比较教育学重点
Chapter2MajorTheoriesinComparativeEducationLIntroductionA.ModernistPerspectivesStmctural-fiinctionalismvs・Marxism>Similarities:a)StemfromcommonantecedentsintheWesternEnlightenmentEra>Differences:Structural-functionalism:envisions展望consensus一致andequilibrium均衡tobehallmarks印记ofsocialintercourse交流andhumanprogress,andseesstability稳定性asnaturalanddesirabl令人满意的e.Marxism:questionsthepossibilityofconsensus,critiquetheauthenticity真实,性ofapparentconsensus,andassertthatconflictratherthanstabilityistheoverriding高于一切白勺catalystforsocialchange.B.PostmodernistandPoststmcturalistPerspectives>Denyrationalistexplanations,challengeandquestionmodernization>Questionthepossibilityof"masternarratives^大叙事orencompassingtheoreticalarguments>Focusonotherwisemarginalized边缘彳匕alternativeperspectives>Rejectpredictabilityasgoalfortheory2.StmctuFal・functionalism>Stabilityandequilibrium,beingcentralwithinthestructural-functionalistanalysis,reflectthetheory'sidentityasaconsensusperspective.A.WhatisStmctural・fiinctionalism>ThreeMajorCharacteristicsofStTiicturaI・fiinctionalisma)Unitary统一的：Structural-functionalism^sidentityasaconsensustheoryisbuiltontheconvictionthatsocietyisunitaryandthatthebuildingandpreservationofagreementistheprefeiredandmostpowerfulsocialforce.b)Coherence连贯寸生：notonlyasaunituntoitselfbutalsointermsofthe\nrelationshipsthatexistamongitsvariouselements.SocialinstitutionsarenotjustacollectiveofDeoplEbut,mthei;anentity实体havingclearpurposeandpotentialtofulfillsocialneeds,especiallysocialsolidarity.a)Stability:workingtowardsharmonyanditsownself-preservation,anditsownrelianceonthemotionofequilibriumasafundamentaltraitofsociety,andsocialprogressispredictablylinea匚>Structural-functionalismisaframeworkforbuildingtheorythatseessocietyasacomplexsystemwhosepartsworktogethertopromotesolidarityandstability.Thisapproachlooksatsocietythroughamacro・levelorientation,whichisabroadfocusonthesocialstructuresthatshapesocietyasawhole,andbelievesthatsocietyhasevolvedlikeorganisms.B・CriticismStructural-functionalistthoughtdoesnotitselfarticulate彳吏相互连贯amodelofchangebecauseitsproponentsviewchangeasaconsequenceofsocietalresponsetoimbalancesorimperfections,oradjustmentsorrefinements改良品ofexistingsocialconditions,ratherthanaschangesinthesocialorde匸A.ApplyonEducationalPracticea)Schoolsareimportantcontributorstothemaintenanceofequilibriumb)Classroomsarespaceswhereresponsibleandproductivecitizensareformedc)Teachersconveyandreinforcevaluesthatnurturestudents^societalparticipationinlinewithmainstreamsocialvaluesratherthaninoppositiontothosevalues.d)Literacyisoneamongmanyskillsthatcontributestoeconomicandsocialproductivity,andthiskeepswiththemaintenanceofstatusquowithaneyeonthenurturanceofastablesocialorder.第一个理论记住几个关键词：stability,coherence,equilibrium,unity,并理解好这几个词，然后看看教育方面的应用就差不多了。2.ModernizationA.WhatisModernizationTheory?\n>Humannatureisavariable可变的ratherthanaconstantintermsoftheprospectforchange;thisviewofhumannatureasvariable^malleable,可塑的andthereforesubjecttorefinementiskey.>Modernizationtheorytiessocietaldevelopmenttothelevelofindividualperson,and,so,providesarationalefortheroleofeducationwithinsocietiesseekingtomodernize.Developmentbecomesafunctionoftheattainmentofmodernattitudesattheindividuallevel;society'smodernizationbecomesaproductofthepercolationoftheseattitudesthroughoutanexpandingcircleofitsindividualmembers.>Progressissequential连续的andpossessingmomentum.势头Humanprogressisgovernedinpartbyanaturalmotivetowardsachievement.