardianoftheentirehumanunderstanding,ofthepublicofalltimesandlands?Leteachwisemanandfoolwriteinhisownwayifonlyheindoubtfulcasesgiveshisnameandpersonallyinsultsnoone.Letmebepermittedtoexplainmyselfonthispoint.Thewisestcensor,evenifherepresentsthevoice-voteofawhole,indeedofthemosten-lightened,state,canhardlywant,inwhatconcernsdoctrineandopinion,tocounterbalanceoroutweighthevoice-voteofthepublic,towhichanauthorvoluntarilysubjectshimself.EvenifhisjudgmentwerethewisdomofSolomon,ifitcontainedtheclevernessofallpastcenturies,andantic-ipatedthetestedunderstandingbelongingtoagreatfuture,still,though,heismissingonething:thelegitimationforthis.Forneitherthepastworldnortheworldofposterityhascertifiedhimconcerningthis.Theauthorwillhencealwayshavethegroundofobjectionagainsthimthatheisusurpinginadvancethejudgmentoftheworld,thatheiswithoutautho-rizationpresumptuouslytakingonhimselfadecisionwhichonlybelongstothepublicinthebroadestsenseoftheword;hewillappealfromthispopeofasmallstatetotheuniversalconciliumwhichalone,andindeedonlyineveradvancingvoice-votes,canbeajudgeofthetrueandthefalse.Probablymanyvoice-voteswillcometohisside,and,notwithstandingthehighestlegalright,thecensorwill,informandonaccountoftheconsequences,proveinthewrong.Idonothavetorepeatwhathasbeensaidsooftenandsomuch,wheretruthisconcerned,aboutfreedomofopinions,whichmayonlyberefuted,butnotsuppressed.Theoxymoronhere,“right...wrong,”isequallypresentintheGerman:“Recht...Unrecht.”AsusualwhenHerderusesoxymoron,thesuperficialcontradictionmasksadeeperconsistency.\nFreedomofThoughtandExpressionIfonemaythereforerobthepublicofnoopinions,noteventhecraziestones,inthatthestate,whentheyseemfalseordangeroustoit,mayratheroccasiontheirpublicrefutation,sothatdarknessmaybeconqueredbylightfortheworld’sadvantage,then,giventhisunrestrainedfreedom,giventherespectthatthestateitselfshowsthepublicbynotwithholdingfromitanythingthatanyauthoroffersit,thestatemaysurelyalsodemandthateveryauthorwhoseesfittooffersomethingtothepublicshouldgivehisname.ExcerptfromG:–.\nLettersfortheAdvancementofHumanity(–)[excerptonpatriotism]TowishoneselfbackintothetimesofGreeceandRomewouldbefoolish;thisyouthoftheworld,liketheironageofthetimesunderRome’sruletoo,ispast;evenifanexchangewerepossible,wewouldhardlywinintheexchangeinwhatweactuallydesire.Sparta’szealforfatherlandoppressednotonlytheHelotsbutthecitizensthemselvesandwithtimeotherGreeks.Athenswasoftenaburdentoitscitizensandcolonies;itwantedtobedeceivedwithsweetphantoms.Finally,RomanloveoffatherlandproveddestructivenotonlyforItalybutforRomeit-selfandthewholeRomanworld.Hencewewanttoseekoutwhatwemustrespectandloveinourfatherlandinordertoloveitworthilyandpurely..Isitthatgodsformerlycamedownfromheavenandassignedthislandtoourfathers?Isitthattheyhavegivenusareligionandhavethemselvesorganizedourconstitution?DidMinervareceivethiscitythroughacontest?DidEgeriainspireourNumawithdreams?–Vainglory–forwearenotourfathers.IfonMinerva’sholygroundweareunworthyofthegreatgoddess,ifNuma’sdreamsnolongeraccordwithourtimes,thenletEgeriariseagainfromherspring,thenletMinervalowerherselffromheavenfornewinspirations.Forthissubject,seealsointheTenthCollectionthatfollowsthesection“Fourthdisposition:Purifiedpatriotism.”I.e.ancientGreece.AccordingtoGreeklegend,Minerva(Athena)wonAthensthroughafightwiththegodPoseidon,afterwhichitborehername.AccordingtoRomanlegend,thespring-nymphEgeriamarriedorconsortedwiththesecondkingofRome,NumaPompilius,andconstrainedhimtowiseandjustrule.\nPatriotismTospeakwithoutimages,itisgoodandlaudableforapeopletohavegreatancestors,agreatage,famousgodsofthefatherland,aslongastheseawakenittonobledeeds,inspireittoworthydispositions,aslongastheoldtrainingandteachingbefitsthepeople.Ifitgetsmockedbythepeopleitself,ifithasoutliveditself,orifitgetsmisused:“Whatusetoyou,”(Horacecallstohisfatherland)“proudPonticmast,whatusetoyouisyoursuperiordescent?Whatusetoyouarethepaintedgodsonyourwalls?”Anidlypossessedglorylazilyinheritedfromourancestorssoonmakesusvainandunworthyofourancestors.Whoeverfanciesthatheisbrave,noble,uprightbybirthcaneasilyforgettoshowhimselfsuchaperson.Hefailstostruggleforawreathwhichhebelieveshimselfalreadytopossessfromhisearliestancestorson.Insuchadelusionoffatherland-religion-race-ancestorpridedidJudaea,Greece,Rome,indeedalmosteveryancientmightyorholystate-constitution,perish.Itisnotwhatafatherlandwasformerlybutwhatitisnowthatwecanrespectandloveinit..Besidesourchildren,relatives,andfriends,thiscanthereforeonlybeitsorganization,thegoodconstitutioninwhichwereadilyandmosthappilycaretolivewithwhatisdearesttous.Physically,wepraisethesituationofaplacethatwithhealthyairdoesourbodyandmindgood;morally,weconsiderourselveshappyinastateinwhichwithalawfulfreedomandsecuritywearenotashamedbeforeourselves,donotwasteoureffort,donotseeourselvesandourfamiliesabandonedbutmayexerciseeachofourdutiesasworthy,activesonsofthefatherland,andmayseetheserewardedbyourmother’slook.GreeksandRomanswererightthatnootherhumanmeritexceedsthemeritofhavingfoundedsuchaunion,orofreinforcingit,renewingit,purifyingit,preservingit.Tothink,towork,and(greatdestiny!)tohavesuccessfuleffectforthecommoncausenotonlyofourownbutofposterityandoftheentireeternalfatherlandofhumanity–what,weighedagainstthis,isanindividuallife,adailylaboroffewminutesandhours?Everyonewhoisontheshipinthefloodingwavesoftheseafeelshimselfobligedtoaid,topreserve,tosavetheship.Thewordfatherlandbroughttheshipafloatattheshore;hecan,hemay,nolonger(unlesshecastshimselfoverboardandentrustshimselftothesea’swildwaves)standidlybyintheshipandcountthewavesasthoughhewasontheHorace,Odes,bk.,no..HeretranslatedfromHerder’sGerman.\nPoliticalPhilosophyshore.Hisdutycallsuponhim(forallhiscompanionsandlovedonesarewithhimintheship)thatifastormrisesup,adangerthreatens,thewindchanges,orashiphurtlesonthreateningtorundownhisvessel–hisdutycallsuponhimthatheshouldhelpandcallout.Softlyorloudly,accordingtohisclass–thedeckhand,thehelmsman,ortheskipper–hisduty,thecollectivewelfareoftheship,callsuponhim.Hedoesnotseeksecurityforhimselfindividually;hemaynotdreamhiswayintothebarkofaselectshore-societywhichisnothereathisdisposal;heputshishandtothetaskandbecomes,ifnotthesavioroftheship,thenatleastitsloyalfellowtravelerandlook-out.Whatcauseditthatseveralformerlyveryreveredclassesgraduallysankandstillsinkintocontempt,intoshame?Becausenoneofthemadoptedthecommoncause,becauseeachlivedasafavoredclassofpropertyorhonor;theysleptinthestormpeacefullylikeJonah,anddestinystruckthemlikeJonah.Oh,thathumanbeingsdespitetheirseeingeyesdonotbelieveinaNemesis!Thereattachestoeveryinjuredorneglecteddutyapunishmentwhichispreciselynotvoluntarybutthenecessarypunishmentwhichaccumulatesfromgenerationtogeneration.Ifthefatherland’scauseisholyandeternal,theneveryneglectofthiscauseofitsnatureatonesforitself,andtherevengeaccumulateswitheverymorecorruptedundertakingorgeneration.Itisnotyourplacetopondertheoreticallyaboutyourfatherland,foryouwerenotitscreator,butyoumustjoinothersinhelpingitwhereandasyoucan,encourageit,saveit,improveit–evenifyouwerethegooseoftheCapitol..Shouldnottherefore,preciselyinthespiritoftheancients,thevoiceofeachcitizen,evenassumingthatitappearedinprint,beconsideredafreedomofthefatherland,aholycourtofostracism?Thepoormanwasperhapsabletodonothingelsethanwrite,otherwisehewouldprobablyhavedonesomethingbetter–doyouwanttorobthesighingmanofhisbreaththatgoesforthintodesolateemptiness?Butstillmorevaluableforthemanofunderstandingarethehintsandlooksofthosewhoseefurther.Theyinspiretoactivitywheneveryoneisasleep;theysighperhapswheneveryoneisdancing.Buttheydonotonlysigh;theyshowhigherresultsinsimplerequationsbymeansofacertainart.Doyouwanttomakethembesilentbecauseyoucalculatemerelyaccordingtothecommonarithmetic?SeeJonah.Readingh¨angtforhangt.AccordingtoLivy,whentheGaulsattackedRomeinBCtheholygeeseofthegoddessJunoontheCapitolawakenedthecity’sdefenderswiththeircacklingsothatthecitywassaved.\nPatriotismTheygosilenteasilyandcontinuetocalculate;butthefatherlandcountedonthesequietcalculators.Asinglestepofprogressthattheysuccessfullyindicatedisworthmorethantenthousandceremoniesandeulogies.Shouldourfatherlandnotneedthisartofcalculation?LetitbethatGermanyisbraveandupright–bravelyanduprightlydiditformerlyletitselfbeledofftoSpainandAfrica,toGaulandEngland,toItaly,Sicily,Crete,Greece,Palestine;ourbraveanduprightancestorsbledthere,andareburied.BravelyanduprightlydidtheGermansletthemselvesbehiredagainsteachotherinsideandoutsidetheirfatherland,ashistoryshows;friendfoughtagainstfriend,brotheragainstbrother;thefatherlandgotruinedandwasleftorphaned.Shouldnot,therefore,besidesbraveryanduprightnesssomethingelsebenecessaryforourfatherlandinaddition?Light,enlightenment,senseofcommunity;nobleprideinnotlettingoneselfbeorganizedbyothers,butorganizingoneself,asothernationshavedonefromtimeimmemorial;inbeingGermansonourownwell-protectedpieceofterritory..Afatherland’sglorycanhardlyinourtimeanylongerbethatsavagespiritofconquestthatstormedthroughthehistoryofRomeandthebarbar-ians,indeedofseveralproudmonarchies,likeanevildemon.Whatsortofmotherwouldshebewho(asecond,worseMedea)sacrificedherchildreninordertocaptureforeignchildrenasslaves,whosoonerorlaterbecomeaburdenforherownchildren?Unfortunatewouldbethefatherland’schildwho,givenawayorsold,hadtorunintothesword,laywaste,murder,inordertosatisfyavanitythatbearsadvantagefornoone.Thegloryofafatherlandcaninourtimeandfortheevenmorestrictlyjudgingworldofposteritybenootherthanthatthisnoblemotherprovidesforherchildrensecurity,activity,occasionforeveryfree,beneficentpractice,inshort,theupbringingthatisherownprotectionandadvantage,dignityandglory.AllthepeoplesofEurope(notexcludingotherpartsoftheworld)arenowinacontestof,notphysical,butmentalandartisticforceswitheachother.Whenoneortwonationsaccomplishstepsofprogressinashorttimeforwhichformerlycenturieswererequired,thenothernationscannot,andmaynot,wanttosetthemselvesbackbycenturieswithouttherebydoingthemselvespainfuldamage.Theymustadvancewiththoseothers;inourtimesonecannolongerbeabarbarian;asabarbarianonegetscheated,troddenon,despised,abused.Theepochsoftheworldformamovingchainwhichnoindividualringcanintheendresistevenifitwantedto.\nPoliticalPhilosophyAfatherland’scultureispartofthis,andinitalsothecultureoflan-guage.WhatencouragedtheGreekstotheirgloriousandmostdifficultworks?Thevoiceofdutyandglory.Throughwhatdidtheythinkthem-selvestobesuperiortoallthenationsoftheearth?Throughtheirculti-vatedlanguageandwhatwasplantedamongstthembymeansofit.TheimperiouslanguageoftheRomanscommandedtheworld–alanguageoflawanddeeds.ThroughwhathasaneighboringnationwonsomuchinfluenceoverallthepeoplesofEuropesincemorethanacenturyago?Besidesothercauses,especiallyalsothroughits–inthehighestsenseoftheword–formed[gebildete]nationallanguage.Eachpersonwhotookdelightinitswritingstherebyentereditsrealmandsympatheticallysharedin[nahmTeilan]them.Theyformedanddeformed,theyordered,theyimpressed.AndthelanguageoftheGermans,whichourancestorscalledalanguageoftribalstem,pith,andheroes,shouldpullthevictorycarofotherslikeaconqueredprisoner,andintheprocessstillgiveitselfairsinitsclumsyempire-andcourt-style?Throwitaway,thisoppressivefinery,youmatronsqueezedincontrarytoyourwill,andbewhatyoucanbeandformerlywere:alanguageofreason,offorceandtruth.Youfathersofthefatherland,honorher,honorthegiftswhich–unaskedandunrewarded,andyetnotwithoutglory–sheoffered.Shouldeveryartandactivitythroughwhichmanyapersonwouldliketohelphisfatherlandfirsthireitselfoutabroadlikethatlostson,andentrusttheharvestofhisindustryorhismindtoaforeignhand,inorderthatyoumighthavethehonorofreceivingitfromthere?IthinkthatIseeatimecoming...However,letusnotprophesy,butaftereverythingonlyobservethateveryfatherland,alreadyjustwithitssweetname,hasamoraltendency.Itdescendsfromfathers;withthenamefatheritbringstoourmindstherecollectionofourtimesofyouthandgamesofyouth;itawakensthememoryofallthemenofmeritbeforeus,ofalltheworthymenafterusI.e.France.Thereferenceofthis“its”couldbeeithertothenationortothenation’slanguage.Theambiguitymaywellbedeliberate.Besidestheambiguityofreferencementionedintheprecedingnote,this“its”couldalsomean:their(cf.the“them”thatfollows).Inthatcasethe“their”wouldmeanthewritings’,orperhapsthewritings’andthenation’sand/orthelanguage’s.Again,theambiguitymaywellbedeliberate.TheexpressionnahmTeilancouldmeaneither()participatedin,or()hadsympathywith.Herebothmeaningsareinvolved–hencethetranslation“sympatheticallysharedin.”Thereferenceof“them”isagainambiguous.Thewordcouldrefertothewritingsonly,ortothewritingsandthenationand/orthelanguage.Againtheambiguitymaywellbeintentional.ThisreferstotheNewTestamentstoryoftheprodigalson–Luke:–.\nPatriotismtowhomwewillbecomefathers;itlinksthehumanspeciesintoachainofcontinuingmemberswhoaretoeachotherbrothers,sisters,betrothed,friends,children,parents.Shouldweregardourselvesotherwiseontheearth?Isitnecessarythatonefatherlandhastoriseupagainstanother,indeedagainsteveryother,fatherland–whichofcourselinksitsmemberswiththesamebondsaswell?Doestheearthnothavespaceforusall?Doesnotonelandliepeacefullybesidetheother?Cabinetsmaydeceiveeachother,politicalmachinesmaybemovedagainsteachotheruntiltheoneblowstheothertopieces.Fatherlandsdonotmoveagainsteachotherinthatway;theyliepeacefullybesideeachother,andsupporteachotherasfamilies.Fatherlandsagainstfatherlandsinacombatofblood[Blutkampf]istheworstbarbarisminthehumanlanguage.Thetranslation“combatofblood”triestopreserveasignificantambiguityintheGerman:()bloodycombat,()combatbasedonblood(i.e.onrace).\nLettersfortheAdvancementofHumanity(–)–tenthcollection[Letter]Butwhymustpeopleshaveeffectonpeoplesinordertodisturbeachother’speace?Itissaidthatthisisforthesakeofprogressivelygrowingculture;butwhatacompletelydifferentthingthebookofhistorysays!DidthosepeoplesofthemountainsandsteppesfromnorthernAsia,theeternaltroublemakersoftheworld,everhaveitastheirintention,orweretheyeverinaposition,tospreadculture?DidnottheChaldaeanspreciselyputanendtoagreatpartoftheancientmajesticgloryofwesternAsia?Attila,somanypeopleswhoprecededorfollowedafterhim–didtheymeantoadvancetheprogressiveformation[Fortbildung]ofthehumanspecies?Didtheyadvanceit?Indeed,thePhoenicians,theCarthaginianswiththeirrenownedcolo-nies,theGreeksthemselveswiththeiroffshootcities,theRomanswiththeirconquests–didtheyhavethispurpose?Andifthroughthefrictionbe-tweenpeoplesthereperhapsspreadherethisart,therethatconvenience,dothesereallycompensatefortheevilswhichthepressingofthenationsHerderintersperseshisphilosophicalargumentinthistextwithlongstretchesofpoetryfromvarioussources.Thispoetryisomittedherebothforreasonsofspaceandbecauseitisinasenseinessentialtothephilosophicalargument(thoughitis,andisconceivedbyHerdertobe,quiteim-portantasanunderscoringofhisethicalsentimentsandaninstrumentfortheircommunicationtothereader–concerningwhichseemyintroduction).Thepoetry’scontentsarebrieflysummarizedinfootnotesinstead.Thisnumberingcontinuesfromthepreviousninecollectionsofthework.Itisretainedherefortheconvenienceofreaderscomparingdifferenteditions,etc.I.e.theHunsandMongols.\nTenthCollectionupononeanotherproducedforthevictorandthevanquished?WhocandepictthemiserythattheGreekandRomanconquestsbroughtindirectlyanddirectlyforthecircleoftheearththattheyencompassed?aEvenChristianity,assoonasithadeffectonforeignpeoplesintheformofastatemachine,oppressedthemterribly;inthecaseofseveralitsomutilatedtheirowndistinctivecharacterthatnotevenoneandahalfmillenniahavebeenabletosetitright.Wouldwenotwish,forexample,thatthespiritsofthenorthernpeoples,oftheGermans,oftheGaels,theSlavs,andsoforth,mighthavedevelopedwithoutdisturbanceandpurelyoutofthemselves?AndwhatgooddidthecrusadesdofortheOrient?WhathappinesshavetheybroughttothecoastsoftheBalticSea?TheoldPrussiansaredestroyed;Livonians,Estonians,andLatviansinthepoorestconditionstillnowcurseintheirheartstheirsubjugators,theGermans.What,finally,istobesaidoftheculturethathasbeenbroughtbySpaniards,Portuguese,Englishmen,andDutchmentotheEastandWestIndies,toAfricaamongthenegroes,intothepeacefulislandsofthesouthernworld?Donotalltheselands,moreorless,cryforrevenge?Allthemoreforrevengesincetheyhavebeenplungedforanincalcu-labletimeintoaprogressivelygrowingcorruption.Allthesestorieslieopentoviewintraveldecriptions;theyhavealsoinpartreceivedvocalexpressioninconnectionwiththetradeinnegroes.AbouttheSpanishcruelties,aboutthegreedoftheEnglish,aboutthecoldimpudenceoftheDutch–ofwhominthefrenzyofthemadnessofconquesthero-poemswerewritten–bookshavebeenwritteninourtimewhichbringthemsolittlehonorthat,rather,ifaEuropeancollectivespiritlivedelse-wherethaninbooks,wewouldhavetobeashamedofthecrimeofabusinghumanitybeforealmostallpeoplesoftheearth.LetthelandbenamedaTheFrenchwork[byF.-J.deChastellux]Delaf´elicit´epubliqueouconsid´erationssurlesortdeshommesdanslesdiff´erentes´epoquesdel’histoire[OnPublicHappinessorConsiderationsontheFateofMenintheDifferentEpochsofHistory],Amsterdam,treatsathemetowhichenoughattentioncannotbepaid.Whatisthepointofhistoryifitdoesnotshowustheimageofhappyorunhappy,ofdecliningorascending,humanity?Readinggabforgaben.Thephrase“indirectlyanddirectly”isaformofhysteronproteron.I.e.theIrishandScottishCelts.ThisisanallusiontotheChristianizingofthePrussiansandthepeoplesoftheBalticinthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturiesbyGermanknightlyorders.\nPoliticalPhilosophytowhichEuropeanshavecomewithouthavingsinnedagainstdefense-less,trustinghumanity,perhapsforallaeonstocome,throughinjuriousacts,throughunjustwars,greed,deceit,oppression,throughdiseasesandharmfulgifts!Ourpartoftheworldmustbecalled,notthewise,butthepresumptuous,pushing,trickingpartoftheearth;ithasnotcultivatedbuthasdestroyedtheshootsofpeoples’owncultureswhereverandhoweveritcould.bWhat,generally,isafoisted,foreignculture,aformation[Bildung]thatdoesnotdevelopoutof[apeople’s]owndispositionsandneeds?Itoppressesanddeforms,orelseitplungesstraightintotheabyss.YoupoorsacrificialvictimswhowerebroughtfromthesouthseaislandstoEnglandinordertoreceiveculture–youaresymbolsofthegoodthatEuropeanscommunicatetootherpeoplesgenerally!cItwasthere-forenootherwisethanjustlyandwiselythatthegoodCh’ien-lungactedwhenhehadtheforeignvice-kingrapidlyandpolitelyshownthewayoutofhisrealmwithathousandfiresofcelebration.IfonlyeverynationhadbeencleverandstrongenoughtoshowtheEuropeansthisway!If,now,weevenblasphemouslypretendthatthroughtheseactsofinjurytotheworldisfulfilledthepurposeofProvidence,whichin-deed(weassert)hasgivenuspowerandcunningandtoolspreciselyinordertobecometherobbers,troublers,agitators,anddestroyersofthewholeworld–whoistherewhowouldnotshudderatthismisan-thropicimpudence?Tobesure,weare,evenwithourstupiditiesanddeedsofvice,toolsinthehandsofProvidence–however,nottoourcredit,butperhapspreciselyinorderthat,througharestlessandhellishbSee,amongahundredothers,thehumaneLevaillant’srecentjourneysintotheinteriorofAfrica[originalFrenchedition,Secondvoyagedansl’int´erieurdel’Afriquedanslesann´ees–],Berlin,,withReinholdForster’snotes:“NotonlyontheCapeofGoodHope,thisworthyscholarsays(vol.,p.),butalsoinNorthAmerica,ontheHudsonBay,inSenegal,ontheGambia,inIndia,inshort,everywherewhitherEuropeansreach,theycheatthepoornativesintrade.EspeciallyEngland,thenewCarthage,makesthenameoftheEuropeansdetestedinallotherpartsoftheworld.”ThusForster.Andifonlythischeatingaloneweretheendofit!TheyeastfromEuropehascausedfermentationsandpreservesfermentationsinallpartsoftheworld.(Editor’snote.)[Such“editor’snotes”areHerder’sown,solabeledbyhiminkeepingwiththeliteraryfictionofadiversityofletterwriterswritingthemaintext.]cUnbiasedandunexaggeratedremarksaboutthisaretobefoundinReinholdForster’snotes–asonseveral,so–onHamilton’sVoyageAroundtheWorld,Berlin,.TheChinesetroopsoftheemperorCh’ien-lung(–)defeatedtheEnglishwhohadcometoTibet,expelledthem,andpursuedthemovertheHimalayastoNepal.\nTenthCollectionactivitypooramidstthegreatestwealth,torturedbydesires,enervatedbyluxurioussloth,wemaydieinanauseatingandslowwayfromthestolenpoison.Andifseveralmodernsstainallthescienceswithpresumptionsofsuchasort,iftheyfindthewholehistoryofhumanitytobeaimingatthesituationthatonnootherpaththanthiscanthenationsexperiencesalvationandsolace,shouldonenotherefeelmostpainfullysorryforourwholespecies?Onehumanbeing,goesthesaying,isfortheotherawolf,agod,anangel,adevil.Whatarethehumanpeoplesthataffecteachotherforeachother?Thenegrodepictsthedevilaswhite,andtheLatviandoesnotwanttoenterintoheavenassoonasthereareGermansthere.“Whyareyoupouringwateronmyhead?”saidthatdyingslavetothemissionary.“Sothatyouenterintoheaven.”“Idonotwanttoenterintoanyheavenwheretherearewhites”hespoke,turnedawayhisface,anddied.Sadhistoryofhumanity!Atthispointinthetexttherefollowseveralpagesof“NegroIdylls”–sotitledwithbitterirony–basedonJ.deCrevecoeur,`LettersofanAmericanFarmer(London,),andinkeepingwiththespiritofHerder’sprecedingcriticalobservationsconcerningslavery:“TheFruitoftheTree”tellsthesorrystoryofsomewhites’cruelkillingofanegroslavewhohaddaredtodefendhisfianceeagainstawhiteseducer.“TheRightHand”tellsthesadstoryofanoblenegroslave´verballyinterveningtopreventhiswhitemasterfromunjustlykillinganotherslave,receivinginpunishmentthecommandthatheshouldperformtheexecutionhimself,andcuttingoffhisownrighthandratherthandoso.Thepoemisconceivedasanexampleagainstcollaboration.Herderinafootnotelikensthisnoblenegro’sstancetothatofcertainFrenchmenwhonoblyresistedtheroyalordertokillduringtheSt.Bartholomew’sDayMassacreofProtestantsinFrance.“TheBrothers”tellsthemovingstoryofanegroslavewhowasrearedwithawhitemanlikehisbrother,andloveshimdearly,butwhoinlateryearsistreatedcallouslybyhimandattackedbyhim,andwhointheresultingstruggle,thoughwinningtheupperhand,kills,notthewhiteman,but,inhishurt,himself.AfinalverseofthepoemnotesthatsimilarconsequencesofhurtandevendeathalsoresultfromtheimperioustreatmentofsocialinferiorsbysocialsuperiorsinEurope.“Zimeo”tellsthestoryofanoblenegroslave,Zimeo,who,duringaslaverevoltagainstwhitesinJamaicaplaysabloodless,just,andmoderatingrole.HecomestoaplantationownedbywhitestowhosegoodnesstheirnegroslavestestifyandwhomZimeothereforewarmlypraises.HethenrecountsthepitifulstoryofhavingbeentakenfromhishomeinAfricabyslavetradersalongwithhisguardianandthelatter’sdaughter,whowasbythenhisownwifeandpregnant,andofsubsequentlybeingbrutallyseparatedfromthem.However,itturnsoutthattheyareontheveryplantationinquestion,andsothepoemendswithajoyousandgratefulreunion.Thepoem,toldfromawhiteman’sstandpoint,concludeswithhisbenevolentwishthatthereunitedfamilymightfindtheirwaybackhometoAfrica.“TheBirthday”tellsofakindlyQuakerwhocelebrateshisbirthdaybyfreeingalong-servingnegroslaveofhisongenerousterms,andwhointheprocessmakesnobleremarksaboutfreedom,aboutGodbeingthefatherofallmen,andagainsttheslavetrade.Theloyalslaveisreluctanttoleavehisgoodmaster,andsothelatterproposesthat,nowfree,heshouldcontinuetoworkforhim,butnowasawell-paidworkerandfriend–aproposalwhichtheslavegratefullyaccepts.ThepoemendsstressingthattheQuakerconsideredhisactionstobe,notagift,butsimpleduty.\nPoliticalPhilosophy[Letter]Certainlyadangerousgift,powerwithoutkindness,inventiveslynesswithoutunderstanding.Thecorruptedlycultivatedhumanbeingwantsonlytobeable,tohave,torule,toenjoy,withoutconsideringtowhatendheisable,whathehas,andwhetherwhathecallsenjoymentdoesnoteventuallyturnintoakillingofallenjoyment.WhatphilosophywillfreethenationsofEuropefromthestoneofSisyphus,fromthewheelofIxion,towhichagreedypoliticshasdamnedthem?Innovelswecryforthebutterflywhosewingsgetwettedbytherain;inconversationswebubbleoverwithgreatsentimentaldispositions–andforthismoralcorruptionofourspecies,fromwhichallevilarises,wehavenoeye.Weslaughtertogreed,topride,toourslothfulboredomathousandsacrificialvictimswhodonotcostusasingletear.Onehearsofthirtythousandhumanbeingsleftdeadonthebattlefieldfornothingasonehearsofcockchafersthathavebeenshakendown,ofafieldofcropsruinedbyhail,andonewillperhapsfeelsorrieraboutthelatterdisasterthanaboutthem.OroneexpressesdisapprovalofwhathappenedinPeru,Ismail,Warsaw,while,assoonasourprejudice,ourgreedforgain,findsaroleinthematter,onewishessomethingsimilarandworsewithgrimanger.Thisisindeedhowitis.Itisawell-knownandsadsayingthatthehumanspeciesneverappearslessdeservingoflovethanwhenitaffectsoneanotherbynations.Butarethemachinesthataffectoneanotherinthiswayevennations,ordoesonemisusetheirname?Naturebeginsfromfamilies.Familiescombinewitheachother;theyformatreewithtwigs,stem,androots.Eachrootdigsitswayintothegroundandseeksitsnutritionintheearthjustaseachtwigrightuptothetopseeksitintheair.Theydonotseparatefromeachother;theydonotfallovereachother.Naturehasdividedpeoplesthroughlanguage,ethics,customs,oftenthroughmountains,seas,rivers,anddeserts;it,sotospeak,dideverythingThisreferstotheconquestandplunderofPerubytheSpaniardsunderPizarroin–.Ismailisaport-cityonanarmoftheDanubethatwasattackedthreetimesbytheCzar’stroopsduringthe–and–Russian-TurkishWarsanddestroyed.DuringtheeighteenthcenturyWarsawpassedfromSwedishcontroltoseveralperiodsofRussiancontrol,thenafterabloodyuprisingagainsttheRussiansinpassedbackintoRussiancontrollaterthatsameyear,beforeinbecomingaPrussianpossession.\nTenthCollectioninorderthattheyshouldforalongtimeremainseparatedfromeachotherandbecomerootedinthemselves.Preciselycontrarytotheworld-unifyingplanofthatNimrod,thelanguagesgotconfused(astheoldlegendsays);thepeoplesdividedfromeachother.Thediversityoflanguages,ethics,inclinations,andwaysoflifewasdestinedtobecomeabaragainstthepresumptuouslinkingtogetherofthepeoples,adamagainstforeigninundations–forthestewardoftheworldwasconcernedthatforthesecurityofthewholeeachpeopleandracepreserveditsimpress,itscharacter;peoplesshouldlivebesideeachother,notmixedupwithandontopofeachotheroppressingeachother.Hencenopassionsareasmightilyeffectiveineverythinglivingasthosethataimatself-defense.Attheriskofherlife,withmanyfold-multipliedforces,ahenprotectsheryoungagainstvultureandgoshawk–shehasforgottenherself,hasforgottenherweakness,andfeelsherselfonlyasthemotherofherrace,ofayoungpeople.Thusallnationswhichgetcalledsavages–whethertheydefendthemselvesagainstforeignvisitorswithcunningorwithviolence.Itisapoormannerofthoughtthatholdsthisagainstthem,indeedevenclassifiespeoplesaccordingtothepassivitywithwhichtheyallowthemselvestobedeceivedandcaptured.dDidtheirlandnotbelongtothem?AndisitnotthegreatesthonorthattheycanaccordtheEuropeanwhentheyconsumehimattheirfeast?IdonotseewhytheyshouldbelievethemselvescreatedinordertostandmorepreciselyrecordedinB¨usching’sGeography,inordertodelighttheidleEuropeanincopperengravings,andtoenrichthegreedofatradingcompanywiththeproductsoftheirland.Itishenceunfortunatelytruethataseriesofworks–English,French,Spanish,andGerman–authoredinthispresumptuous,covetouscon-ceit,areindeedwritteninaEuropeanmannerbutcertainlynothumanely.Thenationthatexpressesitselfinthiswithoutanydoubtsatalliswellknown.“Rule,Britannia,rulethewaves”–manypeoplebelievethatwiththissloganthereisgiventothemthecoasts,thelands,thenations,andtherichesoftheworld.Thecaptainandhissailorare(itisbelieved)themainwheelsofcreationbymeansofwhichProvidenceeffectsitsdItseemstomethattheletterheretakesaimatapassagein[Henry]Home’shistoryofhumanity[i.e.SketchesontheHistoryofMan()],which,despiteagreatwealthofempiricalevidence,inseveralrespectsmaybelackinginfirmfirstprinciples.Inmostexpeditionsofcommerceandconquestpeoplesgetrankedinthesameway.(Editor’snote.)SeeGenesis–.HerderwritesthisinEnglish.\nPoliticalPhilosophyeternalworkexclusivelytothehonoroftheBritishnationandfortheadvantageofthe[East]IndiaCompany.Suchcalculationsandself-eva-luationsmayservepoliticallyandfortheparliament;[but]tothesenseandfeelingofhumanitytheyareintolerable.eAbsolutelysowhenwepoor,innocentGermansechotheBritishinthisrespect–lamentationandmisery!WhatisameasuringofallpeoplesbythemeasureofusEuropeanssup-posedtobeatall?Whereisthemeansofcomparison?Thatnationwhichyoucallsavageorbarbaricisinessentialsmuchmorehumanethanyou–andwhereitperishedunderthepressureofitsclime,whereitssenseswereunhingedbyanorganizationpeculiartoitorbyspecialcircumstancesinthecourseofitshistory,then,however,leteachofusbeathisownbreastandlookforthebeaminhisownbrain.Allworkswhichnourishthe–alreadyinitselfintolerable–prideoftheEuropeansthroughdistorted,unproved,ormanifestlyunprovableassertions–thegeniusofhumanitythrowsthembackwithcontemptandsays:“Anunhuman[Unmensch]wrotethem!”Younoblerhumanbeings,towhicheverpeopleyoubelong–LasCasas,F´enelon,youtwogoodSt.Pierres,manyanhonestQuaker,Montesquieu,Filangieri–whosefirstprinciplesaimnotatcontemptforbutatthevaluingandhappinessofallhumannations;youtravelerswho,likePag`esandothers,knewhowtoplaceyourselvesintotheethicsandmodeoflifeofseveral,indeedall,nations,andfounditnotwithoutvaluetoconsiderourearthasasphereonwhich,alongwithalltheclimesandtheirproducts,therealsomustbeandwillbemanykindsofpeoplesineverycondition–representativesandguardianangelsofhumanity,whoistherefromyourmidst,withyourbeneficentmannerofthought,whowillgiveusahistoryofthemofthesortthatweneed?eWhenDunbar,bywhomseveralcontributionstothehistoryofhumanityarealsowellknownamongus[Germans],readtheTrueBasisofCivilGovernmentbyD.Tucker,azealousauthorforthestate,hesaid:“Whenthebenevolenceofthiswriterisexaltedintocharity,whenthespiritofhisreligion”(hewasapriest,DeanofBristol)“correctstherancorofhisphilosophy,hewillacknowledgeinthemostuntutoredtribessomeglimmeringsofhumanity,andsomedecisiveindicationsofamoralnature.”Onemightwishformanyanauthorthisspiritofacknowledginghumanityinthehumanbeing.(Editor’snote.)[Irmischersuggests,plausibly,thatthereferencehereshouldinfactbetoJ.Tucker,DeanofGloucester,ATreatiseofCivilGovernment(London,).]ThisisofcourseanechoofMatthew::“Andwhybeholdestthouthemotethatisinthybrother’seye,butconsiderestnotthebeamthatisinthineowneye?”P.M.F.dePages(`–),Frenchexplorer.TheothermenjustlistedarealldiscussedbyHerderbelow,andsomesupplementaryinformationaboutthemwillbegiveninfootnotesthere.\nTenthCollectionEditor’safterwordSinceitmightbepleasantforvariousreaderstoknowsomethingmoreabouttheadvocatesofhumanityjustmentionedthanmerelytheirnames,Ithereforeaddthislittletowardselucidationoftheletter.DeLasCasas(BrotherBartolome),´bishopofChiapas,wasthenoblemanwho,notonlyinhisshortnarrativeofthedestructionoftheIndiannation,butalsoinwritingstothehighestcourtsandtothekinghimself,exposedtolighttheatrocitiesthathisSpaniardsperpetratedagainstthenativesoftheIndiannation.Peopleaccusedhimofexaggerationandaheatedimagination;butnooneconvictedhimoflying.Andwhyshouldwhatgetscalledheatedimaginationnotratherhavebeenanoblefireofsympathywiththeunfortunate,withoutwhichhewouldindeednothavewrittenandalsonotthus.TimehasjustifiedhimandconvictedhisopponentSepulvedamorethanhimselfofuntruth.Thathedidnotachievemuchwithhisrepresentationsdoesnotreducehismerit;letpeacebewithhisashes!∗F´enelon’sjustandlovingmannerofthoughtisuniversallyknown.Zealouslyashewasdevotedtohischurch,andthereforepassedharshjudgmentontheProtestantsfbecausehedidnotknowthem,equallydidheloathe,evenasamissionaryfortheirconversion,theirpersecution.“Aboveall,”hesaystotheknightSt.George,“neverforceyoursubjectstochangetheirmannerofreligiousservice.Ahumanpowerisnotabletoovercomethatimpenetrablerampart,freedomoftheheart.Itonlyproduceshypocrites.Whenkings,insteadofprotectingit,interferewithcommandsintheworshipofGod,thentheyreduceittoserfdom.”InhisInstructionforGuidingtheConscienceofaKingghegivescounselswhichiftheywerefollowedwouldforestalleveryrevolution.Iquoteonlyafewofthem,merelyastheprecedingletterrequiresthem.fThisisvisiblepartlyinhispastoralwritings,partlyintheessaysofhispupil,thedukeofBurgundy.gDirectionspourlaconscienced’unroi–reprintedintheHague,.[OriginallyprintedinwiththedifferenttitleExamendelaconscienced’unroi.]The“editor”hereisagainHerderhimself–thisbeingpartoftheoverallliteraryfictionofmultipleindependentletterwriters.BartolomedeLasCasas(´–),Spanishpriestandhistorian.DeLasCasas,Brev´ısimarelaci´ondeladestrucci´ondelasIndias[ShortAccountoftheDestructionoftheIndianNation]().F.deSalignacdelaMotheFenelon(´–).\nPoliticalPhilosophy“Didyouthoroughlyinvestigateyourstate’strueneedandcompareitwiththeunpleasantnessoftheleviesbeforeyouburdenedyourpeoplewiththem?Didyounotcallnecessityofthestatewhatonlyservedtoflatteryourcravingforhonor?Needofthestatewhatwasmerelyyourpersonalpresumption?Youmustrealizepersonalpretensionsonlyatyourownprivateexpense,andatmostexpectwhatyourpeople’spurelovevoluntarilycontributesthereto.WhenCharlesVIIIwenttoNaplesinordertolayclaimtothesuccessionofthehouseofAnjouheundertookthewarathisownexpense;thestatedidnotbelieveitselfobligatedtotakethison.Haveyoudonenoinjusticetoforeignnations?Apoorunfortunatecomestothegallowsbecauseindeepestdesperationherobbedafewtalersonthehighway;andaconqueror,thatis,amanwhounjustlytakesawaylandsfromhisneighbor,getspraisedasahero.Toexploitameadoworavineyardwithoutpermissionisseenasanunforgivablesinunlesstheharmiscompensatedfor;tousurpcitiesandprovincesisassessedasnothing.Totakeafieldawayfromanindividualneighborisacrime;totakealandawayfromanationisaninnocent,glory-yieldingdeed.Whereisjusticehere?WillGodjudgethus?DostthoubelievethatIwillbelikethee?Mustoneonlybejustinsmallthings,notinbig?Millionsofhumanbeingswhoconstituteanation–aretheylessourbrothersthanasinglehumanbeing?Mayonedoaninjusticetomillionsconcerningaprovincethatonemightnotdotoanindividualconcerningameadow?If,becauseyouarethestronger,youforceaneighbortosignthepeacedictatedbyyouinordertoavoidgreaterevils,thenhesignsasthetravelerreacheshispursetothehighwaymanbecausehehasthepistolbeforehischest.Peacetreatiesarenullandvoidnotonlywhenthedominantpowerhasextortedinjusticesinthembutalsowhentheygetcunninglycomposedinanambiguouswayinorder,whentheoccasionarises,toexploitafavorableambiguity.Yourenemyisyourbrother–youcannotforgetthatwithoutrenouncinghumanityitself.Inpeacetreatiesitisnolongeramatterofweaponsandwarbutofpeace,ofjustice,humaneness,goodfaith.Todeceiveaneighboringpeopleinapeacetreatyismoredishonorableandpunishablethantocheataprivatepersoninacontract.Withambiguitiesandinsidiousexpressionsinapeacetreatyonealreadypreparestheseedforfuturewars–thatis,onebringspowder-kegsunderhouseswhichoneinhabits.\nTenthCollectionWhenthequestionofwararose,didyouinvestigateandhaveinves-tigated–andthisindeedbythosewiththegreatestunderstandingwholeastflatteryou–whatsortofrighttowaryouhad?Ordidyounothaveinviewinthematteryourpersonalhonor–thatoffinallyhavingundertakensomethingthatwoulddistinguishyoufromotherprinces?Asthoughitwereanhonorforprincestodisturbthehappinessofpeopleswhosefa-therstheyaresupposedtobe!Asthoughapaterfamiliasearnedrespectforhimselfthroughactionsthatmakehischildrenunhappy!Asthoughakingshouldhavehopesofgloryfromanyothersourcebutvirtue,thatis,fromjusticeandfromgoodgovernmentofhispeople!”TheseareafewofFenelon’s´thirty-sixarticles,whichshouldbeamorn-ingandeveninglessonforallfathersofapeople.HisConversations,hisTelemachus,indeedallhisworks,arewritteninthesamepurpose;thegeniusofhumanenessspeaksinthemwithoutartificialityorornamenta-tion.