语言学概论 总结

语言学概论 总结

语言学概论总结Chapter1----IntroductionPartOne★Definitionoflanguage★★★Designfeaturesoflanguage★★FunctionsoflanguagePartTwo★Definitionoflinguistics★★Thescopeoflinguistics★★★ImportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsExercises:1）WhichofthefollowingisNOTadistinctivefeatureofhumanlanguage?(2005)A.arbitrariness任意性B.productivityC.culturaltransmissionD.finiteness有限性2）Thedistinctionbetweenparole言语andlangue语言wasmadeby_____.(2006)A.HallidayC.Saussure索绪尔（瑞士语言学家）B.Chomsky乔姆斯基（美国语言学家，转换生成语法的创始人）D.Bloomfield布洛姆菲尔德（美国语言学家教育家）考点：语言流派的主要代表人物、四对概念的区分。3）Languageisatoolofcommunication.Thesymbol“highwayclosed”onahighwayserves_____.(2010)A.anexpressivefunction表达功能B.aninformativefunction信息功能C.aperformativefunction行事/施为功能D.apersuasivefunction劝说功能考点：语言的基本功能。信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能、寒暄功能、娱乐功能。其中最重要的是信息功能。4）Thefunctionofthesentence"Aniceday,isn'tit?"is___.A.informativeB.phatic寒暄功能C.directive指示功能D.performative1.2.1Whatislanguage?P7-8Languagecanbegenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。1）Languageisasystem.Systematic----rule-governed受规则制约的,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules；can’tbecombinedatwill.E.g.*bkli，*Iappleeat.2）Languageisarbitrary.Arbitrary----nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes表示.E.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.3）Languageissymbolic符号的innature.Symbolic----wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideasbyconvention惯例.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”----byShakespeare4）Languageisprimarilyvocal.Vocal----theprimarymedium基本媒介issoundforalllanguages;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.5）Languageishuman-specific.语言是人类特有的Human-specific----differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess.E.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.1.2.2Thedesign/definingfeaturesofhumanlanguage(CharlesHockett):P8-101）Arbitrariness任意性2）Productivity/Creativity创造性3）Duality二重性4）Displacement移位性5）Culturaltransmission文化传递性1）Arbitrariness◎----Nological(motivated有积极性的orintrinsic固有的)connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.◎Somecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.type-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopy…nApes[eɪp]gibber['dʒɪbə].猴子唧唧叫nRoosterscrow.公鸡喔喔叫nHenscluck.母鸡咯咯嗒nChickspeep.小鸡唧唧唧nBullsbellow.Cowsmoo.老牛哞哞哞nDucksquack[kwæk].鸭子嘎嘎嘎nCatsmew.小猫喵喵叫nFrogscroak.青蛙呱呱呱nGoatsbleat.小羊咩咩咩nPigsgrunt.小猪呼噜噜nMicesqueak[skwik].老鼠吱吱叫nDogsbark.小狗汪汪叫◎Animalsmakemuchthesamesoundsaroundtheworld,buteachlanguageexpressesthemdifferently.EnglishandChinesecowssoundthesame,butnotinEnglishandChinese!◎Thearbitrarylinkbetweenalinguisticsign语言符号anditsmeaning,however,isalsoconventional符合习俗的.2)Productivity/Creativity\n◎----Peculiarto是…特有的humanlanguages，usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.◎Languageisresourceful资源丰富的becauseofitsduality二元性anditsrecursiveness[ri'kə:sivnis]递归性.Wecanuseittocreatenewmeanings.◎Wordscanbeusedinnewwaystomeannewthings,andcanbeinstantly立即地understoodbypeoplewhohavenevercomeacross讲得清楚明白thatusagebefore.◎Therecursivenature递归性oflanguageprovidesapotentialtocreateaninfinitenumberofsentences.Forinstance:①Heboughtabookwhichwaswrittenbyateacherwhotaughtinaschoolwhichwasknownforitsgraduateswho...②Thisisthecatthatkilledtheratthatatethemalt麦芽thatlayinthehousethatJackbuilt.3)Duality(doublearticulation)Lowerlevel----sounds(meaningless)Higherlevel----meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)二层性是指拥有两层结构这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。（Lyons,1981)E.g.b-o-o-k(meaninglesssegments:lowerlevel,secondary)→Book(meaningfulunit:higherlevel,primary)Questions:①Canyouthinkofsomeothersystemswiththepropertyofduality?