>Modernstatesarewealthierandmorepowerful,andthattheircitizensarefreertoenjoyahigherstandardofliving,(urbanization,industrialization^Newtechnologyisamajorsourceofsocialchange,buttheydon'tchangesocietiesbyitself.)>Humanagencycontrolsthespeedandseverityofmodernization.Summary:adaptationofstructural-functionalism,generallypredictableandmanageable,aprescriptionofchange,educationofindividualsB・Criticism>Theideological意识形态的andculturalbiasesinherentinthetheorya)Westernbiases:modernization工westernizationb)Traditionalvalues:Modernizationvaluesmightnotbeincompatible不相容的withtraditionalones.>Questiontheassumptionthattheattainmentofmodemvaluesattheindividuallevelwillinfacttranslateintoasociety-widephenomenonatlevelsthatarecapableofgeneratingandsustainingnationaldevelopment.C.ModernizationTheoryuponTeachers>Connectsindividualstudents9progresswiththesocietygeneralreadinessforthefuture\n>Schools—well-preparedcitizensformodernization>Moderninstitutionsinstilled逐;斩灌输inindividuals,encouragingtheadoptionofmodernbehaviorsamongcitizens基本理论都要知道，批判的观点要知道，教育的观点要知道，基本上这里的都挺重要的。2.HumanCapitalFormationTheory人力资本构造理论A.Sociology社会学Concept>Thetermcapitalpertains从属tobothmaterialandotherresourcesthatcontributetotheaccumulationofwealthbyindividualsorbysocieties.>Investmentsintheacquisition获得ofgoodswillreap"攵获returns.>Educationspotentialasaspur鼓舞forinvestmentsHumanCapitalFormationTheoryandEducation>Adoptsstructural-functionalism^soverarching首要白勺commitments,reflectingadirectandfunctionalrelationshipbetweeneducationanddevelopment>Nation-stateasadiscrete离散的andvitalfocusofanalysis,generallyattributingeconomicunder-developmenttofactorswithinthesocietyinquestion.>Pursuemeasurability可测量,性byseekingtoaccountforallfactorsthatmightcontributetoeconomicgrowth一hereagainpointingtostructural-functionalismtowardsprediction,causality因果关系，andthemanageabilityofsocietyanditsactivities.>Investmentandeducationthattheyenvision,intheirmodernistandwesternizedviewofprogressanddevelopment,andintheirfocusonthesocietyasthefunctionalandharmoniouscontextfortheoreticalanalysisandpolicyaction.A的内容可以不看，只是基础，B的内容才是重点。3.MarxismA.BasicSociologicalPerspectivesofMarxism>Scientificcommunism科学社会主义/Historicalmaterialism历史唯物主义\n>Changeasadialogueorinteractionbetweentwoentities实体\nDifierencesbetweenMarxismandStructural・hmeoti2h5m—Marxism:Changetiiroughreplacement;changeisaproductofconflict-Condrtionsthatareexploitativeandoppressiveofsomepeoplearethev«ysourcesfordevelopmentStructural-functionaltsm:Viewchangeasadjustmentorrefinementofanexistmesocialorder;changeoccurswithnaturalmomentumSubstructureofdifferentsocialclassesorsociallevels—strataBourgeoisie资产阶级一ExploitingClasses剥削阶级一Occupyworkers^Proletariat无产阶级一Exploitedpositions一BeingcontrolledbyBourgeoisieDifferencesbetweenMarxismandStructural-functionalism:Whilebothacknowledgethatsocialinstitutionsandmechanismsdoworktowardtheendofpreservingsociety,thestructural-functionalismseesthistendencyasfundamentallydesirable令人满意白勺andjust.Marxist,incontrast,critiquethesameargumentinfavorofsocietalstabilityasunfairifinequitiesaremaintainedamongsociety，ssubstrata.下层EstrangementandAlienationPerspectives疏远和异化的角度\nTherefore,raisingconsciousnessaboutunfairconditionsarenecessaryinordertoreplacefeelingsofpowerlessnesswithasenseofcapacityandagencyregardingone^sowncircumstances-Summary:Marxcontended满足thatthelatentconflictbetweenadvantagedanddisadvantagedclasseswouldinevitablybecomeovert明显白勺・Thehistoryofhumanexperiencehasexhibitedunendingconflictbetweenoppressorsandtheoppressed.Theseconflictsareresolvedthroughdominantclassreplacingitspredecessor前任torenewoppositionatahigherlevel,withoppressiontakingnewforms-A.MarxismandEducation>Context-centeredanalysis:problemsrelatedtofairdistributionsofhumanoutputsareaddressedbyknowledgegainedthroughasciencerootedinunderstandingthenatureofhumancommunicationandagreementratherthanonthepredictionandcontrolofnaturalenvironments->SchoolinginMarxistcountriesisthevehiclesfordialectical莉辛，正的progressfromacapitalistsocietytothecommunistsociety.