“Ilovemyfamily,”saysthenobleman,“morethanmyself;morethanmyfamilymyfatherland;morethanmyfatherlandhumanity.”∗TheAbbe´St.Pierreis,unjustly,knownforalmostnothingbuthisprojectforeternalpeace–averygoodnatured,indeednoble,weakness,which,though,isnotasentirelyweaknessaspeoplethink.Inthisproposal,asinsomeothers,hewasdeliberatelysomewhatpedantic–herepeatedhimselfsothat,ashesaid,ifhehadgoneunheardtentimes,hewouldbelistenedtotheeleventhtime;hewrotedrilyanddidnotwanttogivepleasure.hTherecanhardlybeamoredecentmannerofthoughtthanthatwhichtheAbbe´St.Pierreexpressesinallhiswritings.Universalreasonandjustice,virtueandbeneficence,wereforhimtherule,thetendency,ofourspecies,anditsslogan:donneretpardonner,giveandforgive.ForthisdidhGenerally,hedidnotthinkmuchofmereworksofdelight;hebelievedthatwithourgreat-grandchildrentheywouldbecompletelyoutoffashion.Whensuchapoemwasreadouttogreatapplauseandhewasaskedwhathethoughtofthisworkofart,heanswered“Ehmais,celaestencorefortbeau”[“Butindeed,thatisstillveryfine”]andmeantthatthisencore[still]wouldnotlastforever.SeetheElogedeSt.Pierre[EulogyofSt.Pierre]byd’Alembert.TheabovetitleofandquotationsfromFenelon’sworkareheretranslatedfromHerder’sGerman,´notfromtheFrench.ThesameistrueofthequotationsfromotherFrenchauthorsthatfollow.DialoguesdiversentrelesCardinauxRichelieuetMazarinetautres().LesaventuresdeT´el´emaque().C.-I.Castel,AbbedeSaint-Pierre(´–).Projetpourrendrelapaixperp´etuelleenEurope(–).\nPoliticalPhilosophyheread,forthisdidhelookandhear–withoutpresumption.“AninauguralspeechonenteringtheAcademy,”hesaid,“deservestohaveatmosttwohoursdevotedtoit;Idevotedfourtoit,andthinkthatisdecentenough;ourtimebelongstothebenefitingofthestate.”Concerningbodilypain,hedidnotthinklikeaStoicbutconsidereditatrue,indeedperhapstheonly,evil,whichreasoncouldneitheravertnorweaken.Mostotherevils,hebelieved,wereavertableormerelyofanimaginedvalue.Tofreeone’sfellowhumanbeingsfrompainwas,inhisview,therichestactofbeneficence.“Oneisnotobligatedtoamuseothers,butindeedtodeceivenoone”–andthushestrovemoststrictlyforthetruth.Solelyoccupiedwithremovingwhatharmedthecommongood,hewasanenemyofwars,ofwarglory,andofeveryoppressionofthepeople–butheneverthelessbelievedthattheworldhadsufferedlessthroughtheterriblewarsoftheRomansthanthroughtheTiberiuses,theNeros.“Idonotknow,”hesays,“whetherCaligula,Domitian,andtheirkindweregods;onlythisdoIknow,thattheywerenothumanbeings.Iindeedbelievethattheymayhavebeensufficientlypraisedduringtheirlifetimesforthegoodthattheyproduced;itisonlyashamethoughthattheirpeoplesperceivednothingofthisgood.”HeoftenexpressedthebeautifulmaximofFrancistheFirst:“Regentsdictatetothepeoples;thelawstotheregents.”Sincehewasnotpermittedtomarry,heeducatedchildren,withoutanyvanity,solelyforusefulness,forbenefit.Helookedforwardtoatimewhen,freeofprejudices,thesimplestCapuchinmonkwouldknowasmuchasthemostskilledJesuit,andconsideredthistime,howeverlongitmightbepostponed,tobeunpreventable.Heaccusedhumanbeings’slothandbadhabits,butespeciallydespotism,aswillfulcausesofthisdelay–foreventhesciences,hebelieved,werelovedonlyontheconditionthattheynotbenefitthepeople.ThusdidthatCarthusianmonk,whenastrangerpraisedhisCarthusianmonasteryforitsbeauty,say,“Forpassers-byitiscertainlybeautiful.”St.Pierresawanothercauseofthepostponementofgoodintheworldinthefactthatsofewhumanbeingsknewwhattheywanted,andamongthesestillfewerhadthecouragetoknowthattheyknowit,towantwhattheywant.Evenconcerningthemostindifferentthingsinliterature,people,heholds,followreceivedalienopinionsandlackthecouragetosaywhatFrancistheFirst(–),kingofFrance.\nTenthCollectiontheythemselvesthink.Tocounteractthis,hebelieves,thereisonlyonemeans:thateachmanofscienceshouldcomposeatestamentandatleasthavethecouragetobetruthfulafterhisdeath.Hewroteanessayconcerninghow“evensermonscouldbecomeuse-ful,”andwasespeciallyhostiletotheMohammedanreligionbecauseitfavorsignoranceasamatterofbasicprincipleandmakesthepeoplesanimalistic(abrutiert).Christianpersecutors,hebelieved,oughttobebroughtontothethe-atricalstageasfoolsifpeoplewereunwillingtolockthemupaslunatics.Attheendofhisessaysheoftenputthemotto:Paradisauxbienfaisants!Anditiscertainthatthismanwhothoughtequally[gleichdenkende]andwell[wohldenkende]rightuptohislastmomentenjoyedthisinnerparadise.When,inhislastbreaths,hewasaskedwhetherhedidnothaveanythingmoretosay,hesaid:“Adyingmanhaslittletosayunlesshespeaksfromvanityorfromweakness.”Duringhislifeheneverspokefromthesemotives–and,oh,mighteveryletterofwhathethenwroteinanarrownationalhorizononedaybefulfilledinthewidestofscopes!Accordingtohisconviction,itwillbe.i∗Hisnamesake,BernardindeSt.Pierre,agenuinepupilofF´enelon,wroteeveryoneofhisworksrightdowntothesmallestnarrativeinthespiritofloveofhumankindandsimplicityofheart.Helikestocombinenaturewiththehistoryofhumanbeings,whosegoodnesshenarratessogladly,andwhosebadnessheeverywherenarrateswithleniency.“Iwillthink,”hesays,j“thatIhavebenefitedthehumanspeciesifthisweakdepictionoftheconditionoftheunfortunateblackscansparethemasinglecrackofthewhip,andtheEuropeans(theywhoinEuropecampaignagainsttyrannyandcomposesuchbeautifulmoralessays)ceaseinIndiatobeiOeuvresdemoraleetdepolitiquedel’AbbedeSt.Pierre(CharlesIr´en´eeCastel),vols.´–,Rotterdam,.jJourneytotheIslandsFranceandBourbon,Altenb[urg],,preface,p..[OriginalFrenchtitle:Voyage`al’isledeFrance().]TheGermanwordabrutiertcomesfromFrenchabrutir,tomakestupid(likeabeast,unebrute).Paradiseforthosewhodogood!Theadjectivegleichdenkendcouldmeaneither()thinkingthesameway,or()thinkinginanegalitarianway,or()(mostlikely)both.Thewordwellhereismeantnotonlyinthesenseproperlybutalsointhesensebeneficially(wohldenkendinasensemodeledonwohltuend=bienfaisant).J.H.BernardindeSt.Pierre(–),Frenchpoet.\nPoliticalPhilosophythecruellesttyrants.”WritteninanequallynoblespiritarehisPaulandVirginia,theCoffeehouseofSurat,theIndianStrawHut,andtheStudiesofNature.kOnelivessogladlywithsoulsofthissortandrejoicesthattherestillexistafewofthem.∗TheQuakers,whomthelettermentions,bringtomindaseriesofmer-itoriousmenfromPennonwhohavedonemoreforthebenefitofourspeciesthanathousandheroesandpompousworldimprovers.Themostactiveeffortsfortheabolitionoftheshamefultradeinnegroesandslaveryaretheirwork–inwhichconnection,still,though,quitegen-erally,MethodistsandPresbyterians,alltheweakorstrongvoicesfromeverylandwhentheymadesomeappealaboutthistothedeafestofearsandthehardestofhumanhearts,togreedytraders,retaintheirmeritalso.Ahistoryoftheabolitionofthetradeinnegroesandofthediscon-tinuationofslaveryinallpartsoftheworldwillonedaybeabeautifulmonumentinthecourtyardbeforethetempleofuniversalhumanenesswhoseconstructionawaitsfuturetimes;severalnamesofQuakerswillshineonthecolumnsofthiscourtyardwithquietglory.Inourcenturyitseemstobethefirstdutytobanishthespiritoffrivolitywhichdestroyseverythingtrulygoodandgreat.ThistheQuakersdid.∗Montesquieudeservedtobenamedamongtheadvancersofthegoodofhumankind,forhisfirstprincipleshave,beyondfashion,spreadgood–evengiventhathemaynothaveattainedtheleveloftheentireeulogythatVoltairedevotedtohim.lItwasnotduetothenobleman’swill;manychaptersofhisworkare,asitsmottosays,floressineseminenati,flowerswhichlackedagroundandgenuineseeds;butmanyofthemaresalutaryflowersandfruits.HisPersianLetters,hisTreatiseontheGreatnessandtheDeclineoftheRomans,indeedevenhissmallestessaysarenotlackingkEtudesdelanature(Paris,).Thereisnowexpectedfromhimawork,Harmoniedelanaturepourservirauxel´ementsdelamorale[´TheHarmonyofNatureasServingtheElementsofMorality],whichcanonlybewritteninagoodspirit.HebehavedwiselyduringtheRevolution.lTheeulogyiswellknown:L’humaniteavaitperdusestitres;Montesquieulesaretrouv´es.´[Humanityhadlostitstitles;Montesquieufoundthemagain.]Whatevermaybesaidtothecontrary,humanityowesmuchtoVoltairehimself.Aseriesofessaysonhistory,onphilosophyandlegislation,ontheenlightenmentoftheunderstanding,etc.,sometimesinamockingandsometimesinadidactictone,arewrittenforhumanity.HisAlzire,Za¨ıre,etc.likewise.(Editor’snote.)\nTenthCollectioninthiseither.SeveralchaptersofhisworkOntheSpiritoftheLawsareineveryone’smemory.Montesquieuhadmanyandgreatpupils;thegoodFilangieriisamongtheirnumbertoo.mSincetheprecedingletterdoesnotmentiontheScotsandEnglish,aBacon,Harrington,Milton,Sidney,Locke,Ferguson,Smith,Millar,andothers,doubtlessbecauseitdidnotwanttorepeatamuch-praisedglory,butbycontrastnamesseveralNeapolitanauthors,letitbepermittedtorenewtheratherforgottenremembranceofamanwhoinhistownbeforeotherslaidthefoundationforaschoolofhumanscienceinthetruesenseoftheword:GiambattistaVico.Anexpertonandadmireroftheancients,hefollowedtheirfootstepsbyseekingcommonfirstprinciplesinphysics,moraltheory,law,andinternationallaw.Plato,Tacitus,and,amongmod-erns,BaconandGrotiuswere,ashesayshimself,hisfavoriteauthors.InhisNewSciencenhesoughttheprincipleofthehumanityofpeoples(dell’umanitadellenazioni)andfoundthisin`foresight(provvidenza)andwisdom.Helocatedalltheelementsofthescienceofdivineandhumanthingsincognition,volition,capacity(nosse,velle,posse),theirsoleprinci-plebeingtheunderstanding,whoseeyeisreason,illuminatedbythelightofeternaltruth.HefoundedthechairofthesesciencesinNapleswhichwaslateroccupiedbyGenovesi,Galanti.oWehavereceivedsplendidworksfromthisregionaboutthephilosophyofhumanity,abouttheeconomyofthepeoples,sincethecoastofNaplesmorethananyotherlandsinItalyblessesandvaluesfreedomofthought.[Letter]Youwishanaturalhistoryofhumanitywritteninapurelyhumanespirit.Iwishittoo.Forweareinagreementthatagathered-togetherdescriptionofpeoplesaccordingtoso-calledraces[Rassen],varieties,modesofplay,mSystemofLegislation,Anspach,.[OriginalItaliantitle:Lascienzadellalegislazione.]nPrinzipidiunascienzanuova,firstpublished.oAntonioGenovesi,PoliticalEconomyisfamiliarinGermanthroughatranslation;Galanti,DescriptionoftheTwoSicilieslikewise.Theformer’sStoriadelcommerciodellagranBrettagnabyCary,andhistextbooks,showjustasmuchknowledgeasphilosophicalandactive,citizenlyspirit.HealsopublishedaneditionofMontesquieuwithnotes.(Editor’snote.)G.Filangieri(–),Italianjurist.HerderhereusesthesamewordKanthadusedinhisessayVondenverschiedenenRassenderMenschen,afoundingworkinthedubiousmodernscienceofracialtypology.ThisisquitestrikingbecausewhenHerderhimselftalksabout“races,”ashehassometimesbeentranslatedasdoinginthisvolumefautedemieux,hevirtuallyalwaysusesthequitedifferentwordGeschlechter\nPoliticalPhilosophywaysofmating,etc.doesnotyetdeservethisname.Letmepursuethedreamofsuchahistory..Aboveall,letonebeunbiasedlikethegeniusofhumanityitself;letonehavenopettribe,nofavoritepeopleontheearth.Suchapreferenceoftenseducesoneintoascribingtoomuchgoodtothefavorednation,andtoomuchbadtoothers.If,intheextremecase,thebelovedpeopleweremerelyacollectivename(Celts,Semites,Cushites,etc.)thathasperhapsnowhereexisted,whoseoriginsandperpetuationcannotbeproved,thenonewouldhavewrittenatsheerwildrandom[insBlauedesHimmels]..Letonestilllesscontemptuouslyinsultanypeoplethathasneverinsultedus.Evenifauthorsmaynothopethatthegoodfirstprincipleswhichtheyspreadwilleverywherefindquickacceptance,cautionagainstgivingrisetodangerousfirstprinciplesistheirgreatestduty.Peopleread-ilydrawsupportfromcontemptuousjudgmentsaboutotherpeoplesinordertojustifydarkdeeds,savageinclinations.PopeNicholastheFifth(alreadyalongtimeago)gaveawaytheunknownworld;hepontificallygavepermissiontothewhiteandnoblerhumanbeingstoturnallunbe-lieversintoslaves.Wearrivetoolatewithourpapalbulls.Kakistocracymaintainsitsrightsinpracticewithoutushavingtoauthorizeittodosotheoreticallyandthereforehavingtoinvertthehistoryofhuman-ity.Should,forexample,someoneexpresstheopinionthat“ifitcanbedemonstratedthatnocoffee,sugar,rice,ortobaccoplantationscansurvivewithoutnegroes,thenthelegitimacyofthetradeinnegroesissimultane-ouslyproved,inthatthistradebenefitsmorethanharmsthewholehumanspecies,thatis,thewhite,noblerhumanbeings,”thenafirstprincipleofthissortwouldimmediatelydestroythewholehistoryofhumanity.AdmaioremDeigloriamitwouldprivilegethemostimpudentpresump-tions,thecruellestusurpations.Rather,letonenotputintothehandsofanypeopleonearthongroundsof“innatesuperiority”thescepteroverotherpeoples–muchlesstheswordandtheslavewhip..Thenature-investigatorpresupposesnoorderofrankamongthecrea-turesthatheobserves;allareequallydearandvaluabletohim.Likewisethenature-investigatorofhumanity.Thenegrohasasmuchrightto(awordwhichpointstocommonancestryandcultureratherthantoracialtype).ThereisthereforeinallprobabilityacriticalallusiontoKant’sessayhere.FortheCushites,seeGenesis.Literally:intothesky’sblue.I.e.rulebytheworst.(ThisispresumablyanotherHerderianneologism.)ForthegreatergloryofGod.\nTenthCollectionconsiderthewhitemanadegenerate,abornalbinofreak,aswhenthewhitemanconsidershimabeast,ablackanimal.Likewisethe[native]American,likewisetheMongol.Inthatperiodwheneverythingwastak-ingform,naturedevelopedtheformofthehumantypeasmanifoldlyasherworkshoprequiredandallowed.Shedevelopedinform,notvariousseedsp(awordwhichisemptyandwhichcontradictstheformationofhumankind),butvariousforcesinvariousproportions,asmanyofthemaslayinhertypeandasthevariousclimesoftheearthcoulddevelopinform.Thenegro,the[native]American,theMongolhasgifts,talents,preformeddispositionsthattheEuropeandoesnothave.Perhapsthesumisequal–onlyindifferentproportionsandcompensations.Wecanbecertainthatwhatinthehumantypewasabletodeveloponourroundearthhasdevelopedorwilldevelop–forwhocouldpreventitfromdoingso?Theoriginalform,theprototypeofhumanityhenceliesnotinasinglenationofasingleregionoftheearth;itistheabstractedconceptfromallexemplarsofhumannatureinbothhemispheres.TheCherokeeandtheHuswana,theMongolandtheGonaqua,areasmuchlettersinthegreatwordofourspeciesasthemostcivilized[gebildetste]EnglishmanorFrenchman..Eachnationmustthereforebeconsideredsolelyinitsplacewitheverythingthatitisandhas–arbitraryseparatings,slingingsintoacon-fusedjumble,ofindividualtraitsandcustomsyieldnohistory.Withsuchcollectionsoneentersintoacharnelhouse,anequipmentandclothescloset,ofpeoples,butnotintolivingcreation,intothatgreatgardeninwhichpeoplesgrewuplikeplants,towhichtheybelong,inwhicheverything–air,earth,water,sun,light,eventhecaterpillarthatcreepsuponthemandthewormthatconsumesthem–belongsto[geh¨ortzu]them.qLivingdomesticmanagement[Haushaltung]isnature’sconcept,aspTheauthorofthisletterhassketchedonthissubjectaspecialessay,whichdoesnotbelonghere,however.(Editor’snote.)[SeeIdeasforthePhilosophyofHistoryofHumanity,bk..]qThatcollectionsofseparatepeculiaritiesofthehumanspeciescanhereandthere,inthisrespectandthat,beusedasinventories,asrepertoires,theauthorofthisletterdidnotmeantodeny;onlyassuchtheyarestillnohistory.(Editor’snote.)Itisuncertaintowhomthiswordrefers,butpresumablyanAfricantribe.ThisisatribeofHottentotsinsouthandsouthwestAfricadescribedbyLevaillant.Readingkriechtforkriegt.(Thelatterwouldmean“wageswar.”)Thislastoccurrenceoftheexpressiongeh¨orenzu,incontrasttothepreviousoneinthissentence,addstotheideaofparticipationinwhichispresentinbothcases;alsotheideasthateverythingisownedbyandrequiredforpeoples(theexpressionbeingabletobearallthreeofthesesenses).\nPoliticalPhilosophyinthecaseofallorganizations[Organisationen],likewiseinthecaseofmultiformhumanity.Sufferingandjoy,lackandpossession,ignoranceandconsciousness,standbesideeachotherinthegreatdomesticman-ager’s[Haush¨alterin]bookandarecalculatedtobalanceeachother..Leastofall,therefore,canourEuropeanculturebethemeasureofuniversalhumangoodnessandhumanvalue;itisnoyardstickorafalseone.Europeancultureisanabstractedconcept,aname.“Wheredoesitexistentirely?Withwhichpeople?Inwhichtimes?”Moreover(whocandenyit?),therearesomanyshortcomingsandweaknesses,somanytwistingsandhorrors,boundupwithitthatonlyanunkindbeingcouldmaketheseoccasionsofhighercultureintoacollectiveconditionofourwholespecies.Thecultureofhumanityissomethingdifferent;itshootsfortheverywhereinaccordancewithplaceandtime,heremorerichlyandmoreluxuriantly,theremorepoorlyandmeagerly.Thegeniusofhumannaturalhistorylivesinandwitheachpeopleasthoughthispeopleweretheonlyoneonearth..Anditlivesinitinahumanway.Allseparatings-offanddissec-tionsthroughwhichthecharacterofourspeciesgetsdestroyedyieldsemi-conceptsordelusiveones,speculations.ThePescherahisahumanbeingtoo;likewisetheAlbino.Mannerofliving(habitus)iswhatdefinesakind;inourdiversehumanityitisextremelyvarious.Andyetintheendeverythingislinkedtoafewpoints;inthegreatestvarietythesimplestordershowsitself.Thenegrorevealshimselfinhisfootstep,asdoestheHinduinhisfinger-tip;likewisebothoftheminloveandhate,inthesmallestandthegreatestoccupation.Apenetratinglyperceptivebeingwhokneweverypossiblealterationofthehumantypeaccordingtositua-tionsonourearthlysphereinageneticmannerwouldeasilydiscoverfromafewgivencharacteristicmarksthetotalityoftheentireconformationandoftheentiremannerofliving[habitus]ofapeople,ofatribe,ofanindividual.Faithfultraveldescriptionsleadtothisrecognitionofthehumanityinthehumanbeingmuchmoresurelythandosystems.IwashappythatyourletterrnamedamongthosewhohavetransposedthemselvesrLetter.InHerder,ashere,thiswordusuallyconnotesthephysicalconstitutionofanorganism.I.e.nature’s(hencefemininelikedieNatur).Theclosing(emphatic)quotationmarkisomittedinIrmischer’stext.Itspositionhereisthereforeconjectural.ThisisanamegiventothenativetribesofTierradelFuegobytheFrenchexplorerBougainville.ThisnamewasappliedbythePortuguesetowhitenegroesonthecoastofAfrica.