②Whyisthispropertygenerallyassumedascentraltolanguage?③Doesanimallanguagehavethisproperty?●Hierarchy等级制度oflanguage:Thesecondarylevelsounds(meaningless)syllables↓↓Theprimarylevelmorphemes(meaningful)wordsphrasessentences(etc.)4)Displacement----Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent(intimeandspace):realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-away遥远的places.E.g.Agibbon长臂猿neverutters发出acallaboutsomethingheatelastyear.◎Animalcommunicationisnormallyunder“immediatestimuluscontrol”（直接刺激控制）.Forinstance,awarningcryofabirdinstantlyannouncesdanger.◎Humanlanguageisstimulus-free.Whatwearetalkingaboutneednotbetriggeredbyanyexternalstimulus刺激intheworldoranyinternalstate.5)Culturaltransmission◎----Languageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;ratherthanbyinstinct).◎Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.◎Thestoryofawolfchild狼孩,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.1.2.3Functionsoflanguage:P10-121)referential[,refə'renʃ(ə)l](toconveymessageandinformation)(所指功能，即传达信息）2)poetic[pəʊ'etɪk](toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake)（诗学功能，即享受语言自身的乐趣）3)emotive(toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions)（情感功能，即表达态度，感觉和情感）4)conative['kəunətiv](topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandrequests)（意动功能，即通过指令和恳求说服和影响他人）5)phatic['fætɪk](toestablishcommunionwithothers)（寒暄功能，即与他人建立交际）6)metalingual[,metə'liŋɡwəl](toclearupintentionsandmeanings).（元语言功能，弄清意图、词语和意义）注：1）emotive(expressive)function:releasesfeelings.Swearwords骂人话,obscenities猥亵,exclamation惊叹词,involuntaryverbal言语的reactions.2)phaticfunction:Goodmorning.Howareyou?●Halliday哈利迪Hallidayproposesatheoryofmetafunctions元功能思想oflanguage.◎Forexample,thewaysinwhichpeopleaddressothersandrefertothemselves(e.g.DearSir,DearProfessor,Johnny,yours,yourobedientservant敬上)indicatethevariousgradesofinterpersonalrelations.\n1.1WhatisLinguistics语言学?P1◎Thescientificstudyofhumanlanguage◎Aimsoflinguistictheory:Whatisknowledgeoflanguage?(Competence)Howisknowledgeoflanguageacquired?(Acquisition)Howisknowledgeoflanguageputtouse?(Performance/languageprocessing性能/语言处理)1.1.2MainbranchesoflinguisticsP2-3nPhonetics发音/语音学nPhonology音系/音韵学nMorphology形态学■Syntax句法nSemantics语义学nPragmatics语用学●Thescopeoflinguistics1.1.3ImportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsP3-6nDescriptivevs.prescriptivenSynchronicvs.diachronicnSpeechvs.writingnLangue&parolenCompetenceandperformance1)Descriptivevs.prescriptive◎Don'tsayX.Peopledon'tsayX.Thefirstisaprescriptivecommand,whilethesecondisadescriptivestatement.◎Thedistinctionliesin在于prescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.◎Descritptive:thelinguiststriestodiscoverandrecordtherulestowhichthemembersofalargecommunityactuallyconform遵照anddoesnotseektoimposeuponthemotherrulesornormsofcorrectness.◎Prescriptive：thegrammarians文法家triestolaydown制定rulesforthecorrectuseoflanguageandsetthedisputesover就…进行辩论usageonceandforall彻底地.(right/wrong)◎Humorousgrammarrules：⊕Neverendasentencewithapreposition.⊕Anddon'tstartasentencewithaconjunction.⊕Itiswrongtoeversplit分离aninfinitive不定式.⊕Nosentencefragments.2）Synchronicvs.diachronic◎Asynchronicdescriptiontakesafixedinstant(usually,butnotnecessarily,thepresent)asitspointofobservation.Mostgrammarsareofthiskind.◎Diachroniclinguisticsisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.◎Synchronicstudy共时性研究----descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(modernlinguistics)◎Diachronicstudy历时性研究----descriptionofalanguagethroughtime(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)3）Speechvs.writing◎Speech----primarymediumoflanguage◎Writing----laterdeveloped4）Langue语言vs.parole言语(F.deSaussure)◎Langue----theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.