>Supportspecializedindustrialandtechnicaleducationascatalysts催彳匕剂forhumanprogresswhileeschewing避免formsofeducationthatweretoonarrowtoenablethoughtfulappraisalsofsocialcircumstances-\n>Acurriculumbasedonthethreeaimsofmentaleducation,physicaleducation,andtechnologicallearning.>Correspondence相当小生Theory:thesystemofcounterpartsbetweenschoolsandworkplaces.ThistheoryispessimisticaboutaspectsthatMertonhadcharacterizedasbenign,stabilizingforces一the"latent”functionsofschool,suchaspassivecompliancewiththeverticalpowerstructuresofauthority,strictschedules,etc.C・Criticism>Westernbias—focusonthehistoryofmaterialismintheEuropeancontextanddidnotgrapplewiththeissueofunderdevelopment>NotallsocietiesreflectthepresenceofsortsofclassstructuresMarxisttheoriesdescribeD
MarxistPerspectivesuponPractice>Educatorsoftentrytolimitthedegreetowhichtheydifferentiatetheirinstructionalpracticesinkeepingwiththeirviewsthatsuchpracticesmightforeclose扌非除equaleducationalopportunitiesandtherebyinterferewiththeirstudents'potentialtopursuetheirownaspirations.>Organizeprovisionofequaleducationalexperiencesbyincorporating合并白勺similarmental，physicalandtechnologicalexperiencesfortheirstudents\n>Favorlocalized,participatory供人分享的controlofeducationalgovernancebecausehefeltthiswoulddefuse平息thepotentialforschoolstobecomeinstruments工具withinwhichstudentsareprogrammedtoacceptrolesandsocialstructuresthatmightbeunfairorexploitativeandwithinwhichinstructionisorganizedtoadvantagesomeattheexpenseofothers.>Teachersinvitebroadinputinthecreationofschoolandclassroom-specificrulesandpoliciesinordertoensurefairnessandaninclusivestance立场towardtheconductofinstructionandtheorganizationofeducation.前面的是理解，不用记，summary可能可以用来答题，关键看你们个人观点是什么，最后的educationalpractice挺重要的。2.DependencyTheory从属理论A・DependencyTheoryVSMarxismMarxismfocusesonclassrelationswithincountries,butdependencytheory^sattentionisonrelationsbetweenandamongcountriesinaworldsystem.B・SociologyPerspectivesofDependencyTheory>DependencytheoristsdescribepatternsofglobalinequityandunevendevelopmentasaNorth-Southphenomenon.DependencytheoristscontendthatprimarilyNorthAmericanandEuropeancountriesenjoyaprivilegedorupper-classpositionattheexpenseofundeiprivilegedcountrieschieflyinLatinAmericaandAfrica.Dependencytheoryischaracterizedbyaparallel平行的，globalizedpattemofexploitation录U肖U话口oppression压扌卬.Privilegednations,constituteaso-calledcoreorcenter,whereastheunderdevelopednationsformthemarginalizedperipherywithinaglobalsocietyofnationssometimescalledtheucapitalistworldsystem11.>Dependencytheoristshavegenerallydescribedthegrowthofdependentrelationshipswithintheglobalsystemintermsofprogressthroughhistoricalstages:mercantilistcolonialism;outwardgrowth(therolesofprivateeliteswithinthecoloniesgenerallydeclined,andtheroleofanauthoritariancolonialbureaucracy\ngenerallyexpanded);Foreigninvestment;contemporarytransnationalcapitalistperiod>Dependencytheoryholdsthatcoremembersoftheworldsystemareinasensedependentaswell.Theyrelyonamodeofinternationaleconomicrelationsthatjustifiestheglobalinequitiesthatexist.