\nTenthCollectiondeeplyintotheethicsofforeignpeoplesPag`estoo.sLetonereadhisde-pictionsofthecharactersofseveralnationsinAmerica,tofthepeoplesinthePhilippines,uandthejudgmentsthathepasseshereandthereonthebehavioroftheEuropeanstowardsthem,howhesoughtto,sotospeak,incorporateintohimselfthemannerofthoughtoftheHindus,oftheArabs,oftheDruse,etc.eventhroughparticipatingintheirmannerofliving.v–Traveldescriptionsofsuchasort–ofwhich(letusbethankfultohumanity!)wehavemanyw–expandourhorizonandmultiplyoursensi-tivityforeverysituationofourbrothers.Withoutlosingawordaboutthis,theypreachsympathy,tolerance,forgiveness,praise,pity,many-sidedcul-tureofthemind,satisfaction,wisdom.Certainly,intraveldescriptionstoo,asontravels,eachpersonseekshisownthing.Thebasepersonseeksbadcompany,andofcourseamongahundrednationsonewillbefoundtherethatfavorshisprejudice,thatnourisheshisdelusion.Thenoblehumanbeingeverywhereseeksthebetter,thebest,justasthedrawerchoosespic-turesqueregions.Thispersonwillnoticeoriginallygoodbutmisusedfirstprinciplesevenbehindtheveilofbadhabits,andwillgarnerevenfromtheabyssoftheoceannotslimebutpearls.–Aclassificationoftraveldescrip-tions,not,asmightbeentertained,onlyaccordingtonoteworthyfeaturesofnaturalhistory,butalsoaccordingtotheinnercontentofthetraveldescribersthemselves,towhatextenttheyhadapureeyeandintheirbreastuniversalnaturalandhumansensitivity–suchaworkwouldbeveryusefulforthedistractedflockofreaderswhodonotknowrightfromleft.xsDePages,Voyageautourdumonde[JourneyAroundtheWorld],Berne,`.tPp.,–.uPp.–,–.vVol..wAmongmanyothersInameG.Forster’sandLevaillant’s–bythelatterespeciallyhismorerecenttravels.Thefirstprincipleswhichruleinthemconcerninghowhumanbeingsandanimalsshouldbeconsideredandtreatedprovideahodopaedia[educationinjourneying]whichespeciallytheEnglishseemtolack.TheirjudgmentsaboutforeignnationsalwaysbetraythedivisumtotoorbeBritannum[theBritondividedfromthewholesphereoftheearth]ifnotindeedthemonarchicmerchant;whereasadescriberoftravelsoughtactuallytohavenoexclusivefatherland.(Editor’snote.)xWhocouldprovidethisworkbetterthanReinholdForster?–evenifheonlywantedtoaddhisjudgmentstoanalready-printedlistoftraveldescriptions.(Editor’snote.)Herderatthispointinsertsinthemaintextalongishpoem“TheForestHut[DieWaldh¨utte]”(explanatorilysubtitled:“amission-narrativefromParaguay”),basedonanarrativebytheAustrianmissionaryM.Dobritzhofer.InthepoemamissionarycomesuponaremotefamilyofnativeAmericans–mother,son,anddaughter–whoarelivinginidyllicisolation.Hepersuadesthemtocomewithhim.Aftersomeinitialresistancefromthemother,theydoso.Buttheysufferfromthelossoftheirhome.Thetwowomendie.Thesonisthenvisitedatnightbyvisionsofhismotherandsistertellinghimtobebaptizedbecausetheywillfetchhimtothemsoon.Tohisdelight,themissionarypromisestobaptizehim.Ontheverydaythatheisbaptizedhedies.Thepoemconcludeswithaversereproachingthemissionaryforhavinguprootedthefamilycontrary\nPoliticalPhilosophy[Letter]Certainly,itisnotamatterofindifferenceaccordingtowhichfirstprinciplespeoplestakeeffectoneachother;andyetistherenotahistoryofpeopleswhichlacksallfirstprinciplesaboutthebehaviorofthenationstowardseachother?Istherenotanotherhistoryinwhichthemostharmfulfirstprinciplesaresetupasjustandpraiseworthymeasures?ItispreciselyforthisreasonthatsomepeopledonotknowwhytheyshouldonlycondemnthebehavioroftheEuropeanstowardsthenegroesandsavages,becauseafterallsimilarfirstprinciplesseemtogoverninthewholehistoryofpeopleswithmoreorlessmodifications.Mostwarsandconquestsinallpartsoftheworld–onwhatbasesdidtheyrest?,whichfirstprinciplesguidedthem?Not,asmightbeas-sumed,onlythoserovingsoftheAsiatichordes,butalsomostofthewarsoftheGreeksandRomans,oftheArabs,ofthebarbarians.Mostdefinitelythepersecutionsofhereticsandthecrusades,theEuropeans’behaviortowardswitchesandJews,theirundertakingsinbothIndias.–Howoneregretsinallthismanyagreatmanwhoperformedalmostsu-perhumandeedsasamandeceived,asamadman!Withthenoblestsoulhebecameastormerandrobberoftheworldwhoforthemostpartalsoharvestedapoorrewardforhisdeedsfromcourtsthatwereasungratefultowardshimastheywerebarbarictowardsthepeoples.OneisastonishedatthepresenceofmindthatVascodaGama,Albuquerque,Cortes,Pizarro,andmanyunderthemdisplayedincircumstancesofthegreatestdanger;piratesandhighwaymenoftendisplayedthesamething.ButwhothatisnotaSpaniardorPortuguesewilldaretomakethedeedsoftheseheroes,ofCortes,ofPizarro,orofthegreatAlbuquerquebeforeSuez,Ormuz,Calicut,Goa,Malacca,intothesubjectofahero-poem,andtopraisestillnowthefirstprinciplesthatwereinforcethen?yTheeulogistsofSt.Bartholomew’sNight,ofthemurdersofJewsarecoveredwithre-proachandshame;itistobehopedthattherobbersandmurderersofthepeoplestoowill–despitealltheirdemonstratedheroicdeeds,merelyyOneofourpoets[i.e.J.F.W.Zacharia]trieditwith¨Cortes,buthewiselystopped.tothemother’sinitialresistance,andenjoins,“Ohlet,/though,eachplantbloomwhereitblooms!”I.e.IndiaandAmerica,thelandofAmericanIndians.A.d’Albuquerque(–),PortuguesenavigatorandviceroyinIndia.OnSt.Bartholomew’sDayinthereoccurredinFranceagovernment-instigatedmassacreofProtestants.\nTenthCollectionandsolelyinaccordancewiththefirstprinciplesofapurehumanhistory–somedaystandcoveredwiththesame.Thesamethingappliestothefirstprinciplesconcerningwhatonecon-siderspermittedtooneselfinwar.Ifplundering,mutilating,raping,poi-soningofwellsandofone’sweaponsarerecognizedasdishonorablemeansofwarfare,arenotdomesticincitementsofsubjectswhodonotbelongtothearmy,Vendeewars,´plansforthestarvationofnations,faithlesspretensesjustasmuchso?EveryoneloathestheplansofAlbuquerque,whowantedtoturnthewholeofEgyptintoadesertbyhavingitdeprivedoftheNile,whowantedtoplunderMeccaandMedina,landsthatwereinvolvedinnowarwiththePortuguese.–Suchatrocitiesagainstforeign,peace-fulpeoples,implantingsoffaithlessnessintheheartsofone’senemy,etc.intheendpunishthemselves.Hewhoconductssimultaneouslybothanopenandasecretwarusuallyreliessomuchontheefficacyofhissecretmeansthattheopenonesgoawryforhimaswell.Instigationandbetrayalrarelyrewardedtheirauthorsotherwisethanwithlossandshame.Hewhopushesasidefirstprinciplesonwhichalonestillrestswhatremainsofpeo-ples’honorandgoodnameinwarpoisonsthewellsofhistoryandoftheinternationallawofpeoplesrightdowntothelastdrop.Itwouldyieldasadoverviewifonewentthrougheachwrittenhistoryofpeoplesintheirwarsandconquests,intheirnegotiations,intheirplansforaction,accordingtothefirstprinciplesonwhichtheiractionandwritingtookplace.Howmuchmorehonorablewereourancestors,theancientbarbarians,whointheirduelsnotonlysawtoequalityofweapons,butalsosharedposition,light,andsunwithoutbias.Howmuchmorehonorablearethesavagesintheirnegotiationsandpeacetreaties,intheirbarterandtrade!Forceandarbitrarinessmaycommandconcerningthingsoverwhichtheyhavepower,butnotconcerningfirstprinciplesofrightandwronginhumanhistory.zzConcerningtheRomans’mannerofthinkingaboutthisintheirbesttimesletonereadLipsius(Doctrinapolitica[i.e.Politicorumsivecivilisdoctrina()],withitscommentary),Grotius(Dejurebellietpacis[]),oreventhegoodMontaigne([Essais(),]bk.,chs.,).Itisveryshamingforourtimes.(Editor’snote.)OnMarchthereeruptedintheVendeeregionofsouthwestFrancearoyalistrebellion´againsttherevolutionaryregimeinParis.Herderatthispointinsertsinthemaintextseveralpoems,onthemesrelatedtothepointsjustmade,whichareomittedhere.“TheHunPrince”tellsofaprinceoftheHunsfromwhomtheTatarsdemandhisbesthorse.Hiscaptainswanttofight,buthesaysthatitisnotworthitforahorse,andgivesupthehorse.Thesamethinghappenswithhisfairestwoman.ThentheTatarsdemandhisland,and,whilethecaptainsarebynowreadytogivethisupaswell,theprincesays\nPoliticalPhilosophy[Letter]Sincepresentlyduringthemostaccursedwar,inwhichanearlypeaceprovessodifficult,thereismuchtalkofplansforeternalpeace,Icommu-nicatetoyouarealattemptmadewiththispurposeinthewordsofthemanwhoreportsit.Oneternalpeace(anIroquoisarrangement)“TheDelawaresformerlylivedintheregionofPhiladelphiaandbeyondthattowardsthesea.Thencedidtheyoftenconductattacksonthevil-lagesoftheCherokees,mingleunrecognizedintheirdancesatnight,andsuddenlymurdermanyduringthese.Stillmoresevereandolderwerethatthisaffectsnotonlyhimselfbutalsothestate,andconsequentlycallsforbattle.Battletakesplaceandtheprinceandhiscaptainsnotonlykeepthelandbutalsowinbackhishorseandwoman.“TheWarPrayer”tellsofasheikhandhisvizierwhogoofftofightawarwiththeformer’sbrother.Ontheway,theystopandprayatasaint’sgrave.Thesheikhasksthevizierwhatheprayedfor,andthelattersaysthatitwasforthesheikh’svictory.ThesheikhrepliesthathehimselfprayedthatGodshouldgivevictorytohisbrotherifHeconsidersthelattermoredeservingofitthanhimself.“Kahira”tellsofaqueenoftheBerbers,Kahira,who,intuitingtheimminentfallofherrealm,lamentsthefailureofherpreviousgenerositytoappeasetheenemy,andtellsherpeopletoburytheirtreasure,whichisattractingtheenemy,intheruinsoftheirhousesandsoachievepeacethroughpoverty.Herpeopleobey,butinvain:Theenemyreturns,evenstrongerthanbefore.Shesendsofftheirleader,whomshehascaptured,askinghimtotreathersonsaswellasshehastreatedhim,andthenshecallstobattle.SheandherBerberrealmperish–however,nothergenerosity,inreturnforwhichtheenemyleaderhonorsherinhisgoodtreatmentofhersons.“LawinWar”tellsastoryaboutMahmudGhashnawi(theleaderofaTurkish-PersianstatewhoconqueredandplunderedinIran,Afghanistan,andnorthernIndiaintheeleventhcentury).ApoorIndiancomestoMahmudcomplainingthatapowerfulmanfromMahmud’sarmyhascometohimdemandinghiswifeandhouse.MahmudtellsthepoorIndiantocomebackwhenthemanreturns–whicheventuallyhappens.MahmudthengoestothepoorIndian’shousewithhisbodyguards,andordersthatthelightsbeputoutandthemankilled.Afterwardshecallsforlightagain,andthenfallsdowninprayerandasksforfood.Heexplains:hehadthoughtthatonlyoneofhisownsonsorfavoriteswouldhavebeenboldenoughtobesounjust,anditwasforthisreasonthathehadhadthelightsputout,sothattheywouldnotblindthejudge’seye;but,fortunately,theguiltypartywasnotoneofthose,andso,havingfastedfordaysoutofanxiety,hecannowatlasteatagain.ThepoemconcludeswithpraiseofMahmud’sstrictjustice,humanity,andpiety.“LawatSea”tellsthestoryofashipfacingdisasterinastormysea.Theship’scaptainsailsintotheenemy’sharborandsurrendersinordertosavehismen’slives.Thecommanderoftheharborsaysthattheyhavecometohimasunfortunatehumanbeings,andthattheyshouldrepairtheirshipandleavefreely–onlyifcapturedatseawouldtheybehiscaptives.“TheDeceivedNegotiator”tellsthestoryofaninvitationextendedbytheleaderoftheFrenchforcesinCanadatothechiefsoftheIroquoistoattendpeacetalks.Amissionaryingoodfaithurgesthechiefstoattend,whichtheydo.ButtheFrenchleaderhasthemchainedandsenttothegalleys.TheIroquoisnationisoutraged.Theireldergoestothemissionaryandtellshimthatheknowshimtobeinnocentbutthat,becauseothersinthenationthinkotherwise,heshouldfleetosafety.Hethengiveshimanescorttoaccompanyhimoverthebordertosafety.Thepoemconcludeswiththewarmjudgmentonthiselder:“Nobleman!”I.e.G.H.Loskiel(–),abishopinPennsylvania.\nTenthCollectionthewarsoftheDelawareswiththeIroquois.AccordingtotheDelawares’assertionstheywerealwaysthevictorsovertheIroquois,sothatthelattereventuallyrealizedthatifthewarcontinuedlongertheinevitableconse-quencemustbetheircompletedestruction.SotheysentrepresentativestotheDelawareswiththefollowingmes-sage:‘Itisnotgoodthatallthenationsconductwar,forthatwilleven-tuallyleadtothedestructionoftheIndians.Wehavethereforethoughtupameansforpreventingthisevil–namely,thatonenationshouldbethewoman.Thisoneweplantoputinthemiddle;buttheotherwarringnationsshouldbethemenandlivearoundthewoman.Nooneshouldtouchthewomanordoheranyharm;andifanyonedidsothenitisourplantospeaktohimimmediatelyandsaytohim:“Whyareyouhittingthewoman?”Thenallthemenshouldattackhimwhohashitthewoman.Thewomanshouldnotgotowarbutasfaraspossibletrytopreservepeace.Henceifatsometimethemenaroundherareatblowswitheachotherandthewarthreatenstobecomesevere,thenthewomanshouldhavethepowertoaddressthemandsaytothem:“Youmen,whatareyoudoingthatyoubelaboreachotheraboutwithblowsinthisway?Justrememberthatyourwivesandchildrenareboundtodieifyoudonotstop.Doyou,then,wanttoberesponsibleforyourownannihilationfromthefaceoftheearth?”Andthemenshouldthenpayheedtothewomanandobeyher.’TheDelawaresputupwithbecomingthewoman.NowtheIroquoisputonagreatcelebration,invitedtheDelawarenationtoit,andgaveanemphaticspeechtotheDelawarenation’sauthorizedrepresentativeswhichconsistedofthreemainpropositions.InthefirstpropositiontheydeclaredtheDelawarenationtobethewoman,whichtheyexpressedthroughthesayings‘Wedressyouinalongwoman’sskirtthatreachesdowntothefeetandornamentyouwithearrings,’andtherebyletitbeknowntothemthatfromnowontheyshouldnolongeroccupythem-selveswithweapons.Thesecondpropositionwasformulatedasfollows:‘Wehangagourd-bottlewithoilandmedicineonyourarm.Withtheoilyoushouldcleantheearsoftheremainingnationssothattheypayheedtogoodandnottoevil;butthemedicineyoushoulduseonsuchpeoplesashavealreadyenteredonfoolishpathssothattheycometotheirsensesagainandturntheirheartstopeace.’Thethirdproposi-tion,inwhichtheyassignedtheDelawaresagricultureastheirfutureoccupation,wasexpressedasfollows:‘Weherebygiveintoyourhandamaizestalkandahoe.’Eachpropositionwasreinforcedbymeansofabelt\nPoliticalPhilosophyofwampum(beltofmussel-shells).Sincethenthesebeltshavebeencarefullypreservedandtheirmeaninghasbeenrepeatedfromtimetotime.SincethisstrangepeacetreatytheDelawareshavebeencalledsister-childrenbytheIroquois;thethreeDelawaretribescalleachotherfellowfemaleplaymates.Butthesetitlesareonlyusedintheircouncilsandwhentheyhavesomethingimportanttosaytoeachother.FromthetimeinquestiontheDelawarenationhasbeenthewomanwhopreservespeaceintowhosecarethegreatbeltofpeaceisgivenandtowhomthechainoffriendshipisentrusted.Itisherdutytowatchoverthissothatitispreservedunharmed.AccordingtotheIndians’representation,themiddleofthechainrestsonhershoulderandisheldfirmbyher;theremainingIndiannationsholdontotheoneend,andtheEuropeansontotheother.”aaThustheIroquois.ThereweretimesinEuropewhenhierarchywassupposedtoplaytheroleofthiswoman.Hierarchytooworethelongdress;oilandmedicinewereinherhand.Peopleblameherfor,insteadofadministeringherofficeofpeace,oftenherselfhavingstirredupandfannedwarsbetweenthemen;atleastheroilhasnotyetcleanedtheearsofthepeoples,hermedicinehasnotyetcuredthesick.Shouldwe,insteadofthishierarchy,putwomen’sclothesonarealnationinthemiddleofEuropeandbestowonittheofficeofajudgeoverpeace?Whichnation?Buthowcouldthisnationadministertheoffice,whenworld-devastatingwarsoftengetwagedoverafewfursontheHudsonBay,overafewvillagesontheParaguayriver(aboutwhosepositioneventhosewagingthewarthemselveshavesometimesbeeninerror),overaharborlocationinthePacificocean,overgovernors’teasingsofeachother?Indeed,howoftendidthesewarsresultfromawhimofthemonarch,fromabasecabaloftheminister!AhistoryofthetrueoriginsofthewarsinEuropesincethecrusadeswouldbeasevenfoldHudibras,thebasestsatiricalpoemthatcouldbewritten.Inaworldwheredarkcabinetsinitiateandcontinuewars,alltheeffortsofthepeacewomanwouldbelost.aaLoskiel’sMissionsgeschichteinNordamerika[Mission-historyinNorthAmerica],p..[I.e.GeschichtederMissionenderevangelischenBr¨uderunterdenIndianerninNordamerika().]Herderwrites“beltofwampum”inEnglish.Herderisreferringtothe“hierarchy”oftheCatholicchurchinthemiddleages.HerderisalludingtoS.Butler’scomicepicHudibras(–).\nTenthCollectionUnfortunately,evenwiththesavagesthemselvesthisarrangementdidnotachieveitspurposeforlong.WhentheEuropeanspressedcloser,atthedemandofthemeneventhewomanwassupposedtoparticipatealongwiththeminthedefense.Itwastheirintention,astheyexpressedit,firstofalltoshortenherskirt,thentotakeitawayentirelyandputthewaraxinherhand.Aforeign,unforeseendominantforcedisturbedthebeautifulprojectofthesavagesforpeaceamongeachother;andthiswillalwaysbethecaseaslongasthetreeofpeacedoesnotbloomforthenationswithfirm,inextirpablerootsfromwithintooutside.Howmanyothermeanshumanbeingshavealreadytriedtoputastoptowar-thirstynationsandtoblocktheirpaths.Hugewallswereerectedbetweenmountainranges,interveninglandswereturnedtodesert,intimidatingfableswerethoughtupandplantedinthisdesert.InAsiaaholyrealmwassupposedtosetalimittotherovingsoftheMongols;thegreatLamawassupposedtobethepeacewoman.InAfricaobelisksandtemplesbecamethesanctuariesoftrade,themothersoflegislationsandcolonies.InGreeceoracles,AmphiktyonicCouncils,thePanionium,thePanaetolianLeague,theAchaeanLeague,etc.weresupposedtoeffect,ifnotaneternal,thenatleastalongpeace–withwhatsuccesstimehastaught.Itwouldbebestif,asinthatwell-knowntradingintheinteriorofAfrica,thenationswerenotthemselvesallowedtoseeeachotheratall.Theysetdowntheirwaresandmoveoff,offerandexchange.Catchingsightofeachother,deceptionandquarrelingareunavoidable.–Mygreatpeacewomanhasadifferentname.Hermedicinetakeseffectlate,butsurely.Allowmeforthisanotherletter.HerderisreferringtotheGreatWallofChina.IrmischerplausiblyinterpretsthisasanallusiontotheintroductionofLamaisminTibetandMongoliainthesixteenthcentury.I.e.thoseofPharaonicEgypt.ReadingM¨utterforMutter.HerderisthinkingespeciallyoftheoracleofApolloatDelphi.TheAmphiktyonicCouncilwasaleagueofGreektribesandcitiesresponsiblefortheshrinesatDelphiandDelos.ThePanioniumwasashrineofPoseidonatPriene,centerofthetwelveIoniancity-states.ThePanaetolianLeaguewasapoliticalleagueamongtheAetolians.TheAchaeanLeaguewasaleagueoftwelvecitiesoftheAchaeansinthenorthernPeloponnese.HerderatthispointinsertsinthemaintextapoembasedonM.Rauhfrost,RedenAlHallils():“AlHallil’sAddresstohisShoe[AlHallilsRedeanseinenSchuh].”Thisisomittedhere.InthepoemthemanAlHallilgoeswithhispeopleintoabloodybattle.Buthehasmisgivingsaboutkilling,whichheexpressestoGod.Hetreadsinabogandhisshoewillnotcomeoutagain.Asthebattleragesaroundhim,headdresseshisshoe:Herecallshowithadavoidedwithhimthepathsofviolenceandwickedness,insteadgoinggentlerways,inparticularatnighttohisbeloved.Hesaysthathefollowshisshoe’spresentadvicetocontinuenowtooavoidingthepathofviolence.