◎Parole----therealizationoflangueinactualuse.◎Saussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.5)Competenceandperformance(Chomsky)◎Competence----theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage\n◎Performance----theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication◎Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.6)Traditionalgrammarvsmodernlinguistics◎Traditionalgrammar----prescriptive,written,Latin-basedframework◎Modernlinguistics-----descriptive,spoken,notnecessarilyLatin-basedframework●ExercisesforChapter11.Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarforitismostly_________.A.prescriptiveB.descriptiveC.subjectiveD.Latin-based2.Alinguistregardsthechangesinlanguageandlanguageuseas________.A.abnormalB.somethingtobefeared      C.natural       D.unnatural3.Ofthe“words”listedbelow,_____isnotanEnglishword.A.[spin]    B.[lkbi]    C.[strikt]    D.[desk]4.Thestudyoflanguagedevelopmentatsomepointintimeisgenerallytermedas___________linguistics.A.comparative比较的    B.applied    C.synchronic    D.diachronic5.Whichofthefollowingwordsisentirelyarbitrary?A.bang    B.photo    C.typewriter    D.rumble6.Modernlinguisticsgiveprioritytospeechbecause_____________.A.speechsoundsarederivedfromwritingsystems.B.Thespokenformismorebasicthanthewrittenform.C.WritingprecedesspeechinEnglishlanguage.D.Allthelanguagestodayhavebothspokenandwrittenforms.7.Whichofthefollowingstatementsisnottheconcernofsociolinguists?A.Thelanguageapersonusesrevealshissocialbackground.B.Thereexistsocialnormsthatdeterminethetypeoflanguagetobeusedonacertainoccasion.C.Howdoesthehumanmindworkwhentheyuselanguage.D.Toinvestigatethesocialaspectsoflanguage.8.Languageis___________inthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.A.systematic    B.culturallytransmitted    C.intuitive 凭直觉获知的    D.productive9.___________studiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesthatgoverntheirformation.A.Phonology B.Semantics C.Syntax D.Morphology10.Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalled____________linguistics.A.general     B.applied      B.generative     D.particular11.Thefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustrationofthe___________natureoflanguage.A.productive    B.dual    C.arbitrary   D.displacing12.Whichofthefollowingisnotamajorbranchoflinguistics?A.phonetics    B.phonology    C.speech    D.syntax13.Theapplicationoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplestolanguageteachingis______________.A.computationallinguistics B.anthropologicallinguisticsC.mathematicallinguistics   D.appliedlinguistics14.Modernlinguisticsregardsthewrittenlanguageas____________.A.primary　B.correctC.secondary　D.stable15.Inmodernlinguistics,speechisregardedasmorebasicthanwriting,because___________.A.inlinguisticevolution,speechispriortowritingB.speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.C.speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongueD.Alloftheabove16.Ahistoricalstudyoflanguageisa____studyoflanguage.A.synchronicB.diachronicC.prescriptiveD.comparative17.Saussuretooka(n)__________viewoflanguage,whileChomskylooksatlanguagefroma________pointofview.A.sociological,psychologicalB.psychological,sociologicalC.applied,pragmaticD.semanticandlinguistic18.AccordingtoF.deSaussure,____referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.A.parole   B.performanceC.langue   D.Language19.Thedetailsofanylanguagesystemispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextthrough____,ratherthanbyinstinct.A.learningB.teachingC.booksD.bothAandBChapter2----Phonetics发音/语音学\nObjectives(教学目的):●Todrawyourattentiontotheareasofthephoneticstudy.●ToassistyoutoknowmoreabouttheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)国际音标.