>Dependencytheorydescribesspecificmeansbywhichthecorenationsseektomaintainandnurturetheperiphery^夕卜围dependentstatusintheglobalsocietyofnations.Thesestrategiesincludeplunder,neocolonialrelations,andtransnationalcorporateactivity,"nation-to-nation^domination>Dependencytheoreticianshavealsonotedthatovertdominationisnotessentialinmaintainingexploitativerelationsbetweenthecoreandtheperipheralcountries.Instead,accordingtosomedependencytheorists,aslongaselitesectorswithintheperipheralcountriesarethemselvesadvantagedbythegenerallyexploitativecore/peripheralrelationship,theseeliteelementshelpsustaininequityintheglobalsystem.Thecoreelementsoftheperipheralnations,workingontheirownbehalfbutalsotothebenefitofthecorenations,asserttheirpowerandstatusinwaysthatpreserveinequitablesocialconditions.C・Criticism>First,althoughthetheoryoffersvaluableinsightsregardingtheextenttowhichexternalfactorscanshapethenatureofdevelopment,itcould_focustoocompletelyontheseexternalfactors.Dependencytheoryislimitedbyitspessimisticviewoftheimpetusofasocietytomaintainitself.>Dependencytheoryhasbeencriticizedonthegroundsthatitsnaturalbiasagainstcapitalism反对资本主义的自然倾向>Themostpersistentcriticismofdependencytheory,however,emergesfromitsmethodological方法论的identityashistorical历史的•Dependencytheoryinsistsonconcretehistoricalcircumstance,acceptingdifferencesfromonenation^experiencetoanother^asanaturalresultofthishistoricalpredisposition.Dependencytheoryhasnotprovidedcrediblestrategiesfordevelopment.Theseviewslackthepragmatismnecessarytohelpmembersofdevelopingsocietiesto\nmeettheirneedsandwants.DServeasareminderofwaysinwhichasociety'spursuitofitsownpoalscanbrinznegativeconsequencesinwaysthatoftenremainunseen.Inaworldinwhichcontinuingeconomicglobalizationseemsinevitable,thedependencyperspectivechallengesteachersandtheirstudentstoappraisewaysinwhichprosperitymightbeazero-sumratherthanaplus-sumcondition.（一方得益，一方利益受损）>Dependencytheoryoffersapotentexplanationofhowcircumstancesthatgivesomepeopleanadvantagemaydisadvantageotherswithinandacrossnationalboundaries.这个主要知道它的主要内容就好了，在unassisteddevelopment那道问题可以用到,可以从这里找答案。2.LiberationTheory解放理论A・LiberationTheoryandEducation>Liberationtheorybelievesthatradicalchangeintheeconomic,political,andculturalstructuresoftheunderdevelopedsocietyarenecessarytosecureprogressintheunderdevelopedwoiid.>Accordingtothetheory,thefocusofeducationaleffortstowardchangebeginsand\nendswiththeunderdevelopedcountry'soppressedgroups.Theemphasisisonthegoalsoftheawakening,mobilization,andself-actualizationofexploitedminorities.少数>"Liberationisdevelopment^.Liberationtheoryaimstoestablishadialogicalrelationshipinwhich“theteacherbecomesafacilitator,thetraditionalclassbecomesaculturalcircle,andtheemphasisshiftsfromlecturetoproblem-posingstrategies^.Liberationtheoryenvisionsliberationasbothameansandanendofeducation.>Literacyisakeytoolinliberationtheory\aimofenablingstudents5progresstowardtheirowngoals.Thisisbecauseofthetheory^semphasisonconscientizaocao—oncientizationorconsciousraisingtoarousestudents，understandingoftheirexploitedcircumstanceswithaneyeonempowermentandactioninaddressingthem.B・Criticism>Achiefcriticismofliberationtheoryisthatitisutopian乌扌乞邦的initsvisionsbothatthelevelofinstructionandintermsoflonger-rangechange.>Othershavenotedthatliberationtheorymightexalt提升reflectionoveractiontowardchangeandprogress，thusundoingtheimpetustowardchangeitstrivestofulfillinotherways.A.SummaryofLiberationTheoryInsum,liberationtheoryinvolvesseekingtoenabletheself・actuali/ationofparticipantsinaprocessofjointlearningbetweenteacherandstudent.Itsoriginalandprimaryfocuswasontheoppressedandunderprivilegedsectorswithinthecountriesofthedevelopingworld.Liberationtheoryhascontributedtotheexpansionofinternationaldialogueoneducationanditsroleinsocialtransformation,toimprovehumanexistencebyviewingknowledgeforitsemancipatory解放的orrepressive压扌印的potential.TheneedforsuchareassessmentisurgentinthatmoremainstreamscientificandsocialscientificparadigmsunderminetheEnlightenmentideals~thefreedomandenlightenmentofindividualsandsocieties—fromwhichtheyhadderivedtheirimpetus.