\nPoliticalPhilosophy[Letter]Mygreatpeacewomanhasonlyasinglename:sheiscalleduniversaljustice,humaneness,activereason.Ihavereadaveryingeniousmanuscriptinwhichthefollowingpropo-sitionsformedthebasisofhumanhistory:.Humanbeingsdieinordertomakeroomforhumanbeings..Andsincefewerofthemdiethanareborn,naturemakesspacebyviolentmeans..Tothesebelongnotonlyplague,badharvest,earthquakes,earthrevolutions,butalsopeoplerevolutions,devastations,wars..Justasoneanimalspeciesreducestheother,sothehumanspeciessetsitselfinproportionandwardsoffover-population..Hencethereareinitpreservinganddestroyingcharacters.–Terriblesystem,whichinstillsinushorrorandfearatourownspeciesinthataccordingtoitwehavetolookeveryoneintheface,athisgait,andathishandstoseewhetherheisacarnivorousoraherbivorousanimal,whetherhebearsinhimselfapreservingoradestroyingcharacter.Naturehascertainlynotdenudedusofmeansforsecuringourselvesagainstthisdestroyingkindofourownspecies;onlyshegaveusthesemeansnotasweaponsinourhandsbutinourheadsandhearts.Universalhumanreasonandjusticeisthematronwhobearsoilandmedicineonherarm,aharveststalkinherhand,not,asmightbethought,onlyassymbolsbutasthequietlyeffectivemeansifnotforaneternalpeacethencertainlyatleastforagradualdiminutionofwars.Letus,sinceweherefindourwayontothehonorableSt.Pierre’spaths,alsonotbeashamedofhismethod,anddirectthegreatpeacewoman(paxsempiterna)toherofficewithfirmfirstprinciples.Herfunction,inaccordancewithhernameandhernature,istoinculcatedispositionsofpeace.Firstdisposition:HorrorofwarWar,whenitisnotforcedself-defensebutamadattackonapeaceful,neighboringnation,isaninhuman,worse-than-animalthingtostart,inthatitnotonlythreatensthenationthatitattacks,initsinnocence,withmurderanddevastation,butalsosacrificesthenationwhichconductsitWithbitterirony,hewishestheviolentheroeswellintheirviolence–maylionsroarinhonoroftheseheroes’victories,maythetigersharpenhisclaws,killedarmiessing,snakeshissinruinedhomes.Buthealsoasksthequietmoonandthepeacefulnight,whichtheseheroesdisturb,nottoshineonthemorembracethem.Thishasnotbeenidentified.OmittingHerder’sredundantandungrammaticalmich.Eternalpeace.\nTenthCollectionjustasundeservedlyasterribly.Cantherebeamorehorriblesightforahigherbeingthantwoarmiesstandinginoppositiontoeachotherwhichwithouthavingsufferedabusemurdereachother?Andinthetrainofwar,moreterriblethanwaritself,comediseases,militaryhospitals,starvation,plague,robbery,violence,desolationoflands,degenerationofmindsintosavagery,destructionoffamilies,spoilingofethicsforlonggenerations.Allnoblehumanbeingsshouldspreadthisdispositionwithwarmhumanfeeling,fathersandmothersshouldimbuetheirchildrenwiththeirownexperiencesonthesubject,sothattheterribleword‘war’whichpeoplearticulatewithsucheasenotonlybecomeshatefultohumanbeingsbutpeople,withthesamehorrorasinthecaseofSt.Vitus’sDance,plague,famine,earthquake,theblackdeath,hardlydaretonameitortowriteit.Seconddisposition:ReducedrespectforheroicgloryThedispositionmustspreadmoreandmorethattheland-conqueringheroicspiritisnotonlyanangelofdeathforhumanitybutalsoinitstalentsdoesnotremotelydeservetherespectandglorythatgetpaidtoitduetotradition,fromtheGreeks,Romans,andbarbariansondown.Howevermuchpresenceofmind,howevermuchcomprehensivecarefulnessandforesightandrapidvisionitmayrequire,thenoblestherowillbeforeandafterbattlenotonlylamentthebusinesstowhichhesacrificeshisgiftsbutalsoreadilyconfessthatinordertobeafatherofapeopletherearerequired,ifnotmore,thencertainlynoblergiftsinongoingeffortandacharacter–acharacterthatneitherowesitsbattleprizetoasingledaynorsharesitwithchanceorblindluck.AllmenofunderstandingshouldunitetoblowawaythefalsesparklethatdancesaroundaMarius,Sulla,Attila,GenghisKhan,TamerlaneuntilintheendsongstothemandtoLipsTullianseemtoeveryeducated[gebildeten]soultobeequallyheroic.Thirddisposition:HorroroffalsestatecraftMoreandmoretheremustbeanunmaskingofthefalsestatecraftthatplacesaregent’sgloryandhisgovernment’sfortuneinexpansionofborders,incapturingorseizingforeignprovinces,inincreasedincome,slynegotiations,inarbitrarypower,cunning,anddeception.TheMazarins,LipsTullianwastheleaderofanotoriousbandofrobbersthatplaguedGermanyinthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies.Hewasexecutedin.\nPoliticalPhilosophyLouvois’s,duTerrai’s,andtheirkindmustappearastheyarenotonlyintheeyesofthedecentpeoplebutalsointhoseoftheweaklingsthemselves,sothatitbecomesasclearasone-times-onethateverydeceptionofafalsestatecraftintheenddeceivesitself.Theuniversalvoice-votemustbevictoriousoverthevalueofmerestaterankandofitsemblems,evenoverthemostseductivetricksofvanity,evenoverearly-imbibedprejudices.Itseemstomethatalreadynowpeoplehaveadvancedfar,andperhapstoofar,incontemptforsomeofthesethings;thecrucialthingisthatpeoplealsoproperlyrespectwhatdeservestobevaluedineverythingthatthestateimposesonus,andallthemorehighlysothemoreitadvancesthehumanityofhumanbeings.Fourthdisposition:PurifiedpatriotismPatriotismmustnecessarilymoreandmorecleanandpurifyitselfofdross.Everynationmustlearntofeelthatitbecomesgreat,beautiful,noble,rich,wellordered,active,andhappy,notintheeyesofothers,notinthemouthofposterity,butonlyinitself,initsownself;andthatbothforeignandlaterespectthenfollowsitastheshadowfollowsthebody.Withthisfeelingthereisnecessarilybounduphorrorandcontemptforeveryemptyinvasionofyourpeopleintoforeignlands,foruselessinterferenceinforeignquarrels,foreveryemptyapingandparticipationthatdisturbsourbusiness,ourduty,ourpeaceandwelfare.Itmustbecomeridiculousandcontemptiblewhennativeinhabitantsquarrelwitheachother,hateeachother,persecuteeachother,vilifyeachother,andslandereachotheroverforeignaffairswhichtheyneitherknownorunderstand,inwhichtheycanchangenothing,andwhicharenoneoftheirbusinessatall.Theymustappearasforeignbanditsandassassinswhofrommadpassionfororagainstaforeignpeopleunderminethepeaceoftheirfellowbrothers.Peoplemustlearnthattheycanbesomethingonlyintheplaceinwhichtheystand,wheretheyshouldbesomething.Fifthdisposition:FeelingofjusticetowardsothernationsOntheotherhand,everynationmustgraduallycometofeelitasunpleas-antwhenanothernationgetsdisparagedandabused;theremustgraduallyThesewereallpoliticiansunderFrenchabsolutismwhowerenotoriousfortheirunscrupulousexerciseofpower.\nTenthCollectionawakenacommonfeelingsothateverynationfeelsitselfintothepositionofeveryotherone.Peoplewillhatetheimpudenttransgressorofforeignrights,thedestroyerofforeignwelfare,thebrazenabuserofforeignethicsandopinions,theboastfulimposerofhisownadvantagesonpeopleswhodonotwantthem.Underwhateverpretextsomeonestepsoverthebo-rderinordertocutoffthehairofhisneighborasaslave,inordertoforcehisowngodsuponhim,andinorderinreturntostealfromhimhisnationalsacredobjectsinreligion,art,mannerofrepresentation,andmodeoflife–hewillfindintheheartofeverynationanenemywholooksintohisownbreastandsays:“Whatifthathappenedtome?”–Ifthisfeelinggrows,thentherewillariseimperceptiblyanallianceofallcivilized[gebildeten]nationsagainsteveryindividualpresumptuouspower.OnecancertainlycountonthisquietleagueearlierthanonaformalagreementbetweencabinetsandcourtsinthemannerenvisagedbySt.Pierre.Onemayexpectnostepsofprogressfromcabinetsandcourts;buteventheymustintheend,withoutknowingitandagainsttheirwill,followthevoice-voteofthenations.Sixthdisposition:ConcerningpresumptionsintradeHumanefeelinggrowsloudlyindignantagainstimpudentpresumptionsintradeassoonasinnocent,slavishnationsgetsacrificedtoitforaprofitwhichtheydonotevenreceive.Tradeshould,evenifnotfromthenoblestmotives,unifyhumanbeings,notdividethem;itshouldteachthemtoknowtheircommonandindividualinterestsatleastaschildren,evenifnotinthenoblestprofit.Thatiswhytheoceanisthere,thatiswhythewindsblow,thatiswhytheriversflow.Assoonasasinglenationwantstoshutofftheseafromallothers,takethewindawayfromthem,forthesakeofitsproudgreed,then,themoreinsightintotherelationofpeoplestooneanotherincreases,theremustawakentheindignationofallnationsagainst[such]asubjugatorofthefreestelement,againsttherobberofeveryhighestprofit,thepresumptuouspossessorofallthetreasuresandfruitsoftheearth.Noforeigndropofbloodwillwillinglyflowtoservethisnation’spride,itsgreed,themorethatanexcellentman’struepropositiongetsacknowledged:“thattheinterestsofthetradingpowersdonotconflictwitheachother,andthatonthecontrarythesepowerswouldHerderisagainusingbrachylogyhere:“theremustawaken”isreallyshortfor“themoretheremustawaken.”\nPoliticalPhilosophyhavethegreatestadvantagefromareciprocaluniversalprosperityandfromthepreservationofanuninterruptedpeace.”bbSeventhdisposition:ActivityFinally,themaizestalkintheIndianwoman’shandisitselfaweaponagainstthesword.Themorehumanbeingscometoknowthefruitsofausefulactivityandlearntorealizethatbythewaraxnothingiswonbutmuchdevastated;themoretheshamingprejudicesaboutacastebornforwarwithadivinecalling,acasteinwhichfromfatherCain,Nimrod,andOgtoBashanandonhero’sbloodissaidtoflow,becomecontemptibleandridiculous–thenthemorerespectwillthecornwreath,theapple-andthepalm-twigreceiveinpreferencetothesadlaurelthatgrowsbesidedarkcypressesand,alongwithnettlesandthorns,lovesonlylizardsandowlsamongit.ThegentlespreadingofthesefirstprinciplesistheoilandthemedicineofthegreatpeacegoddessReasonfromwhoselanguagenoonecanintheendescape.Imperceptiblythemedicinetakeseffect,gentlytheoilflowsdown.ReasonstepsupsoftlytothispeopleandthatandspeaksinthelanguageoftheIndians:“Brother,grandson,father,hereIbringyouasignofalliance,andoilandmedicine.WiththisIwanttopurifyyoureyessothattheyseeclearly;withitIwanttocleanyourearssothattheyhearrightly;Iwanttosmoothyourthroatsothatmywordsgodownfluidly–foritisnotfornothingthatIcome;Ibringwordsofpeace.”bbPinto,UberdieHandelseifersucht¨[OnJealousyinTrade],translatedintheSammlungvonAufs¨atzen,diegr¨oßtenteilswichtigePunktederStaatswissenschaftbetreffen,Liegnitz,.TheauthoroftheaforementionedessayprefaceditwiththefollowingpassagefromBuffon:“Thesetimesinwhichthehumanbeingloseshisinheritance,thesebarbariccenturiesinwhicheveryoneperishes,alwayshavewarastheirharbinger,andbeginwithfamineanddepopulation.Thehumanbeing,whoisonlyabletoaccomplishanythingenmasse,whoisstrongonlyinunityandcombinationwithothersofhiskind,whoishappynootherwisethanthroughpeace,isinsaneenoughtoarmhimselfforhisdisaster,andtofightforhisdestruction.Stimulatedbyaninsatiablegreed,blindedbyastillmoreinsatiablecravingforhonor,herenouncesthesensationsofhumaneness,appliesallhisforcesagainsthimself,strivestheonetoruintheother,andintheendcauseshisactualdestruction.Andafterthesedaysofbloodandmurder,whenthefogofgloryhasdisappeared,hewithasadeyeseestheearthlaidwaste,theartsburied,thenationsweakened,hisownhappinessinruins,andhistruepowerdestroyed.”TheseareallcharactersinthefirstfourbooksoftheOldTestament.TheunusualwordswhichHerderemployshere,LacertenundBubonen,areinpartchoseninordertoconjureupimagesofmilitaryhospitals(Lazarette)andbubonicplague.\nTenthCollectionAndtheaddresseewillanswer:“Sister,thisstringofwampumismeanttowelcomeyou.Iwanttoextractfromyourfeetthethornswhichmaypossiblyhavepenetratedforyourdistress.Iwanttodispelthefatiguethathascomeuponyouonyourjourneysothatyourkneesbecomestrongandcourageousagain.Theredwaraxandtheclubshouldbeburiedintheearthandwemeantoplantoverthematreethatshouldgrowrightuptotheheavens.Ourfriendshipshouldlastforaslongassunandmoonshineandriseandset,foraslongasthestarsstandintheheavensandtheriversflowwithwater.”ccIf,asIalmostbelieve,aneternalpeacewillonlybeformallymadeatthedayofjudgment,thennonethelessnofirstprinciple,nodropofoil,isinvainthatpreparesforitevenifonlyattheremotestofdistances.[Letter]Everyencouragementtogooddispositionswithouttakinganxiousconsid-erationoftheformalityoftheirexecutionisa[mere]sermonofconsolation.Oftenthestupidmansays“Whenwill,whencan,thishappen?”anddoesnothingatallaboutit.Oftenhecommitshimselftooearlyandtooexactlytothedefinitionoftheformalitiesoftheoutcome,andintheprocessfor-getstheessentialfactorofthemeansforhelpingtopromotethisoutcome.Manyhistoricalexamplesshowthisclearly.Forexample,intheoldwritingsoftheHebrewnationbeautifulwishesandplansforthefuturewereplanted.Hopesofagreatlightthatshouldshineforallpeoples,ofabondoffriendshipthatshouldencompassallnations,ofareligionthatwouldbewrittenintotheheart,ofagoldenpeaceinwhicheveryonewouldparticipate,shonelikearosydawn.Assoonasthespiritoftheprophet,hispurpose,andtherulingdispositionofhisspeechwentunrecognizedintheseplansandpresentiments,whenpeopleclungtotheletteranddefinedthefulfillmentformally,thenstupiditiescametolight–reverieswitheachoneofwhichpeopledeviatedthatmuchfurtherfromthemeaningoftheprophecythemoreformallytheydefined.ItwasnodifferentinChristianitywhenpeoplehopedforthevisiblecomingoftheLord.InallfanaticalsectsthatwantedtobringabouttheccSheerexpressionsusedbytheAmericanIndiansintheirpeacetreatiesandintheconsecrationoftheirpeacewoman.HerderusesEnglishforthewordsitalicized.\nPoliticalPhilosophythousand-yearrealmitwasnodifferent.Withmanyanewphilosophy,Ifear,itispreciselythesameway.Howclosetothefulfillmentpeoplehavebelievedthemselvestobewithsomesystems,andhowterriblytheyweredeceived!Theshiningpeakthatpeoplesawcloseinfrontofthemmovedfurtherandfurtheroff.Theninthatcasethedeludedpersongivesupallhopeandletshishandssink.Spreadersofgooddispositions,donotharmthem,donotharmyour-selves,throughdesignationofsomethingexternalthatcanonlybedefinedbytimeandbycircumstances!Plantthetree;itwillgrowofitself;earth,air,sunwillafforditflourishing.Securegoodfirstprinciples;theywilltakeeffectthroughtheirownforce–butnototherwisethanwithmodi-ficationswhichonlytimeandplacecangivethemandwillgivethem.[Letter]Ifhuman[menschliche]dispositionsshouldgoverninasinglefieldofscience,thenitisinthefieldofhistory.Fordoesthisnotnarratehumanactions?Anddothesenotdecidethevalueofthehumanbeing?Dothesenotformourspecies’happinessandunhappiness?Peoplesay“Historynarratesevents[Begebenheiten]”andarealmostinclinedtolookupontheseasinvoluntary,indeedasinexplicable,astheyinthedarkestcenturies–didnotlookuponbut–wonderedatnaturalevents.Astirred-upwarorrevoltisforcommonhistorylikeastorm,likeanearthquake;thosewhostirreditupareconsideredasscourgesofthedeity,asmightywizards–andthatisenough!Ahistoryofthiskindcanprovethecleverestorthestupidestdependingonthespiritoftheauthor.Itprovesthestupidestwhenitadmireseverythinginaso-calledgreatanddivineman,anddoesnotventuretobringanyofhisundertakingstoHerderatthispointincludesinthemaintextthreepoems,againbasedonmaterialfromthebookRedenAlHallils,whichareomittedhere:“ThePrince”isapoeminpraiseofanoble,God-sentprincewhoseeksthehappinessofpeoplesasafather,notwealthorpraise;whomthewickedavoid;andwhohasonlywisdomandloveofhumankindnearhisthroneinfluencinghim.“GloryandContempt”isameditationontherapidchangethatbefallspeopleinthevalleyofhumanerror:firedimaginationturnscold,admirationturnsintocontempt,theluckyconquerorloseshisluckandhisfollowing,idolsengenderenthusiasmbutthenfallintoneglect.Bycontrast,thepiousmanseeksonlyGod’sunchanginggloryandgood.“AlHallil’sLament”isalamenttoapure,angelicman,Humane(thenameisofcoursesignificant),whotookcareofprincesandpooralike,butwhohasnowdied.Or:humane.ThissentenceisanotherexampleofHerderusingdeliberateanacoluthon.\nTenthCollectionameasuring-gaugeofhumanreason.SeveralOrientalhistoriesofNadirShah,Tamerlane,etc.arewritteninthisway–wereadaloudeulogisticepichappilywoventhroughwithabarrenorhorribleseriesofdeeds.EuropehaswarmlysympathizedwiththisOrientaltaste,not,asonemightthink,onlyinthetimesofthecrusades,butalsoinmostbiographiesofindividualheroes,inthehistoryofwholesects,dynasties,anddynasticwars.Oneisastonishedwhenoneperceivestheauthor’sreverenceanddevotiontohishonoredsubject,andonecanonlysay:“Hehasdrunkfromthecupofoblivion;demons’winehasbefoggedhissenses.”Thecleveresthistoryofthiskindisthecoldest,asMachiavellipracticedandregardeditforexample.Thistooforgetsaboutrightandwrong,viceandvirtue,inthat,cleanly,likeageometer,itmeasuresouttheresultofgivenforcesand,movingforward,calculatesaplan.ThatthereismuchtolearnfromthisMachiavellianhistorywhenitseessharplyandcalculatescorrectlythereisnoquestion.Doesitnotoccupyitselfwiththemosttangled,importantproblemthatourspeciesfaces?[Thatis,]humanforcesinrelationtotheireffectsandconsequences.Andifonlythisproblemcouldbecleanlysolved!Onthestageoftheearth,eveninitsnarrowestcorners,somuchrunsconfusedlyto-gether;opposedforcesdisturbeachother;andcircumstances,time,for-tune,thousand-armedcoincidenceinterfereineverything.Thecleverestgotcheated;thecoolestheadmissedhisgoal.Hencethisschoolofinstruc-tionoftenbecomesanovelisticschoolinwhichpeoplelendthefortunateheroaclevernessthathedidnotpossessandcalculatebackwardsfromdazzlingsuccessesbyafalsecalculation;oritbecomes,whenthebestforcesfailthroughacoincidence,adepressinglesson,aschoolofdespair.Quitegenerally,though,thiswhetstoneofclevernesseasilymakesthemindtoosharp,toonicked.WhocanreadMachiavelli’sPrincewithouthorror?Evenifheweresuccessfulineverything,wouldhebeaworthyprince?Wouldhebehappyinhisbreast?Itisterribletoconsiderhumanityonlyasalinethatonemaybend,cut,lengthen,andshortentoagoalasonewishessothataplangetsachieved,sothatthetaskjustgetssolved.Hencewecannotcutourselvesofffromhumanfeelingwhenwewriteorreadhistory;history’shighestinterest,itsvaluerestsonthishumansen-sibility,theruleofrightandwrong.WhoeverwritesmerelyforclevernessNadirShah(–),ShahofPersia.Tamerlane(–),Mongolianconqueror.