●TohelpfamiliarizeyouwiththefactorsinvolvedindescribingEnglishconsonantsandvowels.2.1ThephonicmediumoflanguageP141.Whatisthedifferencebetween“thephonicmediumoflanguage”and“thespeechsounds”?①Thephonicmediumoflanguagereferstothelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunication.语言的声音媒介②Thespeechsoundsrefertotheindividualsoundswithintherangeofthephonicmediumoflanguage.Thephonicmediumoflanguage≈FamilyThespeechsounds≈Familymembers2.Whyisspeechconsideredmorebasicthanwriting?①Statistically,speechexistsineverylanguagewhilenowrittenformexistsintwothirdsofthe5000languagesintheworld.②Historically,speechcameintobeingmuchearlierthanwriting.③Functionally,writingisinventedtorecordspeech.④Individually,speechisacquiredbeforewriting.2.2PhoneticsP151.Whatisphonetics?①Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.(LongmanDictionaryofLanguageTeachingandAppliedLinguistics)②Phoneticsisthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,thatis,allthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.2.Discusstherelationshipbetweenarticulatoryphonetics,auditoryphoneticsandacousticphoneticsintermsoftheprocessofhumanlinguisticcommunication.2.2.2OrgansofspeechP15-171.Whatorgansareinvolvedinproducinglanguage?2.Howarespeechsoundsproduced?◎Humanvocaltract声道isjustlikea(extremelyflexible)mmusicalinstrument!◎Thehumanvocaltractcanberapidlyreshapedinmanydifferentwaystotakeondifferentresonating产生共鸣的properties.◎Theeffectofthisistocreatethevarietyofdifferentsoundsinhumanspeech.3.Thediagramofspeechorgans:1)Lips2)Teeth3)Teethridge(alveolar)齿龈4)Hardpalate硬腭5)Softpalate(velum)软腭6)Uvula['ju:vjulə]小舌7)Tipoftongue舌尖8)Bladeoftongue舌面1.9Glottal.)Backoftongue舌背10)Vocalcords声带11)Pharyngealcavity咽喉12)Nasalcavity鼻腔2.2.3Orthographicrepresentation正视表示法ofspeechsounds—broadandnarrowtranscriptions宽式和严式转写P17-181.WhataremainprinciplesoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)?①Thereshouldbeaseparateletterforeachdistinctivesound.②Thesamesymbolshouldbeusedforthatsoundinanylanguageinwhichitappears.2.Whatisthedifferencebetweennarrowtranscription(严式转写)andbroadtranscription(宽式转写)?1)Broadtranscriptionisregardedasphonemic\ntranscription（音位转写）.Itiswidelyusedintextbooksanddictionaries.Examples:/stop//top//plein/2)Narrowtranscriptionisregardedasphonetictranscription（语音转写）.Itisusedtodistinguishsmalldifferenceinspeechproduction.Examples:[pʰat]vs.[spat]for"pot"vs."spot"★Narrowtranscription=broadtranscription+diacritics[,daɪə'krɪtɪk]变音符号BroadtranscriptionNarrowtranscriptionlips/lɪps/[lɪps]slip/slɪp/[slɪp]pills/pɪlz/[pʰɪɫz]spill/spɪl/[spɪɫ]1)Broadtranscription----usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose,withoutdiacritics，e.g.clear[l],[pit]2)Narrowtranscription----usedbyphonetician语言学者forcarefulstudy,withdiacritics，e.g.dark[l],aspirated[pʰ]2.2.4ClassificationofEnglishspeechsoundsP18-221.----Englishspeechsoundsaregenerallyclassifiedintotwolargecategories:①Vowels②Consonants2.Whatisthedifferencebetweenaconsonantandavowel?3、ClassificationofconsonantsP19-20----Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtothreedimensions三维:1）Themannerofarticulation2）Theplaceofarticulation3）Voicing1）Themannerofarticulation发音方法：①stops/plosives塞音②fricatives擦音③affricates塞擦音④liquids流音⑤nasals鼻音⑥glides/semivowels滑音2）Theplaceofarticulation发音部位：①bilabial双唇音的②labiodental唇齿音的③dental齿音的④alveolar齿龈音的⑤palatal硬腭音的⑥velar软颚音的⑦glottal喉音的1.Bilabial2.Labiodental3.Dentalorinterdental4.Alveolar5.Palatoalveolar6.Palatal7.Velar8.Uvular9.Glottal4.ThedescriptionofEnglishconsonants:1、Whatarethe5majorfactorsinvolvedindescribingvowels?1)Thepositionofthetongueinthemouth2)Theopennessofthemouth.3)Theshapeofthelips.4)Thelengthofthevowel5)ThetonguemovementExamples:[ei]→adiphthong双元音[i:]→closefrontlong/tenseunroundedvowel(amonophthong单元音)