语言学_Chapter3

语言学_Chapter3

Chapter3MorphologyPart1theOverviewPart2Linguistician——LeonardBloomfieldLeonardBloomfield(1887-1949)wasthemostinfluentialAmericanlinguistbetweenWilliamDwightWhitney(1827-1894)andNoamChomsky(1928-).LeonardBloomfieldledthedevelopmentofstructurallinguistics intheUnitedStatesduringthe1930sandthe1940s.Hisinfluentialtextbook Language,publishedin1933,presentedacomprehensivedescriptionofAmericanstructurallinguistics.[1] Hemade\nsignificantcontributionsto Indo-Europeanhistoricallinguistics,thedescriptionof Austronesianlanguages,anddescriptionoflanguagesofthe Algonquian family.Bloomfield'sapproachtolinguisticswascharacterizedbyitsemphasisonthe scientific basisoflinguistics,adherenceto behaviorism especiallyinhislaterwork,andemphasisonformalproceduresfortheanalysisoflinguisticdata.TheinfluenceofBloomfieldianstructurallinguisticsdeclinedinthelate1950sand1960sasthetheoryof GenerativeGrammar developedby NoamChomsky cametopredominate.PartFourExercise(choseninP40)1.a.micro+filmb.bed+raggle+dc.announce+mentd.pre+digest+tione.tele+communicate+tionf.fore+fatherg.psycho+physicsh.machine+ist2.(1)suffix :-botMeaning :robotStemtype :addedtoverbs\nExample:knowbot,”intelligentrobot”3(2)prefix:of-Meaning:officeStemtype:addedtoblendingpartofawordExample:oftel,“officialtelephone”Conclusion:Prefixation:addingaprefixtothebase,withorwithoutachangeofword-class(e.g.:normal---abnormal)(modifythelexicalmeaningofthebase)Suffixation:addingasuffixtothebase,withorwithoutachangeofword-class(e.g.:act---actor)(notmodifythelexicalmeaningofthebase)\nPartTwoConcepts:Morphologyisthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthegrammarthatisconcernedwithwordformationandwordstructure.Wordscanbedividedintotwoclasses:openclassandcloseclass.Openclasswordscanbealsocalledlexicalorcontentwordsandincludenouns,verbs,adjectivesandadverbs.Theyarecalledsobecausenewwordscanbeaddedtotheseclassesregularly.Closedclasswordscanbealsocalledgrammaticalorfunctionalwordsandincludeconjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronouns,determiners,modelverbsandauxiliaryverbs.Thenumberofsuchwordsissmallandstablesincefewnewwordsareadded.Wordisthesmallestfreeformfoundinlanguage.Morphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguagethatcarriesinformationaboutmeaningorfunction.Amorphemewhichcanbeawordbyitselfiscalledafreemorpheme,whereasamorphemethatmustbeattachedtoanotheroneisaboundmorpheme.Derivationalmorphemesarecalledsobecausewhentheyareconjoinedtoothermorphemesorwords,newwordsarederived,orformed.Theynotonlyhaveindependentlexicalmeaningbutalsoaffectivemeaning.Derivationalmorphemesarecommonlysubdividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.\nInflectionalmorphemesareboundmorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkersandsignifysuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon.Anallomorphisoneoftwoormorecomplementarymorphswhichmanifestamorphemeinitsdifferentphonologicalormorphologicalenvironments.Itisamorphemethatisrealizedbymorethanonemorphs.Rootisthebasicunchangeablepartofaword,andcoversthemainlexicalmeaningoftheword.Therefore,rootsarethecoresofEnglishwords.Affixisacollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.Affixes,therefore,areconsideredboundmorphemes.Derivationisanaffixationalprocessthatformsawordwithameaningand/orcategorydistinctfromthatofitsbase.Thatisderivationmaybedefinedasaprocessofformingnewwordsbytheadditionofawordelement,suchasprefix,suffixorcombiningform,toanalreadyexistingword.Compounding,alsocalledcomposition,istheformationofnewwordsbyjoiningtwoormorebases.Itisamainwayofwordformation.Conversionisaword-formationprocesswherebyawordofacertainword-classisshiftedintoawordofanotherword-classwithouttheadditionofanaffix.\nBack-formationisatermusedtorefertoatypeofword-formationbywhichashorterwordiscoinedbythedeletionofasupposedaffixfromalongerformalreadypresentinthelanguage.Back-formationisalsoknownasareversederivationbecauseaderivedformhasprecededthewordfromwhichitisderived.Abbreviationisaminorprocessofwordformation.Itincludesclipping,initialismandblending.Theprocessofclippinginvolvesthedeletionofoneormoresyllablesfromaword(usuallyanoun),whichisalsoavailableinitsfullform.Initialismisatypeofshortening,usingthefirstletterofwordstoformapropername,atechnicalterm,oraphrase;initialismispronouncedletterbyletter.Blendingisaprocessofword-formationinwhichanewwordisformedbycombiningpartsoftwoormorewordsorawordplusapartofanotherword.NeologismistheprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedfromelementsderivedfromLatinandGreek(asintelephone).Themajorityofneoclassicalformationsarescientificandtechnical.Borrowingistheprocessoftakingoverawordfromanotherlanguageandmodifythewordinphonemicshape,spelling,paradigmsormeaningaccordingtothestandardoftheEnglishlanguage.PartThree\nOnStressofCompoundsInchapterthree,welearnedawayofformingnewwordsthatiscompounding,whichiscommonlyusedinpresentEnglish.Statisticsshowthatthereisabout27%compoundwordsinEnglishvocabularyandthenumberisstillincreasing.Nevertheless,howcanwepronouncethemcorrectly?Weallknowthaterrorstresspronunciationincompoundwordswillinfluencetheinitialmeaning.Thus,werefertosomearticlestoexplainthisphenomenonindetail.Asismentionedabove,compoundingisthemostproductivewayofwordformationsinceWorldWarTwo.Acompoundisaunitconsistingoftwoormorebases,suchasbookstore,workingclass,warm-hearted,etc.So,whichbaseshouldweputstresson?Herecomestheproblem,becausedifferentpronunciationcarriesdifferentmeanings.Takingrunningshoesasanexample,ifbothofthetwobasesarestressed,thenitmeansthatshoesarerunning,butifthestressisputonthefirstbase,themeaningwouldbeshoesforrunning.Obviously,theformerpronunciationofrunningshoesisnotmeaningful.However,therearesomecompoundwordsthatmakesenseevenifpronouncedintwoways.Forinstance,smokingroom,ifweread‘smokingroom,itmeanswherepeoplecansmoke,if‘smoking‘room,itmeansaroomwhichisonfire.Therefore,itisrathercomplex.Andthiskindofsituationmostlyhappentowordslikesleeping-car,reading-roomwhichhavethestructureof“-ing+n”.Besides,\nwhenwecomeacrosscompoundwordswhichhavethestructureof“n+n”,usuallyweputstressonthefirstbase,thatis,‘football,‘birthplace,‘tradeschool,‘tablecloth,etc.Webelievethathavingagoodcommandofhowtopronouncecompoundwordscorrectlycanhelpuscommunicateeffectivelywithnativespeakers.