\nPoliticalPhilosophyeasilyfallsintodelusiveconceit;whoeverwritesonlyforcuriositywritesforchildren.Butwhatdefinesthisruleofright?Herealsothereisahistorythatistoowarmandonethatistoocold.TheoverheatedkindclaimstoeffecteverythingforthehonorofGodandpermitsitselfwickednessandnonsenseintheinterestofthissup-posedgoal.ThusdidTamerlanesubjugatehalfaworldinordertospreadtheMohammedanfaith,andatthemostadvancedoldagewantedinad-ditiontowagewaronpeacefulChina.ThusdidthenationsofEuropemarchtotheholygrave;thusdidtheSpaniardsstrangleinAmerica;thusdidtheInquisitiontortureandpersecute.Terriblepassionsofhu-manbeingscoveredthemselveswiththecloakofGodanddestroyedandtormented.Thecoldhistorycalculatesundertheruleofanallegedpositivelawaccordingtoreasonsofstate–andinitsobservationofthisruleittoooftenbecomesverywarm.Initgoodofthefatherland,honorofthenationbecomesthebattlecryandindeceptivenegotiationsthestate’sslogan.TheAthenians,theRomans–whatdidtheynotincludeinthegoodoftheirfatherland,intheirglory,andhenceintheirright?Whatdidthepope,theclergy,theChristiankingsnotpermitthemselvesintheinterestoftheallegedgoodoftheirrealms?Ifhistorynarratesallthisindifferently,oreventrustingly,credulously,thenwithitoneentersintoalabyrinthofthemosttangled,mostloathsomestateinterests,ofpersonalpresumptions,andofstatetrickeries.Alargepartoftheeventsofourlasttwocenturies–theso-calledmemorabilia(memoires),biographies,politicaltestaments–´arewritteninthiscastofmind,inthespiritofRichelieu,ofMazarin,andstillearlierofCharlesV,PhilipII,PhiliptheFair,LouisXI,XIII,andXIV,inshort,inthespiritofSpanish-Frenchpolicyofstate.Anawfulspiritthatconsideredeverythingpermittedtoitselfforthegoodofthestate,thatis,forthegloryandthegreaterpowerofkings,forthesecurityandgreatnessoftheirministers!Inwhateverhistorythisspiritshowsthroughitblackenswhatismostbrilliantwiththeshadowofvanity,ofdeceptivecunning,ofpresumption,ofwaste.Forgotteninthisspiritishumanity,which,accordingtoit,livesmerelyforthestate,thatis,forkingsandministers.Wehavegraduallyescapedfromthisfogtoo–butanotherdazzlingphantomrisesinhistory,namely,thecalculationofundertakingstowardsa\nTenthCollectionfuturebetterrepublic,towardsthebestformofthestate,indeedofallstates.Thisphantomisuncommonlydeceptiveinvirtueofthefactthatitobvi-ouslyintroducesintohistoryanobleryardstickofmeritthantheonethatthosearbitraryreasonsofstatecontained–indeedevenblindswiththenamesof‘freedom,’‘enlightenment,’‘highesthappinessofthepeoples.’WouldGodthatitneverdeceived!Thehappinessofonesinglepeoplecan-notbeimposedonto,talkedonto,loadedontotheotherandeveryother.Therosesforthewreathoffreedommustbepickedbyapeople’sownhandsandgrowuphappilyoutofitsownneeds,outofitsowndesireandlove.Theso-calledbestformofgovernment,whichhasunfortunatelynotyetbeendiscovered,certainlydoesnotsuitallpeoples,atonce,inthesameway;withtheyokeofbadlyimportedfreedomfromabroadaforeignpeoplewouldbeincommodedintheworstpossibleway.Henceahistorythatcalculateseverythinginthecaseofeverylandwithaviewtothisutopianplaninaccordancewithunprovedfirstprinciplesisthemostdazzlingdeceptivehistory.Aforeignvarnishthatrobstheformsofourworldandtheprecedingworldoftheirtruestance,evenoftheirout-lines.Manyworksofourtimewillbereadtwentyyearslateraswell-orbadly-intentionedfeverfantasies;maturermindsalreadynowreadthemthatway.Thushistoryissolelyandeternallyleftwithnothingbutthespiritofitsoldestauthor,Herodotus,theunstrained,gentlesenseofhumanity.Withoutbiasheregardsallpeoplesandsketcheseachoneinitsplace,inaccordancewithitsethicsandcustoms.WithoutbiashenarratestheeventsandobserveshoweverywhereonlymoderationmakespeopleshappyandeveryarrogancehasitsNemesisfollowingbehindit.ThismeasureofNemesis,appliedaccordingtosubtlerorgreaterconditions,isthesoleandeternalyardstickofallhumanhistory.“Whatyoudonotwanttohavehappentoyou,dountonoother”;revengecomes,indeeditispresent,witheveryerring,witheverywicked-ness.Allbadrelationsandinjustices,everyproudpresumption,everyhostileincitement,everyfaithlessnesshasitspunishmentwithorafterit;thelater,themoreterribleandstrict.Theguiltoffatherspilesupwithcrushingweightonchildrenandgrandchildren.Godhasnotpermittedhumanbeingstobeviciousexceptunderthehardlawofpunishment.AsIrmischersuggests,thisisprobablyanallusiontoKant’sIdeaforaUniversalHistoryfromaCosmopolitanPointofView().\nPoliticalPhilosophyOntheotherhand,inhistorythesmallestgoodwinsitsrewardtoo.Noreasonablewordthatawisemaneverspoke,nogoodexample,norayeveninthedarkestnightwaseverlost.Unnoticedithadcontinuingeffectanddidgood.Nobloodoftheinnocentmangotspiltinvain;everygroanoftheoppressedmanrosetowardsheavenandfoundinitstimeahelper.Tearstooareintime’ssowingseedsofthehappiestharvest.Thehumanspeciesisasinglewhole;weworkandsuffer,sowandharvest,foroneanother.Howcompassionate,howgentlyencouraging,butalsohowstrictandtallying-together[zusammenhaltend],thisspiritofhumanhistoryis!Itleaveseachpeoplerightwhereitis–foreachhasitsruleofright,itsmeasureofhappiness,initself.Itsparesallandspoilsnone.Ifthepeoplessin,thentheyatone–andatoneaslongandheavilyasittakesuntiltheysinnolonger.Iftheyareunwillingtobechildren,thennatureraisesthemasslaves.Thisspiritofhistorystepsdestructivelyinthewayofnopoliticalconstitution.Itdoesnotcaveinthepeacefulman’shouseoverhisheadbeforeanother,betteroneexists;butwithafriendlyhandshowstheoverlysecuremanmistakesandinadequaciesinhishouse,andwithquietindustrydeliversmaterialsforsupportingtheoldhouseorforbuildingabetterone.Itdoesnottouchnationalprejudices–formanygooddispositionsmustgrowwithinthemashusksorhardshells.Itletsthemgrow.Whenthefruitisripe,thenthehuskwithers,theshellsplitsopen.ItisfinebythisspiritiftheFrenchmanandtheEnglishmandepicttheirhumaniteand´humanityforthemselvesinEnglishandFrench;allthelesswilltheforeignerchaseafterthemtohisownruin.Fromhisheartmustproceedforthabelovedwhoisappropriateforhim.Holiesttothespiritofhumanhistoryaregood-naturedfoolsanddreamers;fortheystandunderthemostspecialdivineprotection.With-outenthusiasmnothinggreatorgoodhappenedonearth;thosewhompeopleconsidereddreamershaveperformedthemostusefulservicesforthehumanspecies.Despiteallmockery,despiteeverypersecutionandcontempt,theymadetheirwayahead–andwhentheydidnotreachtheirgoal,stilltheyreachedfurtherandbrought[others]further.Theywerelivingwindsoverthestagnantmarsh–ortheydammeditHerdergivesthiswordinEnglish.NotethatwiththethirdpairinghereHerderonceagainusestherhetoricalfigureofchiasmus.\nTenthCollectionandmadeityieldaharvest.Thespiritofhistoryneverpermitsitselfemptymockeryofthem;atmostitwillfeelsorryforthem,notstigmatizethem.Allexcessivelysubtletaxonomiesofhumanbeingsaccordingtoprin-ciplesfromwhichtheyaresupposedtoactexclusivelyarequiteforeigntothespiritofhistory.Itknowsthatinhumannaturetheprinciplesofsensuality,ofimagination,ofselfishness,ofhonor,ofsympathywithothers,ofgodliness,ofthemoralsense,offaith,etc.donotdwellinseparatedcompartments,butthatinalivingorganizationthatgetsstimulatedfromseveralsidesmanyofthem,oftenall,cooperateinalivingmanner.Itallowseachofthemitsvalue,itsrank,itsplace,itstimeofdevelopment–convincedthatallofthem,evenunconsciously,areoperatingtowardsasinglepurpose,thegreatprincipleofhumaneness[Menschlichkeit].Henceitletsallofthembloomintheirtimerightwheretheyare:sensualityandtheartsoftheimagination,intellectandsympathy,honor,moralsenseandholyworship.Itaslittleforcesthestomachtothinkastheheadtodigest,andtormentsnoonewiththeanalysiswhethereveneachbiteofbreadthatheputsinhismouthyieldsauniversalbasicmorallawofallrationalbeingsinchewinganddigesting.Leteachpersonchewashecan–historytreatshumanbeingsnotasword-mongersandcriticsbutasagentsofamorallawofnaturewhichspeaksinallofthem,whichinitiallywarnsgently,thenpunishesharder,andrichlyrewardseverygooddispositionthroughitselfanditsconsequences.Doesthisspiritofhumanhistorynotappealtoyou?[Letter]Youseemtobelievethatnohistoryofhumanitytakesplaceaslongastheresultofthingsisnotknown,or,aspeoplearewonttoputit,thedayofjudgmenthasnotyetbeenexperienced.Iamnotofthisopinion.Whetherthehumanspeciesimprovesorworsens,whetheritsomedayturnsintoangelsordemons,intosylphsorgnomes–weknowwhatwemustdo.Weconsiderthehistoryofourspeciesinaccordancewithfirmfirstprinciplesinourconvictionaboutrightandwrong–letourspecies’finalactendasitwill.ThisparagraphisofcourseacritiqueofKant’smoralphilosophy,andinparticularitsdoctrineofthecategoricalimperative.\nPoliticalPhilosophyForexample,Monboddoinhishistoryandphilosophyofthehumanbeingddregardshimasasystemoflivingforcesinwhichtheelementalaspect,theplant-life,theanimal-life,andthelifeoftheunderstandingaredistinct.Theanimalisticlife,heopines,wasinitsbestconditionwhenhumanbeingslivedinananimal-likemanner.Hestillfindsasimilaritytothisinthecaseofchildren.Heconsiderstheagesthatthehumanbeingpassesthroughasanindividualtobealsothecoursetakenbythewholespecies.Hethereforetracesthespeciesbacktoitsfirst,nakedconditionintheopenair,inrain,incold,andshowswhateffectsclothing,livinginhouses,theuseoffire,languagehavehadonthehumancreature.Heshowstheabilitiesthatthiscreaturehadtoswim,towalkupright,toundertakeformsoftraining,anddiscernsinthisconditionthebasisofthatlongerlife,ofthatgreaterformandstrength,ofwhichthelegendoftheprimalworldtellsus.Hedemonstratesfromexamplesandreportshowthehumanbeing’sbodygotweakened,shrunk,andhislifeshortenedthroughchangeinhiswayoflife,throughtheeatingofmeatandthedrinkingofalcoholicbeverages,throughhissedentarymodeoflifeinarts,trades,games,throughfinerfoods,pleasures,andpastimes.–Ontheotherhand,heshowshowthehumanbeing’sunderstandinghasincreasedthroughsocietyandarts;howthesagacityofanaturalhumanbeingdiffersfromtheclevernessofthecivilizedman;howallartsarosefromimitationandtheideaofthebeautifulbelongssolelytothecivilizedcondition.Hefindsnations,families,andindividualsdistinguishedinbothagesofhumanity,butourspeciesoverallinthecourseofareductionofanimalisticforces,andhehasgivenremindersaboutthis,whicheachpersonshouldapplyashewishesandcan.Ifweacquiesceinallthis(sinceintruthMonboddo’ssystemcertainlydoesnotdeservetoberidiculedonaccountofafewidiosyncrasiesoftheauthor),ifweassume–whathistoryteachesusaswell–thatalmostallpeoplesonearthoncelivedinamoreprimitiveconditionandculturewasbroughtonlybyafewtoothers,thenwhatfollowsfromthis?.Thatonourroundearthallepochsofhumanitystillliveandfunction.Thereexisttherepeoplesinchildhood,youth,manhood,andwillproba-blydosoforalongtimetocomebeforetheseafaringoldmenofEuropesucceedinadvancingthemtooldagethroughbrandy,diseases,andslaves’ddAncientMetaphysics,vol.,London,.ThispartofthegreatworkwouldcertainlydeserveaGermanepitomeforthesakeofitscollectedfacts.(Editor’snote.)\nTenthCollectionarts.Nowjustaseverydutyofhumanenesscommandsusnottodisturbforachild,forayouth,hisageinlife,thesystemofhisforcesandpleasures,likewiseitalsocommandsnationssuchathingvis-a-visnations.Inthis`regardseveralconversationsofEuropeans,especiallymissionaries,withforeignpeoples,forexample,Indians,Americans,pleasemegreatly;thenaivestanswersfullofgoodheartandsoundunderstandingwerealmostalwaysonthesideoftheforeigners.Theyansweredwithchildishper-tinenceandcorrectness,whereastheEuropeans,withtheimposingoftheirarts,ethics,anddoctrines,forthemostpartplayedtheroleofworn-outoldmenwhohadcompletelyforgottenwhatwasappropriatetoachild..Sincethedistinctionbetweenelemental,animalistic,vegetative,andunderstanding’sforcesisonlyathought,inthateveryhumanbeingcon-sistsofallthese,albeitindifferentproportions,letonebewareofconsideringthisorthatnationtobeentirelyanimalisticinordertousethemasbeastsofburden.Thepureintellectneedsnobeastofburden;andhencejustaslittleaseventhemostintellectualEuropeancandowithoutplant-andanimal-forcesinhislife-systemdoesanynationcompletelylackunderstanding.Certainly,theunderstandingismultiforminregardtothesensualitythatstimulatesitinaccordancewithpeoples’varyingorganizations;however,inallformsofhumankinditisandremainsonlyoneandthesame.Thelawofjusticeisforeigntononation;allnationshaveatonedforthetransgressionofthislaw,eachoneinitsownway..IfintellectualforcesingreaterdevelopmentareEuropeans’advan-tage,thentheycandemonstratethisadvantageinnootherwaythanthroughunderstandingandgoodness(thetwoareatbottombutone).Iftheyactimpotently,inragingpassions,fromcoldgreed,inbaselyinsolentpride,thentheyaretheanimals,thedemons,againsttheirfellowhumanbe-ings.AndwhoguaranteestheEuropeansthatthingscannotandwillnotgoforthematseveralendsoftheearthas[theydid]inAbyssinia,China,Japan?ThemoretheirforcesandstatesinEuropeage,themoreunhappyEuropeanssomedayleavethispartoftheworldinordertomakecommoncausewiththeoppressedinthisplaceandthat,thenI.e.nativeAmericans.By“organizations”Herderhereagainmeanssomethinglikephysicalconstitutionsofhumanorganisms.HerderisherereferringtothepersecutionsofChristiansthatoccurredinthecountriesmentionedinthesixteenthcentury.\nPoliticalPhilosophyintellectualandanimalisticforcescanunitetogetherinawaythatwenowhardlysuspect.Whohasinsightintotheseedofthefuturethatisperhapsalreadyplanted?Culturedstatescanarisewherewehardlybelievethempossible;culturedstateswhichweconsideredimmortalcanwither..IfinEurope,onpathsthatweareunabletoidentify,reasonshouldatsomepointgainsomuchvaluethatitunitedwithhumangoodness,whatabeautifulseasonforthemembersofthesocietyofourwholespecies!Allnationswouldparticipateinthisandrejoiceinthisautumnofsensibleness.Assoonasintradeandtreatment[HandelundWandel]thelawofjusticegovernseverywhereonearth,allnationsarebrothers;theyoungerwillgladlyservetheolder,thechildtheoldmanpossessedofunderstanding,withwhathehasandcan.ee.Andisthistimeunthinkable?Itseemstomethatevenonthepathofnecessityandcalculationitisboundtoappear.Evenourexcessesanddeedsofvicemustadvanceit.Therewouldhavetobenorulegoverningintheconditionsandrelations[Verh¨altnissen]ofthehumanspecies,nonaturegoverninginitsnature,ifthisperiodwerenotbroughtaboutthroughinnerlawsofthisspeciesitselfandtheantagonismofitsforces.–Certainfeversandstupiditiesofhumanitymustceasetheirfermentwiththeadvanceofthecenturiesandthelife-ages.Europemustgivecompensationforthedebtsthatithasincurred,makegoodthecrimesthatithascommitted–notfromchoicebutaccordingtotheverynatureofthings.Forreasonwouldbeinabadwayifitwerenotreasoneverywhere,andtheuniversalgoodwerenotalsotheuniversallymostuseful.Themagneticneedleofoureffortsseeksthispole;afterallwanderingsandoscillationsitwillandmustfindit.eeAmongmanyothers,IremindthereaderhereonceagainofLevaillant’smorerecentjourney.ThedistinctionwhichhenotesbetweennationsthathavebeencorruptedoraremistreatedbyEuropeansandautonomouspeoplesissharplyincisive.Hisfirstprinciplesconcerninghowoneshoulddealwiththelatterareapplicableonthewholeearth.ThissentenceisanotherexampleofHerderusinganacoluthon.TheidiomaticphraseHandelundWandelgenerallymeanseithertradeorgeneralbehavior.HereHerdercombinesbothsenses.Inaddition,though,heseemstobere-etymologizingthephrasetoconnoteabitmoreelaborately:()trade(Handel),()behavior(Wandel),and()travel(Wandelagain,cf.theverbwandeln).ThisisanotherexampleofHerderusingdeliberateoxymoron(thesuperficialinconsistencymask-ingadeeperconsistency,asusual).I.e.thelife-agesofhumanity(thelatter’shistorybeingviewedaslikeasinglehumanlifewritlarge,asinThisTooaPhilosophyofHistoryfortheFormationofHumanity).\nTenthCollection.SoletnooneaugurfromthegreyingofEuropethedeclineanddeathofourwholespecies!Whatharmwoulditdotothelatterifadegeneratedpartofitperished?,ifafewwitheredtwigsandleavesofthesap-richtreefelloff?Otherstaketheplaceofthewitheredonesandbloomupmorefreshly.Whyshouldthewesterncornerofournorthernhemispherealonepossessculture?Anddoesitalonepossessit?.Thegreatestrevolutionsinthehumanspeciessofardependedoninven-tionsoronrevolutionsoftheearth.Whoknowstheseintheunforeseeablesequenceoftimes?Climatescanchange;manyaninhabitedlandcanbecomeuninhabitable,manyacolonycanbecomethemotherland,fromseveralcauses.Afewnewinventionscancancelmanyolderones;andsinceingeneralthegreatesteffort(undeniablythecharacterofalmostallEuropeanstatecraft)mustnecessarilyrelaxortrip,whocancalculatetheconsequencesofthis?Ourearthisprobablyanorganicbeing;wecreepaboutonthisorangelikesmall,scarcelynoticeableinsects,tormenteachother,andsettlehereandthere.Theproverbsays,“Whentheskyfalls,whathappenstothesparrows?”Iftheorangegoesrottenhereorthere,perhapsanothergenerationmakesitsappearance–withoutitthereforebeingthecasethatthefirstoneperishedpreciselyduetotheintellectualpartofitssystem,duetounderstanding.Whatwasratherabletokillitwasexcess,vice,misuseofitsunderstanding.Certainly,theperiodsofnaturearecalculatedwithaneyetoeachotherinregardtoallspecies,sothatwhentheearthcannolongerwarmandfeedhumanbeings,humanbeingswillalsohavefulfilledtheirdestinyonit.Thebloomwithersassoonasithasfinishedblooming–butitalsoleavesbehindfruit.Thusifourdestinywerethehighestexpressionofintellectualforce,thenpre-ciselythisdestinywoulddemandofusthatweleavebehindagoodseedtothefutureaeonunknowntous,sothatwemightnotdieasweaklymurderers.Monboddoregardsourearthasaneducationalinstitutionfromwhichoursoulsgetsaved.Theindividualhumanbeingcanandmayregarditnodifferently,forhecomesandpasses.Intheplacewhere,withouthisownvolition,hemakeshisappearancehemustcopeaswellashecanandlearntoorderthesystemofhiselementalandvegetative,hisanimalisticandintellectual,forces.Graduallytheydieforhimuntilthedevelopedspiritfliesoff.