2、ClassificationofvowelsP20-22----Englishvowelscanbedividedintotwolargecategories:1）Monophthongsorpure/singlevowels2）Diphthongsorglidingvowels◎FrontVowels,centralvowelsandbackvowels：Accordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighestintheprocessofproduction,thevowelscanbedistinguishedas:\nFrontvowels:/i:/,/i/,/e/,/æ/,/ɑ/Centralvowels:/Λ/,/ə/,/ə:/Backvowels:/α:/,/כ/,/כ:/,/u/,/u:/◎Accordingtotheopennessofthemouth：Close:/i:/,/i/,/u/,/u:/Semi-close半闭:/e/,/ə:/Semi-open:/ə/,/כ:/Open:/כ/,/æ/,/ɑ/,/Λ/,/α:/3、ThedescriptionofEnglishvowelsneedstofulfillfourbasicrequirements:1）Theopennessofthemouth(close,semi-close,semi-open,open)2）thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back)3）thelengthofthevowel(longvs.short/tensevs.lax)4）lip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded).◎WecannowdescribetheEnglishvowelsinthisway:[i:]closefrontlong/tenseunroundedvowel[u]closebackshort/laxroundedvowel[ə]semi-opencentralshort/laxunroundedvowel[ɔ]openbackshort/laxroundedvowel4、Underlinethewordsthatcontainthesoundasrequired:2.3Phonology音系学P22-29Phonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thatis,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.1、Phonetics发音学andPhonology音系学⊕Bothdealwithspeechsounds⊕Phonetics:dealswithphysicalproperties物理性质ofspeechsounds(howtheyareproduced,thephoneticfeatures,classification)⊕Phonology:dealswiththeorganizationofspeechsoundsinaparticularlanguage2、Phone音素Aphone----aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon’t,e.g.[ɑːnsə],[ænsər].由于不同的音素是从肺中压出的气流在通过口腔的不同形状和舌头的不同位置时用送气的不同方法形成的，鉴定音素的性质时，就必须考虑发音的方式和发音的位置。由于英语的字母数量有限，语音学便制定了一套专门的标音符号来标定语音或音位，如[θ]音素、/θ/音位、等等。3、Phoneme音位⊕Aphoneme----isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyin[pɔt],[tɔp]and[spʰɔt].⊕[pʰ],[p]donotcausedifferenceinmeaning.4、Languagedifferintheselectionofcontrastivesounds.5、Allophone音位变体⊕Allophones----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.⊕E.g.phone[p]inspit&phone[pʰ]inpitareallophonesofthesamephoneme/p/⊕(谈及allophone必须以某个phoneme为参照物)⊕Oneofasetofnon-distinctive非区别性的realizationsofthesamephoneme.\n⊕Correspondstosomethingphysicalproducedbyaspeaker⊕E.g.[th]isanallophoneof/t/.6、Freevariantsandfreevariation(自由变体)Thedifferencemaybecausedbydialectorpersonalhabit,insteadofanydistributionrule.E.g.either/ai/i:/direction/ai/i/7、Principlesusedfordistinguishorassimilate吸收/使同化phonemes：1）Phonemiccontrast(音位对立原则)2）Complementarydistribution(互补分布原则)3）Minimalpair(最小对立体)1）Phonemiccontrast①Phoneticallysimilarsoundsmightberelatedintwoways.②Iftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,theyaresaidtoformaphonemiccontrast.E.g.[pit]vs.[bit]2）Iftheyareallophonesofthesamephoneme,thentheydonotdistinguishmeaning,butcomplementeachotherindistribution.Sotheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.E.g.Clear[l]alwaysoccursbeforeavowel.Dark[l]alwaysoccursbetweenavowelandaconsonant,orattheendofaword.3）MinimalpairMinimalpair----whentwodifferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.当两个或两个以上意义不等的语音组合(即语言单位)仅仅在一个语音上显示出差异时，这两个或两个以上的语音组合便构成最小对立体。E.g.beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.tale,tile,tool,toll,…Example：{tip:dip}；{sip:zip}；{pat:bat:mat}a.彼此的语音数量相等b.彼此的意义不同c.彼此仅存在一个语音的差异d.语音差异出现在同一位置上Summary：morphologically：{tip:dip}↓↓phonetically：[t][d]↓↓Designfeatures：-VOICE+VOICE8、Somerulesofphonology1）Sequentialrules序列原则2）Assimilationrule同化原则3）Deletionrule省略原则◎Tasksofthephonologists：Tofindouttherulesgoverningthechoiceofanallophone.Toidentifythephnemesofalanguage.Tofindoutinwhatwaysthephonemescanbecombined.1)Sequentialrules⊕----therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.inEnglish,“kbiI”mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.⊕Ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.