\nLiberationtheoryaccommodatesdependencytheory'sobservationthat,withoutliteracyandawarenessofoppressivecircumsUmces,self-determinationisagoalthatwillremainuriTeachablebyamajorityofpeopleinthedevelopingworld.除了criticism,其他都挺重要的。8・MarxistConflictPerspectivesVSStructural-functionalistconsensusoutlookA・Differences>Theconsensusviewpoint(structural-functionalismandallied与…同属一系perspectivesincomparativeeducation,namely,modernizationandhumancapitalformationtheories)interpretssociety'scomponentsasworkingmoreharmoniouslytogetherforthepreservationofthesystemasawhole.Moreover,adherentsofconsensustheoryseesocietalagreementasanaturalanddesirableconditionstemmingfromthesystem'stendencytopreserveitsequilibrium.Socialchangeoccursthroughadjustmentsorre打nement.»Conflictperspectives(Marxismandcomparativeeducation'sadaptations,namely,dependencyandliberationtheories)concludethattheSocietyasasystemismaintainedthroughanasymmetricdistributionofpoweracrosssegmentsofthesystemandthroughexploitativerelationsamongthem.Conflicttheoriescritiquethenatureofsocialconsensusandconsiderthewaysinwhichcircumstancesofapparentaccordwithinasocialsystemarebetterunderstoodasproductsofforcedagreement(i.e.oppression)ratherthanofgenuineconsensus.Conflicttheoriststendtoarguethatchangeandgrowthwithinsocialsystemsareoftentheproductsofstrugglesorconflictsaimedattheoverthrowofunjustprivilege;thus,changecomeswiththereplacementofexistingconditionsratherthanthroughmererevisionsoradjustments.Convergence集合>Progressisinevitable>Suchadvancementcanbeanalyzedandcangenerallybedescribedintermsofdiscrete不连续的stagesorsteps>Theoutcomesofdevelopmentarethereforepredictableandsubjecttohumancontrol\n>Thespreadoftheeconomiccapacities能力ofthedayisdesirable>UndertakethequestionofwhetherthereisorisnotagreementacrossasocietyC.Seetheconvergentpoints,andremaindifferences这是区别，是一个总结性的东西，还是看看吧，不过对答题不一定有用。9.PostmodernismandPoststructuralismTheoreticalChallengestotheModernA.TheMeaningofPost-andtheRootsofPostmodernismandPoststructuralism>Learningaboutpoststructuralismandpostmodernismrequiresdefiningpost-as"following，'inthesenseof"trailingbehindandcominginthewakeof\>Accordingly,understandingpostmodernismandpoststructuralismnecessitatesaparticularmindfulnessregardingantecedentintellectualdiscoveries.PostmodernismandtheProblemofModernity>DifferentPerspectivesofthedefinitionofmodernizationa)Modernizationisanaturalconditiontowhichsocietiesevolveonaccountoftheirowntendenciestowardsgrowthandself-perfection自我完善.Fromthestandpointofmodernizationtheory,thisprocesscanbefurtherspurredbyrationalandwell-conceivedplansandpolicies.b)Analternativeinterpretationofthemoderncondition—andonethatreceivesourattentioninthisdiscussionofpostmodernism—ismorecircumspect周至U的aboutthefundamentalnatureofmodernity、describingitasacrisisofcertainty.Thiscrisisissometimescalledthe"moderncondition”orthe“modemprobleirTandfounditsmostimportantprophecy预言inthethinkingofFriedrichNietzsche.C.PoststructuralismandPostmodernism?sAlliedArgument>Thoughpoststructuralismfsrootsaredistinctfromthoseofpostmodernism,theclaimsofboththesepost-slendcredencetoanoverallargumentthatthefocusofanystudyissubjective主观的innature.