–HeretooMonboddo’ssystemisconsistent–asystemwhich,incompleteasitis,Iprefertomanyanothermercantile-politicalhistoryof\nPoliticalPhilosophyhumanity.Mercantile-politicalconsiderationsbelongtoahistoryofourspeciesonlyasafragment;thishistory’sspiritissensushumanitatis,senseandsympathyforthewholeofhumanity.[Letter]FromearlyyearsIhavetriedtoputmyselfintothepositionofeventhemostalienhypotheses,andIreturnedfromalmostallofthemwiththegainofanewsideofthetruth,orofitsreinforcement.ButImustconfessthatIcanextractnothinggoodatallfromthehypothesisofaradicalwickedbasicforceinthehumanmindandwill.ffIleaveittoeveryonewhoisfondofit;itbringsnolighttomyunderstanding,nohappystirringtomyheart.ThehypothesisoftwomutuallyhostilebasiccausesofthingsisusuallytracedbacktothePersians;butitsbadapplicationshouldnotbetracedbacktothem.Inphysicsitwasobviouslythechildhoodofsciencewhennightwasdeclaredtobebad,daytobegood;thelawsthatproducebotharegoodandextremelysimple.Inmoralstheyaresojustasmuch;andthephilosophyofthePersiansaimeddirectlyatexplainingthis.Darkness,itsaid,isformlessness;light,accordingtoitsnature,forms,illuminates,andwarms.Despiteallhisresistances,Ahrimanisweak;Ormazdwillandmustovercomehim.Theirreligionconsequentlycalledonpeopletojointhisbattleforvictory,astherealworkofhumanlife,inthoughts,words,anddeeds.Tocreateandspreadforthlight,tobeeffectiveineveryffItisnothereaquestionofso-calledoriginalsin–forthisisanillness.(Editor’snote.)Senseofhumanity.HerderatthispointincludesinthemaintextthreemorepoemsbasedonthebookRedenAlHallilswhichareomittedhere:“TheSpiritofCreation”tellsthestoryofapilgrimsufferinginthedesertwhopraystoGodforhelp.Anoasisappears;hedrinksandeats,andthenfallsasleep.Thespiritofcreationcomestohiminadreamandtellshimtoarisesothatadoecannowinherturnenjoythesamerelief.Hearisesandseesthedoe,amother,whichthenhappilyjumpstofeed.ThepoemendswiththepilgrimpraisingGodforcaringforallthings,greatandsmall.“TheSequenceofTime”reassuresthedissatisfiedmanthatGodcreatedhiscreaturestoliveinbliss.Afterthecreation,theangelswonderedatthishopefulscheme.Thepoemconcludesenjoininghumanbeingstohaveconfidenceinitandtoenjoythefairestgiftofasatisfiedheart.“TheAntidote”praisesGod’sgiftsandthewisdomwithwhichhedistributedthem.Theearthwasgiventoimperfecthumanbeings,nottoangels,andsovicethrived.ButGodprovidedanantidote:work,industriousness.Bycontrast,idlenessleadstoviceandunhappiness.ThehypothesiswasKant’sinhisReligionwithintheBoundsofReasonAlone().I.e.toZoroastrianisminthefirstinstance,andthenlaterManichaeism.Cf.Herder’sOldestDocumentoftheHumanSpecies().AhrimanisthespiritofevilinZoroastrianism.Ormazdisthesupremedeity,creatoroftheworld,andspiritofgoodinZoroastrianism.\nTenthCollectiongood,topurify,togladden,isourwork.Preciselyforthisreasondowestandbetweenlightanddark.Christianitycontinuedonthispathwithmotivesthatreacheddeeperdown.AccordingtoChristianity,thehumanspeciesissupposedtobenoslavishpeoplethateternallybendsbeneaththeyokeandturnsatchains,butafree,happyspecieswhich,withoutfearofarulingexecutioner-spirit,doesgoodforthesakeofgood,frominnerdesire,frominnatecharacterandhighernature,whoselawisasovereignlawoffreedom,indeedtowhichinfactnolawisgivenbecausethedivinenaturewithinus,purehumanity,hasnoneedoflaw.ThisisunmistakablythespiritofChristianity,itsnativeformandcharacter.Onlydark,barbarictimesgavebackthegreatfeudallordofevil–ofwhomweareallegedlytheinnateinheritedpeople,andfromwhomcustoms,atonements,andgiftscanallegedlyfreeus,notindeedreally,butsuperficially–tostupidityandbrutalityinananti-Christianway.WhowouldwanttoreturnintothisMiltonianhellofpalpablenightandsoliddarkness?Onthesurfaceoftheearthweseenothingofthismassiveprimalhell.Wherethereisevil,thecauseoftheevilisthecorruptedcharacterofourspecies,notitsnatureandcharacter.Sloth,impudence,pride,error,callousness,carelessness,prejudices,badeducation,badhabit–throughandthroughevilsthatareavoidableorcurableifnewlife,diligenceforgood,reason,modesty,justice,truth,abettereducation,betterhabitsfromyouthon,arriveindividuallyanduniversally.Humanitycallsandgroansthatthismighthappen,sinceclearlyeveryunvirtueandunsuitabilitypunishesitselfbygrantingnotrueenjoymentandpilingamassofevilsonitselfandonothers.Weseeclearlythatwearehereinordertodestroythisrealmofnightinthatnoonecanorshoulddoitforus.Notonlydowebeartheburdenofourmisfortune,butournatureisarrangedforthisandnootherwork–itisthepurposeofourspecies,thegoalofourdestiny,tofreeourselvesofthiscorruptedcharacter.Whenthefruitsoftheworkdonotenticeus,thewholeuniversedrivesuswithnettlesandthorns.–Sowhatisthemeaningofdespair,asthoughunderayokethatcouldneverbecastoff?Whatuseisthedreamofahumanityfromitsveryrootsbeyondrestoration?Nohypothesiscanbedeartouswhichmovesourspeciesoutofitsposition,whichnowputsitintheplaceofthefallenangels,nowabasesitundertheirguardianshipandsovereignty.Wearenotacquaintedwith\nPoliticalPhilosophythefallenangels,butweareacquaintedwithourselvesandknowwhenandwhywefell,fall,andwillfall.Theexistenceofeachhumanbeingiswoventogetherwithhiswholespecies.Ifourconceptsconcerningourdestinyarenotpure,whatisthepointofthisorthatsmallimprovement?Doyounotseethatthissickpersonliesininfectedair?–savehimfromoutofitandhewillgetbetterautomatically.Inthecaseofradicalevil,attacktheroots;theybearthetreewithitstopandtwigs.Theworkisgreat,butitshouldalsobecontinuedforaslongashu-manitylasts;itisthemostproperlyownandsole,themostrewardingandhappiest,businessofourspecies.Andhowdoesthisbusinessgetconducted?Merelythroughexpansionandrefinementoftheforcesoftheunderstanding?Intelligenceisthehumanbeing’snobleadvantage,theindispensabletoolofhisdestiny.Scientificknowledgeofeverythingthatdeservestobeknown,understandingofeverythingusable,beautiful,andnobleisilluminatingsunshineinthedarkmist-sphereoftheearth;itmayandmustextendasfarasitcanextend–fromthelasthazystaroverthewholeofnaturetothebordersofcreationinbecoming.Understandingisthecommontreasureofthehumanspecies;wehaveallreceivedfromit,weshouldallcontributetoitourbestthoughtsanddispositions.Wecalculatewithcombinationsbelongingtoearliertimes;posterityshouldcalculatewithourcombinations;andcertainlythiscalcu-lationproceedsforthonalarge,broad,andinfinitescale.Whowouldun-dertaketosaywhitherthehumanspeciescanreachandperhapswillreachinitscontinuedeffortsbuildingononeanother?Everynewlyreachedpoweristherootforacountlessseriesofnewpowers.However,understandingalonedoesnotdothejob;eventodemonsdoweascribeademonicunderstanding;letoursbehuman,accompaniedbyactivegoodness.Lookaround.Howmuchtrueandgenuinescienceisunusedintheworld!,howmuchunderstandingliessuppressedandburied!,howmuchotherunderstandinggetsmisused!Pseudo-truth,rigidprejudice,hypocriticallying,slothfulatmosphere,irrationalarbitrarinessconfuseourspecies.Henceastrengthenedgreatandgoodwill,trainingsfromyouthon,fighting-prizesandhabituation,sothatwhatismostdiffi-cultbecomeseasiestforus,andaboveallthatindispensablestrivingforthenecessarywhichourspeciesrequires,withneglectofeverythingdispens-ableandbad–thesethingsalonecanmaketheunderstandingtellingforthe\nTenthCollectiongood,helpittoitsfeetandadvancethework.Howlonghavewe[not]oc-cupiedourselveswithwhatisuseless?Donotmillenniaofhumanhistoryshowusourlackofunderstanding,ourchildishtrivialityandcowardice?Theunityofourforces,therefore,theunificationoftheforcesofseveralfortheadvancementofasinglewholeintheinterestofall–itseemstomethatthisistheproblemthatshouldbeourheart’sconcern,becauseeachperson’sinnermostconsciousnessandneedsaysittohimbothquietlyandaloud.“Legislators,educators,friendsofhumanity,”saysanoblemanofournation,gg“letusuniteourforcesinordertoprovetothehumanbeingthathewillnowherefindinnerhappinessintheinfinitelyvarioussituationsoflifeexceptintheeffectiveandactiveunityofhischaracter.Ifhestrivesforhisownperfection,freelyandresolutelyobservestheordinancesofauniversalandbeneficentreason,hewillescapeerrings,crimes,innerreproaches.Asahumanbeingandcitizenhewillfindhappinessinthetestimonyofhisconscience.Thusdoesthehumanbeingbringtheinfinitevarietyofhissensations,thoughts,andeffortstotheunityofatrue,pure,effective,moralcharacter.”AndifImaydevelopthisnobleimagefurther,thenthereliesinthehumanspeciesaninfinitevarietyofsensations,thoughts,andeffortsto-wardstheunityofatrue,effective,purelymoralcharacterwhichbelongstothewholespecies.Justaseachclassofnaturalcreaturesconstitutesarealmofitsownwhichbuildsonotherrealmsandisinvolvedinothers,likewisethehumanspecies–withthespecialandhighestdistinguishingmarkthatthehappinessofalldependsontheeffortsofallandoccursinthehumanspecies,despitethegreatestvariety,onlyinthisveryexaltedunity.Wecan-notbehappyorentirelyworthyandmorallygoodaslongas,forexample,asingleslaveisunhappythroughhumanbeings’guilt,forthevicesandbadhabitsthatmakehimunhappyhaveeffectonusaswellorderivefromus.Thepresumption,thegreed,theweaklinessthatdeceiveanddevastateallpartsoftheworldresidewithandinus;itisthesameheartlessnessthatkeepsEuropeaswellasAmericaundertheyoke.Whereas,ontheotherggEssaisurlascience[EssayonScience],[Erfurt,],bythegentlemancoadjutorvonDalberg.Inthissketch,asalsointheworkVomBewußtsein,alsallgemeinemGrundederWeltweisheit[OnConsciousnessastheUniversalBasisofPhilosophy](Erfurt,),intheBetrachtungen¨uberdasUniversum[ObservationsontheUniverse](Erfurt,),andineverysmallestessay,thethemeofthiswork,l’unitecompos´eedel’infini[thecompositeunityoftheinfinite],isthecontent´andsymbol,andlecaracterevrai,pur,`energiqueetmoral[thetrue,pure,energetic,andmoral´character]isthecharacter.\nPoliticalPhilosophyhand,everygoodsensationandpracticeofahumanbeinghaseffectonallpartsoftheworldaswell.Thetendencyofhumannaturecontainswithinitauniversewhoseinscriptionis:“Nooneforhimselfonly,eachforall;thusareyoualldeartoeachotherandhappy.”Aninfinitevarietystrivingforaunitythatliesinall,thatadvancesall.Itsnameis(Iwishtorepeatthisagainandagain)understanding,justice,goodness,feelingofhumanity.[Letter]Andwhyshouldweconcealanormofthespreadofthemorallawofhu-manitythatissoobviousforus?Christianitycommandsthepuresthumanityonthepurestpath.Humanlyandintelligiblyforall,humbly,notwithproudautonomy,notevenasalawbutasagospelofhope[Evangelium]forthehappinessofall,itcommandsandprovidesforgivingtolerance,anactivelovethatovercomesbadwithgood.Itdoesnotcommandthisasanobjectofspeculationbutprovidesitaslightandlifeofhumanity,throughmodelexampleandlovingdeed,throughprogressivelyeffectivecommunity.Itservesallclassesandranksofhumanityuntilineachoneofthemeverythingunfavorablewithersandfallsawayinitstimeofitself.ThemisuseofChristianityhascausedcountlessevilintheworld–aproofofwhatitsproperusecando.Preciselythefactthat,asithasthrived,ithassomuchtomakegood,tocompensate,toindemnify,shows,accordingtotherulethatlieswithinit,thatitmustandwilldothis.Thelabyrinthofitsmisusesanderringsisnotendless;ledbacktoitspurecourse,itcannotbutstrivetothegoalthatitsfounderalreadyexpressedinthenamechosenbyhim,“sonofman[Menschensohn]”(thatis,man[Mensch]),andinthejudgmentofthelastday.Ifbadmoralityissatisfiedwiththeproposition“Eachforhimself,nooneforall!”thenthejudgment“Nooneforhimselfonly,eachforall!”isChristianity’sslogan.HerderatthispointinsertsintothemaintextanotherpoembasedonthebookRedenAlHallilswhichisomittedhere:In“Joy”thepoetenjoinshisnoblehearttorejoice,sinceGodcreatedtheworldforjoy,hisheartisnotstainedbymalice,hehasbeenabletodogoodtoothers,andhecanlookforwardtothedayofjudgmentwhenhewillberewardedforhisgooddeeds.Evangeliummeansthegospel,butetymologicallyagood/hopefulmessage.Orpossibly:tohumanity.ThewordMenschhasnormallyinthisvolumebeentranslated“humanbeing.”Theswitchhereto“man”issimplyintendedtomakethebiblicalquotationrecognizable.HerderconcludeswithyetanotherpoembasedonthebookRedenAlHallilswhichisomittedhere:“TheHeavenlyOne”givespraisetoChrist,themanwhonowenjoysheavenlyglory;asksforhisgoodwilltowardsdoersofgoodandthoseinneed;notesthatitwashewhotaughthumanenesstohumankind,andareligionofcompassion,gentleness,andforgiveness;andpraiseshimforthis.\nIndexAbbt,Thomas,xx,xliv,,,–,,Anacreon,ability,,,,,,,,,,,analogy,,–,–,,,ancestors,–,,Abraham,ancients,,,abstraction(s),,,,,–,,–,,angels,,,–,,,,,,,,,anger,,,,,Angles,Abyssinia,animals,–,–,,–,–,–,,academies,Academy,,,,,,,,–,,,–,,,–,,,,–,,–,,,,,AchaeanLeague,anthropology,viii,,,–Achilles,,,,,antisemitism,xvii,xxiii,acknowledgment,–,,,Apollo,,,,,,,action,,,,,,,,,,,appearance,,,,,apperception,,,,,activity,,,,,,,apriorism,ix,xvi,xxii,,Adam,,,Arabia,Arabs,,,,–,administration,civil,,,,adverb,,–Arcadians,Aeschylus,–,Archimedes,,Aesop,,,,,Argonauts,,affect,ix,xv,xxiii,xxv,Ariosto,Ludovico,Africa,,,,,,Aristides,Agamemnon,,,Aristotle,,,,,,,,–,agriculture,–,–,,–,Ahriman,Armida,Albino,art(s),xx,xxi,xxviii,,,,,,,,,Albuquerque,Affonsod’,–,,,,,,,,,,Alcibiades,,,,,,,,,,AlexandertheGreat,kingofMacedon,,,,–,,drivesto,–,,Alexandria,fine,,,,amazement,,Asia,,,,,,,Amazon,river,Aspasia,,America,Americans,,,,,,,,assimilation,xv,xvii,xxi,,–,,,,,,Athenians,Athens,xxxiv,,,,,Anabaptists,,\nIndexAtlanticOcean,Busching,AntonFriedrich,¨attention,attentiveness,,,Butler,Samuel,,Attila,,AugustineofHippo,St.,Caesar,GaiusJulius,,,,AugustusCaesar,emperorofRome,Caiaphas,authority,–,,,Calicut,autonomy,,,,Caligula(GaiusJuliusCaesarGermanicus),awareness,,–,–,,,–,,emperorofRome,,,Cardano,Hieronymus(Girolamo),seealsoreflection,taking-awarenessCarthaginians,Castel,Charles-Iren´ee,abb´edeSt.Pierre,´,Babylon,Babel,,–,–Bacon,Roger,,,,,,,,Catullus,GaiusValerius,,cause(s),xxvii,,,,–,,BalticSea,Celts,,,barbarians,barbarism,,,–,,,,Chaldaeans,,,,,,,–,change,,,,Bartholomew,St.,,character,,,,–,,Baumgarten,AlexanderGottlieb,,,,Charlemagne,kingofFrance,Bayle,Pierre,,Charlevoix,Pierre-Franc¸ois-Xavierde,Beaumelle,LaurentAnglivieldela,chastity,,,beauty,,,,,,,,,Chaumonot,PierreJosephMarie,,bee,,,,,,,,,Cherokees,,behavior,xx,xxi,xxvCheselden,William,–belief,xv,xxiii–xxiv,xxvCh’ien-lung,emperorofChina,Berlin,Isaiah,xxxvchild,children,–,,,,,,,Bernd,Adam,,–,,,,,–Bible,viii,xvi,xxxiii,,seealsohumans,youthbiography,–,–,childhood,,–,,,,,,BlackSea,,,,blacksseenegroesChilperich,Blackwell,Thomas,,China,Chinese,the,,,,,,,Bockh,August,vii–viii¨,,,Bodmer,JohannJakob,Chinghailese,body,,–,,,,chivalry,,–,Boeotia,Boeotians,Christianity,xxxiii,,–,,,,,books,–,,,,,,–,,Borgia,Cesare,Cicero,MarcusTullius,Borneo,civilization,,,,–,,–,Bossuet,JacquesBenigne,´class,xxxi,,,,,Boulanger,NicolasAntoine,Claudius(TiberiusClaudiusNeroGermanicus),Bourdaloue,Louis,emperorofRome,boyhood,,,–cleverness,,,,,,,,Brahmins,,brain,xii,–,climate,,,,–,,,,,bravery,–,,–,,,,,,Brazil,,,,cognition,xiii,xviii,xxii,xxiii,xxv,,,,breath,breathing,,–,,,,,,,,,,,–,,Britain,British,the,,,–,,,,Brutus,MarcusJunius,,cognitivism,xi,xiii,xxxiii–xxxv;seealsoBuffon,GeorgesLouisLeclerc,,,,,noncognitivism,,Colchis,Bulgarians,colonies,colonialism,xxxii,xxxiii,,Burgundians,color,,,,,,,\nIndexconcepts,conceptualization,xiv,xv,xvi,xvii,xviii,dialects,,,,xx,xxiii–xxiv,xxv,xlii,,,,,,,Diderot,Denis,,,,,,,,,,,,,diligence,Egyptian,,,quasi-empiricisttheoryof,xvi,xxiiiDilthey,Wilhelm,vii,xxviiiCondamine,Charles-Mariedela,,,,DiodorusSiculus,,Condillac,EtienneBonnotde,abbe,´–,,,Diogenes,,DiogenesLaertius,Confucianism,,discipline,,,,,conquest,–,,–disease,,,,,conscience,,,,–,divination,xix,xx,xxi,,consciousness,,,,,,,doctor(s),,,consequence,,,Domitian(TitusFlaviusDomitianus),emperorConstantinople,ofRome,constitution,,,–,dream,,,,,,Copernicus,Nicolaus,,drives,–,,,,,,,,,,Corinth,Corinthians,,,,–,,,,Corneille,Pierre,Druids,,Correggio(AntonioAllegri),Druse,Corsica,DuBos,Jean-Baptiste,Cortes,HernanFerdinand,´Dunbar,William,Corybantes,DutchmenseeNetherlands,thecourage,,,,,duties,,,;seealsoobligationsCramer,JohannBaptist,creativity,ix,,ear,,,,–,,Creator,theseeGodearth,the,,,Crete,Easterners,,–,,,–,Cromwell,Oliver,EastIndiaCompany,Crousaz,Jean-Pierrede,Eberhard,JohannAugust,,crusades,,,,,,economics,,,culture,,–,,,–,,economy,,,,–,,,,education,xiii,xxxi,,–,,,,,,curiosity,,–,,,,,,,,,–,,Cushites,,customs,,,,,,effect,,,–,–,,,efficacy,,,,,,,,–,Dacier,Andre,´,,–,,,,Dalberg,KarlTheodorvon,Egypt,Egyptians,,,–,–,,D’Alembert,JeanLeRond,,,,,,,DanteAlighieri,,,Einf¨uhlung,xvii–xviii,,–darkness,,,elasticity,,,,David,kingofIsrael,,Empedocles,deism,,,,,empiricism,empiricists,xi,xv,xvi,xxxivDelawares,–England,English,the,,,,,,,,Delphi,,,,,democracy,xxxi,xxxiv,enjoyment,,,Demosthenes,,enlightenment,Enlightenment,the,xiv,xv,xxv,Denmark,,,–,,–,,Descartes,Rene,xxiv,´,,–,,,envy,,,,Epictetus,,desert,,,,Epicureans,despotism,–,,,,–,,Epicurus,–,Ernesti,JohannAugust,xxdestiny,,,error,,,,development,,,–,–,Eskimos,\nIndexEstonians,FrancisI,kingofFrance,ethics,xi,xxxiii,xxxiv,,,,,,,,Frank,Manfred,xxiv,,–,,–,,,Franks,–,–,,–,–,–,FredericktheGreat,kingofPrussia,,,–,,,–,,,,,,–,,,,,;seealsofreedom,,,,,,–,–,morality,,,,,,,,,Etna,–,,,,Euclid,FrenchRevolution,xxx,xxxiv,–Euphrates,friendship,,,,,Euripides,,future,xxvi,xxvii,–,,,,,Euripus,the,–,–;seealsoposterityEurope,Europeans,,,–,,,,–,,,,–,,,GaelsseeCelts–,,–,,,,–,Galanti,GiuseppeMaria,–,–,GalileoGalilei,evidence,xvi,xix,xxi,xxixGama,Vascoda,experience,xii,,,,,,Ganges,expression,,,,,,,,,,Gatterer,JohannChristoph,freedomof,xxxi,xxxiv,–,–Gaul,eye,,,,,,,,–,,,Gellert,ChristianFurchtegott,¨,,gender,,,–,GenghisKhan,faith,,,genius,,,,–faithfulness,,,,,Genovesi,Antonio,families,,,,,,–,,;geometers,,,seealsospirit,familyGermans,Germany,,,,,,,,fate,–,,–,,,,–,,,fatherland,,–,,,,–,gestures,bodily,,–,,,,Girard,Gabriel,fear,,,,,,Goa,feeling,xviii,,,,,,–,–,God,xiv,,,,,,,,,–,,,,,,,,,,,–,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,–,,,–,Fenelon,F.deSalignacdelaMothe,xxxii,´,,,,,,,–,–,–,,–,,,,,–,–,fermentation,,,–,,,–,,–,,Fichte,JohannGottlieb,ix,xxxivgods,goddesses,–,,–,Ficino,Marsilio,Goethe,JohannWolfgangvon,viiFilangieri,Gaetano,,Goguet,AntoineYves,,,Folard,Jean-Charlesde,Gonaqua,forces(Kr¨afte),xx,xxi–ii,–,–,,–,goodness,,,,,,,,,,–,–,,–,–,–,,–,–,–,,,,,Goths,,,,––,,,,,–,,,government,xxxi,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,formationetc.(Bildung),xliii,–,,,Graces,the,––,,,–,–,,,grammar,grammarians,,,,,,,,,,,–,–,–,,,,,,,,,–,,,,,forms,Platonic,xv–vi,xxxiv,–Gray,Thomas,Forster,Reinhold,,Greece,Greeks,xxiv,–,–,,,,,France,French,the,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,-,,,,,–,,,,,,–,\nIndex,–,–,,–,–,OnDiligenceinSeveralLearnedLanguages,–,,,xv,xvigreed,,,,,,OntheChangeofTaste,xv,xxv,xxixGreenland,,OntheCognition,viii,ix,xiii,xv,xviii,xxi–xxvGrotius,Hugo,,OnThomasAbbt’sWritings,xvi,xviii,xxgrounds,,,,PopularSongs,xiiigrowth,,,Shakespeare,xviGuevara,Antonio,ThisTooaPhilosophyofHistoryfortheFormationGuinea,ofHumanity,x,xiii,xvii,xxv,xxvi,xxixGustavusAdolphus,TreatiseontheOriginofLanguage,xiv,xv,xviHermann,habits,,,hermeneutics,viii,xiv–xxiHadrian(PubliusAeliusHadrianus),emperorHerodotus,,–,,ofRome,Heruli,Haller,Albrechtvon,xxii,,–Hindu,–Hamann,JohannGeorg,vii,x,xi,xv,xxHippocrates,,HamburgCorrespondent,,historian,,–,Hampton,James,history,,,,,,,–,,happiness,xxviii,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,–,–,,–,,,,,,,––,–philosophyof,xiv,xxv–xxx,harmony,,,,Hobbes,Thomas,musical,,,Holberg,Ludvig,hate,–,,,HollandseeNetherlands,theHausen,K.R.,,Homer,xxix,,,,,,,,,,,head,,–,–,,,,,,–,,,,,,hearing,,,,,–,,,,,,,,,,,–honor,,,,,,–,–,,heart,,,,,,,–,–,,,,,–,,–,,,,,,,,,knightly,,,,,,Horace(QuintusHoratiusFlaccus),,,,Hebrews,,,Hector,,,Hottentot,,Hegel,GeorgWilhelmFriedrich,vii,ix,xxiv,xxv,HuartedeSanJuan,Juan,,xxvii,xxviii,xxx,xxxivHubner,Johann,¨Heinze,JohannMichael,HudsonBay,Helots,,,humanity,xxvi,xxix,xxxii,xliii,,,,–,Helvetius,Claude-Adrien,´,,,,,,–,–,,–,–,,–HenryVIII,kingofEngland,humans,,–,–,–,–Heraclitus,,,Humboldt,Wilhelmvon,vii,xxxiHerder,JohannGottfriedvonHume,David,xi,xiii,xiv,xxv,xxvi,,,,CriticalForests,xiii,xviii,–,,,,,,,DissertationontheReciprocalInfluenceof,GovernmentandtheSciences,xxxivHuns,,,,,FragmentsonRecentGermanLiterature,ix,xii,Huswana,xiv,xvi,xxviii,xliihypothesis,xix,xx,xxiHowPhilosophyCanBecomeMoreUniversalandUsefulfortheBenefitofthePeople,x,xi–xiv,ideals,xxviii,xxxi,xxxiiiideas,xv,xix,,,,,,,,,,,IdeasforthePhilosophyofHistoryofHumanity,,,,,ix,xvi,xxv,xxvi,xxvii,xxixIgnatiusofLoyola,Letters,xvii,xxix,xxx,xxxii,xxxiv,xxxvignorance,,,,,,,,,OlderCriticalForestlet,xxvi,xxvii,\nIndeximages,,,,,,,,,,,Kant,Immanuel,ix,x,xi,xii,xiii,xiv,xvii,xxii,,,,xxiv,xxvi,xxxi,xxxiii,xxxiv,,,,,imagination,,,,,,,,,,,,,–,–,,,Kepler,Johannes,imitation,,,,,,,Kleist,EwaldChristianvon,,,improvement,,,–,Klopstock,FriedrichGottlieb,,,,,,inclinations,,,–,–,–,,,,,–,–,,–,–,,knowledge,xii,xxvi,,,,,;–,–,,,seealsocognitionIndia,Indians,,,,,,Koran,the,,Kripke,Saul,xxivindividuality,xv,xxiv,xxv,–,–,,Kuhn,ThomasSamuel,xxiii–,,industry,,,,,,–,,LaFontaine,Jeande,Inquisition,LaLoubere,Simonde,,,instinct,,–,,–,,–,,–,Lambert,JeanHenri,–,,LaMotheleVayer,Franc¸ois,institutions,,,,,land,,,,instruction,–,language,ix,xii,xiv–xxi,xxiii,,,–,parental,,,,,–,–,,,,–,intelligence,,,–,intentions,xix,,ancient,,,,interjections,,,,,animal,,–,,,–interpretation,xiv–xxi,xxv,xxviiiArabic,,,invention,inventiveness,ix,,,,,Caribbean,,,,–,Celtic,Ireland,Irishmen,,Ceylonese,Iroquois,–,Chinese,,irritation(Reiz),xxii,–,–,–,Coptic,,,–,,,–Eastern,,,,,,,,,Iselin,Isaak,,,,,,Italy,Italians,,,,,,,,English,Estonian,,Japan,,familial,,,Jerusalem,Finnish,Jesuits,,,French,,,,,,–,Jesus,xiii,,,German,–,,,,,,Jews,xxxiii,Greek,,,,,,,,,John,St.,,joy,,,,,Hebrew,,,,,Judaea,,Huron,,,,,,Judaism,xxxiii,–Iroquois,judgment,xxx,,,,,Italian,,dayof,,,Lapp,,Julian(FlaviusClaudiusJulianus),emperorofLatin,,,,,Rome,,,Latvian,Jupiter,,,Oriental,justice,,,,,,–,,–,originof,xiv,–,––,,divine,–,,–,,–,,–,,–,–,,,,–Kabyles,Peruvian,,,,Kaffirs,philosophyof,vii,xiv–xxi,–kalosk’agathos,kaloik’agathoi,,Polish,,–Runic,\nIndexRussian,,luxury,,,,,,,,,,savage,,,,,,,Siamese,,,,Tibetan,Macedonia,Macedonians,,Lapps,Lapland,,,,Machiavelli,Niccolo,`,LasCasas,Bartolomede,´Malacca,Latvians,,Malebranche,Nicolas,law(s),,–,,,,–,,Mameluke,,,,,–,,,–,manifoldness,,,–,manliness,,,international,,–,,,Marius,Gaius,,mark,characteristic(Merkmal),xvi,–,,,learning,,,,–,,–,,–,,,,Lebanon,,,legislation,,,,–,,mathematics,xii,–,,,,Leibniz,GottfriedWilhelm,,,,,,Maupertius,PierreLouisMoreaude,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Mazarin,Jules,,letters(ofalphabet),–,,meaning,xii,xv,xvi,xviii,xix,xx,xxiv,xliii,,Leuktra,battleof,,,,;seealsoconcepts,mark,Levaillant,Franc¸ois,,,name,wordlife,,,,,,–,,,,means,xiii,xxxv,,,,,–,–,,,–,Mecca,–,,,,Medina,light,,–,,,,,,–,MediterraneanSea,,,,Meibom,Marcus,Liliput,,Melampus,linguistics,vii,xvmemory,,,,–,,,Linnaeus,Carolus,,men,–,–,,Lipsius,Justus,,Mendelssohn,Moses,,LipsTullian,Mengs,AntonRaffael,literature,xiii,xxviii,,–,–,,–,metaphors,,,–,,–,,–,–,,,metaphysics,xii,xxiii,xxiv,xxxiv,–,–,,,,–,–,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,–,–,,,,,,–,,,;Livonians,seealsophilosophy,speculationLivy(TitusLivius),meters,–,,;seealsosongLocke,John,,,Methodists,logic,xii,xxxiv,–,,,,,,,,Mexico,Mexicans,,,,,Michaelis,JohannDavid,,Lombards,Mill,JohnStuart,vii,xi,xxxiLonginus,Cassius,Millar,Andrew,,Loskiel,GeorgHeinrich,–Milton,John,,,,,LouisXI,kingofFrance,mind,–,,,,,,LouisXIII,kingofFrance,philosophyof,ix,xiv,xxi–xxv,–LouisXIV,kingofFrance,,,,unityof,xxii–xxiv,–,–,,,,Louvois,Franc¸oisMichelLeTellier,–,love,,,,,,,,,,seealsospirit,soul–,,,,,,–,,missionaries,,,,,–,,,,,modesty,,–,,Lucian,monads,,,,Lucretius(TitusLucretiusCarus),,,monarchy,–,,Lucullus,LuciusLicinius,Monboddo,JamesBurnett,,Luther,Martin,–,,–,,Mongols,,,\nIndexMontaigne,Michelde,,,,,NumaPompilius,kingofRome,,,numbers,,,,Montesquieu,CharlesLouisdeSecondat,,,,,–,,–obligations,,,;seealsodutiesMoors,,Olympia,morality,xii–xxiv,xxxiv–xxxv,–,,–,,Olympus,–,,–,,–,,–,oppression,xxxi,,–,,,,,–,,,orator,oratory,,,,,,,,,;seealsoethics,–,;seealsorhetoricmotion,movement,–,,,,,order,,–,,,,–,,,–,Orenocks,motivation,,,,,organization,,,mouth,,,Orient,Orientals,,,,,,–,,Muses,,,,,,,,,–,,,,–,music,,,,–,,Muslims,,Ormazd,mythology,,–,–Ormuz,Ossian,,,,,NadirShah,shahofPersia,Ostyaks,name(s),naming,,,,,–,,,,Ovid(PubliusOvidiusNaso),,,,,,,Oxus,Naples,,Ozymandias,nation,nationalism,xxxi–xxxii,,,,,–,,,–,,,Pages,PierreMarieFranc`¸oisde,,naturalism,nature,xii,xiv,xxi,xxxiv,,,–,pain,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,painting,painters,,,–,,,,,,,,,Palestine,,,,–,,,,,,PanaetolianLeague,,,,,,Panionium,human,,,,,,,papacy,,,,languageof,,,Paraguay,soundsof,,,,Parrhasius,necessity,,,Pascal,Blaise,,need(s),,,,,,,,,,passion,,–,,,–,,,,,,,,,,,,,,–,,–,negroes,,,,,,–,,–,past,xxvi,xxvii,Nemesis,,Patagonians,Nero,ClaudiusCaesar,emperorofRome,patriot,patriotism,,,,,–,nerves,,,,,,,peace,,,–;seealsowarNetherlands,Dutchmen,,,,PeloponnesianWar,Newton,Isaac,,,,,,Penn,William,Niceratus,,people,the,,,–,,–,,,,NicholasV,pope,–,,,Nicolai,ChristophFriedrich,peoples,–,,,,,–,Nietzsche,FriedrichWilhelm,vii,x,xxiv,xxv,perfection,–,–,,,,,,xxviii,xxix,xxx,xxxv,,,,,,Nile,,,,Periode,,,,noncognitivism,xi,xii–xiii,xxxiii–xxxv;seealsoPersia,Persians,,–,,,cognitivismPeru,Peruvians,,north,Northerners,,,,,PetertheGreat,tsarofRussia,,,Petrarch,Francesco,,,,NorthSea,PetroniusArbiter,nouns,–,,,,Pherecydes,\nIndexPhidias,progress,,,,,–,,,,Philadelphia,,,,PhilipII,kingofFrance,progression,–,,,,,,PhilipIV,theFair,kingofFrance,,Philippines,property,xxxi,,,Philoctetes,,,prophecy,prophets,xxvi,,philology,–,,,,prose,,,,philosophers,–,,,,,,,,,Protestants,,,,,,Proteus,,,,,,French,,,Proust,Marcel,xxivphilosophy–,,,,,,–,,,Providence,,,,,,,–,–,,,,,–,,,,–,,,,–,–,,,–,,Prussia,Prussians,,,,psychology,xxiv,xxv,xxviii,–,,,,,historyof,,,,,,,languageof,,authorial,xvi,xviii–xix,xx–xxi,–,moral,xii–xiv,–,––political,xxx–xxxv,–seealsoindividuality,mindPhoenicia,Phoenicians,,,–,Ptolemies,physics,physicists,,,,,PtolemyPhiladelphus,–physiology,xxii,,–,punishment,,piety,,,purpose,,,,–,,,,Pindar,,,pinealgland,,purposiveness,xxvii,plant,human,,,Pygmies,Plato,xiii,xv–xvi,xxxiv,,,,,,,,Pyrrho,Pyrrhonism,xi,xxvi,,,,,;,,,,,,,,,seealsoskepticism,,,Pythagoreanism,play,,,,Pythia,the,pleasure,,,,,,,,Pliny(GaiusPliniusSecundus),–Quakers,,Plutarch,,poetry,,–,,,,,–,,,Rabelais,Franc¸ois,–,,,,,,,;race,xxxii,xxxiii,–,,,,seealsoliterature,talent,–poets,,,,,,,,,,Racine,JeanBaptiste,politicalscience,thinkersseescience,politicalRamler,KarlWilhelm,politics,xxxi–xxxii,,,,,,,rank,,,,,,,Polybius,,,,–Rationalism,xiii,xxi,xxii,xxiv,xxvPolydorusVergilius,rationality,xxxiii,,,Pope,Alexander,,rationalization,rationalizers,,Portugal,Portuguese,,,posterity,,,,–,,,;Rawls,John,xxxivseealsofuturereason,xxvi,,,,,,,,,–,poverty,,,–,,,,,–,,,,power,,,,,,,,,–,–,,,balanceof,–,,,,,–,,,,,prejudices,,,,–,,,–,,,,,,,,,–refinement,,,,,Presbyterians,reflection,,,,–,,,;seealsopride,,,,,,,,,awareness,taking-awarenesspriests,,,Reformation,,,,,–principles,,,,,,,,,–,Reimarus,AlbertHeinrich,,,,–,,,relativism,xxix,xxx\nIndexreligion,viii,xiv,–,,,,,,,,self,xxiv,xxxiv,,,,,,,,,,,–,–,self-defense,,,,–,,–,,,,,selfishness,,,,,,,,,,,,Semites,,Seneca,LuciusAnnaeus,Mohammedan,,sensation,xvi,xvii,xviii,xxii,xxiii–xxiv,xxv,,Renaissance,,,,,,–,,,,,,,representation,,,,,,–,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,–,republic,republicanism,xxxi,,–,,sense,,,rest,,,senses,,,,,,,,,,–,revolution,,,–,,,–,,,–,,–,–rhetoric,,;seealsooratorsensitivity,,,,Richelieu,ArmandJeanduPlessis,Cardinal,sensuality,,,–,,,,,,,right(andwrong),,,,,,,,,,,,rights,xxxiv,,,,sensuousness,,Robertson,William,,,,sentimentalism,xiii,;seealsononcognitivismRomans,Rome,ancient,–,,,,,serfdom,,,–,,,,,,–,Shaftesbury,AnthonyAshleyCooper,thirdEarl,–,–,–,–,–,–,,–,,,–,,–,,,,Shakespeare,William,xvi,xliii,,,–,Rousseau,Jean-Jacques,,,,,,,,,,,–,,,,,,,,,shame,,,,Shaw,Thomas,rules,,,Sicily,Russia,Sidney,Philip,Sir,sight,,,,–,,–,;seealsoSadi,seeingSappho,signs,,,–,,,,Saracens,Simon,Richard,,Sarpi,Paolo,,skepticism,x,xi–xii,xxvi,xxvii,xxviii,xxix,,Sartre,Jean-Paul,xxiv,,;seealsoPyrrhosavagery,savages,,,–,,,,,Skinner,Quentin,xviii–ix–,,,skirt,–Scaurus,Aemilius,slavery,slaves,xxxiii,,,,,,,,scent,,,,–,,,,,,,,Schelling,FriedrichWilhelmJosephvon,ix,;seealsonegroesSchlegel,(KarlWilhelm)Friedrichvon,xSlavs,,Schleiermacher,FriedrichDanielErnst,vii,viii,smell,,,,–,,xv,xx,xxi,xxiv,xxvsocialcontract,xxxiv,scholarship,–,society,human,xii,,,,,,,,,school,–,,,,Schultens,Albert,,Socrates,,,,,,,,,–,science,,,,,,,,natural,xx,xxi,,,Solomon,political,,,Solon,sciences,,,,,,,,,,,song,,–,,–,,;–,,–,–,,seealsopoetryScipio(PubliusCorneliusScipioAfricanus),–sophists,sophistry,,,,Scotland,Scotsmen,,Sophocles,,,,,,security,,,,–Sorites,seeds,,,,,,,–,,soul,–,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,––,,,–,–,–,,,seeing,,–,–,,;seealsosight,,,,,,,–,,\nIndex–,–,,,,–,,talent,,,,;seealsopoetry,poets–,,,,,–,,,Tamerlane,,–,,,,,,Tasso,Torquato,sounds,,,–,–,,,,,taste,,–,–,,,,–,,,,,Spain,Spaniards,,,,,Tatars,Tatary,,,Sparta,Spartans,,,–,,,Taylor,Charles,x,xxxv,xlspeaking,speech,,,,–,,,,Terrai,JosephMariedu,,Theages,partsof,,theater,,,,,speculation,–,–,,,,;Thebes,seealsometaphysicsThemistocles,Spinoza,Benedict,ix,,,theology,theologians,–,,,,,,,spirit,–,,,,–,,,,,,,,–,,,theory,family,,moral,seemoralityhuman,,,,–political,xxxiii–xxxvofthetimes,–thinking,thought,ixxiv,xv,xix,xx,xxi,xxiii,xxiv,world,,,,,,,,,,,,,,seealsomind,,–,,–,,,,,,state,the,,,,,,,–,–,,,,,–,,,–,,–,,,,,–,–,,statecraft,,,,,–,,,,,,,,,,statesmen,,,,Sterne,Laurence,freedomof,xxxi,xxxiv,,,,–,Stoics,,,St.Pierre,abbede´seeCastelThomas,Antoine-Leonard,´St.Pierre,Bernardin,–,,Thomasius,Christian,Strabo,Thucydides,,,–,–strength,,,,,,Tiber,striving,,,,,,Tiberius,JuliusCaesarAugustus,emperorofstructure,doctrinal,–,Rome,stupidity,,,,,time,,,,,–,submission,,tongue,,,Suez,trade,–,,,,,,,,Sulla,LuciusCornelius,,,–,SulzerJohannGeorg,xxii,,,,tradition,,,,,,training,,,,superficiality,xxxv,translation,xlii–xliv,–superstition,,,,–,,,,travel(descriptions),,,,,–,,,,,–Su¨ßmilch,JohannPeter,xiv,xx,,,,,tribe,singlestem-,––,,,,,–Troeltsch,Ernst,xxixSwedenborg,Emanuel,Troy,,Swift,Jonathan,,truth,x,xxiii,xxxi,,–,,,,,,,sympathy,,,,,,,,;,,–,,–,,,,seealsoEinf¨uhlung,–,,,,–,,,synonyms,–,,–,–,,,,–Tacitus,Cornelius,,,,unbelief,unbelievers,,,,Tahiti,understanding,xxi,xxviii,,,,,,,taking-awareness(Besinnung),,,–,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,–,,;seealsoawareness,–,–,,–,–,,,reflection,,,–,–\nIndexunderstanding(cont.)Wallenstein,AlbrechtEusebiusWenzelcommon-(Einverst¨andnis),,von,healthy,xii,–,,,,,,,,war,xxvi,xxxi,xxxii,,,–,,,,–,,–,,–,,,human,,–,,,,–,,–,–,,;seealsointerpretation,meaningseealsopeaceunification,unity,,–,–,,–;Warsaw,seealsomind,unityofWesterners,universal(sensation,thought,etc.),,–,Wieland,ChristophMartin,–,–,–will,xxxiv,,,,,,–,,,universalhumanity,,,,;seealsovolitionuniversities,,Winckelmann,JohannJoachim,,,,,utopia,xxxiv,,;seealsofuture,posteritywisdom,,,,,–,,,,value,,,,,,,,;seealsocognition,values,xxix–xxx,xxxii;seealsohappiness,knowledgemorality,tastewit,–,–,,,,Vandals,,Withof,J.P.L.,,vanity,,,Wittgenstein,LudwigJosefJohann,xVaucanson,Jacquesde,Wolff,Christian,ix,xiii,xx,xxii,,,,Vega,Garcilasodela,,woman,peace,–,Venice,women,xxxiii,,,,–,–,,,verbs,–,,–,–,,,–,,–vice,,,,,–,,,,word(s),,,,,,,,,,,,,,––,,,,,,,,Vico,Giambattista,–,,–,Virgil(PubliusVergiliusMaro),,stem-,–,,usagesof,xvi,xviii,xix,xliivirtue,–,,,,,,,,,work,xxiii,,,–,,,,–,,–,worship,xxxi,,–,,,,,,–,,,,,,writers,writing,,,,,,,,,,;seealsomorality,vicevisionseesightwrong,,;seealsorightVitruviusPollio,,,voice-vote,,,–Xenophon,,,,,–,,volition,ix,xxii,xxiii,xxv,,,,–,Ximenes,FranciscodeCisneros,–,Voltaire(Franc¸ois-MarieArouet),xiv,xxv,,Young,Edward,,,,,,,,,,youth,–,,,,,–,–,Vossius,GerardusJoannes,Zeus,,\nCambridgetextsinthehistoryofphilosophyTitlespublishedintheseriesthusfarAristotleNicomacheanEthics(editedbyRogerCrisp)ArnauldandNicoleLogicortheArtofThinking(editedbyJillVanceBuroker)BaconTheNewOrganon(editedbyLisaJardineandMichaelSilverthorne)BoyleAFreeEnquiryintotheVulgarlyReceivedNotionofNature(editedbyEdwardB.DavisandMichaelHunter)BrunoCause,PrincipleandUnityandEssaysonMagic(editedbyRichardBlackwellandRobertdeLuccawithanintroductionbyAlfonsoIngegno)CavendishObservationsuponExperimentalPhilosophy(editedbyEileenO’Neill)CiceroOnMoralEnds(editedbyJuliaAnnas,translatedbyRaphaelWoolf)ClarkeADemonstrationoftheBeingandAttributesofGodandOtherWritings(editedbyEzioVailati)CondillacEssayontheOriginofHumanKnowledge(editedbyHansAarsleff)ConwayThePrinciplesoftheMostAncientandModernPhilosophy(editedbyAllisonP.CoudertandTaylorCorse)CudworthATreatiseConcerningEternalandImmutableMoralitywithATreatiseofFreewill(editedbySarahHutton)DescartesMeditationsonFirstPhilosophy,withselectionsfromtheObjectionsandReplies(editedbyJohnCottingham)DescartesTheWorldandOtherWritings(editedbyStephenGaukroger)FichteFoundationsofNaturalRight(editedbyFrederickNeuhouser,translatedbyMichaelBaur)HerderPhilosophicalWritings(editedbyMichaelN.Forster)HobbesandBramhallonLibertyandNecessity(editedbyVereChappell)HumboldtOnLanguage(editedbyMichaelLosonsky,translatedbyPeterHeath)KantCritiqueofPracticalReason(editedbyMaryGregorwithanintroductionbyAndrewsReath)KantGroundworkoftheMetaphysicsofMorals(editedbyMaryGregorwithanintroductionbyChristineM.Korsgaard)KantTheMetaphysicsofMorals(editedbyMaryGregorwithanintroductionbyRogerSullivan)KantProlegomenatoanyFutureMetaphysics(editedbyGaryHatfield)\nKantReligionwithintheBoundariesofMereReasonandOtherWritings(editedbyAllenWoodandGeorgediGiovanniwithanintroductionbyRobertMerrihewAdams)LaMettrieMachineManandOtherWritings(editedbyAnnThomson)LeibnizNewEssaysonHumanUnderstanding(editedbyPeterRemnantandJonathanBennett)MalebrancheDialoguesonMetaphysicsandonReligion(editedbyNicholasJolleyandDavidScott)MalebrancheTheSearchafterTruth(editedbyThomasM.LennonandPaulJ.Olscamp)MelanchthonOrationsonPhilosophyandEducation(editedbySachikoKusukawa,translatedbyChristineSalazar)MendelssohnPhilosophicalWritings(editedbyDanielO.Dahlstrom)NietzscheBeyondGoodandEvil(editedbyRolf-PeterHorstmannandJudithNorman)NietzscheTheBirthofTragedyandOtherWritings(editedbyRaymondGeussandRonaldSpeirs)NietzscheDaybreak(editedbyMaudemarieClarkandBrianLeiter,translatedbyR.J.Hollingdale)NietzscheTheGayScience(editedbyBernardWilliams,translatedbyJosefineNauckhoff)NietzscheHuman,AllTooHuman(translatedbyR.J.HollingdalewithanintroductionbyRichardSchacht)NietzscheUntimelyMeditations(editedbyDanielBreazeale,translatedbyR.J.Hollingdale)SchleiermacherHermeneuticsandCriticism(editedbyAndrewBowie)SchleiermacherOnReligion:SpeechestoitsCulturedDespisers(editedbyRichardCrouter)SchopenhauerPrizeEssayontheFreedomoftheWill(editedbyGunterZ¨oller)¨SextusEmpiricusOutlinesofScepticism(editedbyJuliaAnnasandJonathanBarnes)ShaftesburyCharacteristicsofMen,Manners,Opinions,Times(editedbyLawrenceKlein)AdamSmithTheTheoryofMoralSentiments(editedbyKnudHaakonssen)VoltaireTreatiseonToleranceandOtherWritings(editedbySimonHarvey)