>Postmodernism^andpoststructuralismfsjointimpetus动力ofquestioningstatic\n芾争态的andorthodox正统白勺notionsoftruthhasincreasedcriticalevaluationoftheknowledgepreviouslyacceptedwithoutquestion.A基本上是废话，BCD是重点哦，语言学那个如果看不懂可以看中文。10・Postmodernism9sInfluenceinComparativeEducationA.GeneralInfluenceofPostmodernismandPoststructuralism>NeitherpostmodemismnorDoststructundismpurpoits声称toconstituteadiscreetbodyoftheoryinthewaythateitherstructural-functionalismorMarxismconsistsofasystemorpatternofassumptionsandthought.Thisisbecausepoststructuralistsandpostmodernistsareskepticaltowardan"allencompassing包含的explanationoftheworld".>Ingeneral,themajorinfluenceofpostmodernismandpoststructuralismistoprovidearationalfordrawingtothecenterhumanperspectivesthathaveheretoforeoccupiedthelandscapeatthemarginsofhumanandsocialexperience—asforgotten,neglected,unexplored,orsomehowsubverted.>Postmodernism:embracesthediverseandambiguousnatureofhumancontexts;acknowledgesandseekstomakeexplicitthevalue-laden价值负载natureofeducationbutalsotoexplicatethepowerstructuresassociatedwithschools'formalizationofvaluesandinterests;stresseslocalcontextoftheory一theadaptationoftheorytocontextratherthancontexttotheory.B.CriticismofPostmodernismandPoststructuralism>Thereis,then,nosinglepostmodernist/poststrucUindphilosophypreciselybecauseofthecircumspection（慎重）—the"incredulity^—withwhichtheperspective^adherentsviewthepossibilityofasingleall-encompassingtheory.Thus,thereisnosinglepostmodeinistorDoststructuralistlistofinterpretationsabouttheprevailingmechanismsinschools、noristhereasinglesetofprescriptions（扌旨示）abouthowtheyshouldbe.>Itissononcommittal（不许诺、不表态、不确定、含糊的）initsassumptionsandclaimsthatitisconsideredoflittleuseforanypredictivepurpose.\n>Afurthercriticismisthattheemergenceofsomanyparticularisticthreadsofspecialinterestonaccountoftheinfluencesofpoststructuralistandpostmodernistthoughtmayhavecontributedtothedilution（稀#罕）ofdisciplinarydirectionandtheundeirniningofanysenseoforganizationalmemoryamongthebodyofscholarsworkingwithinthefield.A.PostmodernismandPoststructuralismuponEducation>Ingeneral,"post-modernistsdoholdthatthecuiTiculumshouldnotbeviewedasdiscretesubjectsanddisciplines,butinsteadshouldincludeissuesofpower;history,personalandgroupidentities,andsocialcriticismleadingtocollectiveaction'\Becausepostmodernismgenerallysuggeststhataninterplayofmanyfactorsshapestudents1identities,students1ownexperienceshaveanenhancedprominenceinpostmodernistviewsofinstruction,（echoeswithJohnDewey,educationalprogressivism）>Andregardingtheroleofteachers,postmodernism'slessonsaboutthewaylanguagecanshapeandreinforcepatternsofhumanrelationcallonteacherstobecareful“oftheirinfluenceoverthelanguageprocessandhowitshapesthewaystudentsthinkandconceptualize^.>Tocreate"thinkingspace“andtomakeroomforunderstandingsoftheessenceofanexperienceinitsowntermsratherthanintermsofadominantother.>Teachersareincreasinglyconfrontedwithissuesrelatedtoinclusiveness（平等）andwithquestionsastohowtodealfairlyinclassroomswhosestudentsbringinawiderangeofculturalperspectives,biases,norms,andbeliefs.Thesebeliefsareoftencontradictoryordifficulttoreconcile.>Thealliedargumentofpoststructuralismandpostmodernismisthatnotionsoftruthtendtobebasedonobserverviewpoints—anassertionthatvalidatesandlendsweighttopredicamentsteachersoftenfaceastheyattempttoreconcilestudents1beliefs.TipsforChapter2:其实这里很多都是供大家理解的，主要的重点是主要观点（其实ppt上基本都有）\n和这些观点涉及到教育问题的那些观点。其实书本很多理论都可以套用到第二章的题目的，主要是看大家的个人观点是什么，再用大家的个人观点联系到书本内容。比如说，第一题，你可以说similarity基本上是老师讲学生接收，这个就可以联系到PaoloFreire的bankingeducation了，另外，modemization真是经久不衰的话题，大家多往上面扯。