⊕Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogether集中atthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.a)  thefirstphonememustbe/s/,b)  thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,c)  thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.⊕[ŋ]neveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishandstandardChinese,butitdoesoccurinsomedialects,e.g.inCantonese广东话:“牛肉，我，俄语……”2)Assimilationrule⊕----assimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar,e.g.theprefixin-ispronounceddifferentlywhenindifferentphoneticcontexts:⊕indiscreetalveolar⊕inconceivablevelar⊕inputbilabial⊕capvs.can3)Deletionrule⊕----ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm['pærədaɪm]范例,thereisno[g]sound;butthe[g]soundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation[,deziɡ'neiʃən],paradigmatic范例的.9、Suprasegmentalfeatures（超切分特征）⊕----thephonemic音位/音素的featuresthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):1)stress2)tone3)intonation1)Stress:Wordstress、Sentencestress2）Tone：Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Englishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.ma妈(level)ma麻(thesecondrise)ma马(thethirdrise)ma骂(thefourthfall)\n3）Intonation⊕Whenpitch音高,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.⊕Englishhasthreetypesofintonationthataremostfrequentlyused:•fallingtone(matteroffactstatement)•risingtone(doubtsorquestion)•thefall-risetone(impliedmessage)Forinstance,“That’snotthebookhewants.”⊕Grammaticalfunctionsofintonations：----Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,esp.inEnglish.a)Itmayindicatedifferentsentencetypesbypitchdirection.b)Itmayimposedifferentstructuresonthesentencebydividingitintodifferentintonationunits,e.g.“Johndidn’tcomebecauseofMarry”Withinoneintonationunit,itmeans:Johncame,butithadnothingtodowithMarry.Withtwointonationunits,itmeans:MarrywasthereasonwhyJohndidn’tcome.c)Itcanmakeacertainpartofasentenceespeciallyprominentbyplacingnucleus核心onite.g.Jackcameyesterdaybytrain.d)Itsattitudinalfunctions.Fallingtone----matter-of-factstatement,downrightassertion,commands.Risingtone----politeness,encouragement,pleading.Note:thesecanonlybeverygeneralindications.Thespecificattitudinalmeaningofanintonationpatternmustbeinterpretedwithinacontext.●ExercisesforChapter2:Ⅰ、Underlinethewordsthatbeginwithasoundasrequired.⊕Abilabialconsonant:madsadbadcadpadhadlad⊕Avelarconsonant:nodgodcodpodrod⊕Labiodentalconsonant:ratfatsatmatchatvatpat⊕Analveolarconsonant:nicklicksicktickkickquick⊕Apalatalconsonant:sipshiptipchiplipzip⊕Adentalconsonant:liebuythighthytierye⊕Aglide:onewaryolkrushⅡ、Underlinethewordsthatendwithasoundasrequired:⊕Africative：payhorsetoughricebreathpushsingwreathehangcavemessage⊕Anasal：trainbangleaflimb⊕Astop：drillpipefitcrabfogridelaughrackthroughTip⊕Anaffricate:racksuchridgeboozeⅢ、Describetheunderlinedconsonantsaccordingtothreedimensions:（vd/vl，place，manner）LetterBrotherSunnyHopperLodgerCallingSingingRobbereitherⅣ、Markthebestchoice：1、Ofallthespeechorgans,the_______is/arethemostflexible.A.mouthB.lipsC.tongueD.vocalcords2、Thesoundsproducedwithoutthevocalcordsvibratingare____sounds.A.voicelessB.voicedC.vowelD.consonantal3、__________isavoicedalveolarstop.A./z/B./d/C./k/D./b/4、Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophones____________.A.identicalB.sameC.exactlyalikeD.similar5、Since/p/and/b/arephoneticallysimilar,occurinthesameenvironmentsandtheycandistinguishmeaning,theyaresaidtobe___________.A.inphonemiccontrastB.incomplementarydistributionC.theallophonesD.minimalpair6、Thesound/f/is_________________.A.voicedpalatalaffricateB.voicedalveolarstopC.voicelessvelarfricativeD.voicelesslabiodentalfricative7、A____vowelisonethatisproducedwiththefrontpartofthetonguemaintainingthehighestposition.A.backB.centralC.frontD.middle8、A(n)___________isaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit,acollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.A.phoneB.soundC.allophoneD.phoneme9、Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledthe____ofthatphoneme.A.phonesB.soundsC.phonemesD.allophonesⅤ、TrueorFalse1.VoicingisaphonologicalfeaturethatdistinguishesmeaninginbothChineseandEnglish.2.Iftwophoneticallysimilarsoundsoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.3.Aphoneisaphoneticunitthatdistinguishesmeaning.\n4.EnglishisatonelanguagewhileChineseisnot.5.Inlinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.6.Ineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.7.Articulatoryphoneticstriestodescribethephysicalpropertiesofthestreamofsoundswhichaspeakerissueswiththehelpofamachinecalledspectrograph.8.Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantareas:thethroat,themouthandthechest.9.Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalledvoicing.10.Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintermsofplaceofarticulationandthepartofthetonguethatisraisedthehighest.11.Accordingtothemannerofarticulation,someofthetypesintowhichtheconsonantscanbeclassifiedarestops,fricatives,bilabialandalveolar.12.Vowelsoundscanbedifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors:thepositionoftongueinthemouth,theopennessofthemouth,theshapeofthelips,andthelengthofthevowels.13.Accordingtotheshapeofthelips,vowelscanbeclassifiedintoclosevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowelsandopenvowels.14.Anysoundproducedbyahumanbeingisaphoneme.15.Phonesarethesoundsthatcandistinguishmeaning.16.Phonologyisconcernedwithhowthesoundscanbeclassifiedintodifferentcategories.17.Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotherresultsinachangeofmeaning.18.Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaphonemiccontrast.19.Therulesgoverningthephonologicalpatterningarelanguagespecific.20.Distinctivefeaturesofsoundsegmentscanbefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.Ⅵ、Fillinblanks21.A_______referstoastrongpuffofairstreamintheproductionofspeechsounds.22.A_______phoneticsdescribesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.23.Thefoursounds/p/,/b/,/m/and/w/haveonefeatureincommon,i.e.,theyareallb_______sounds.24.Ofallthespeechorgans,thet_______isthemostflexible,andisresponsibleforvarietiesofarticulationthananyother.25.Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintermsofmannerofarticulationorintermsofp_______ofarticulation.26.Whentheobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproducedwiththeobstructionaudiblyreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledas________.27.S_________featuresarethephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.Theyincludestress,tone,intonation,etc.28.Therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalleds_______rules.29.Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithletter-symbolsonlyiscalledbroadtranscriptionwhilethetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacriticsiscalledn_________transcription.30.Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasi_________.31.P___________isadisciplinewhichstudiesthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguageandhowsoundsarecombinedintomeaningfulunitstoeffectlinguisticcommunication.32.Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantcavities:thepharyngealcavity,theo_______cavityandthenasalcavity.33.T_______arepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcordsandwhichcandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.34.Dependingonthecontextinwhichstressisconsidered,therearetwokindsofstress:wordstressands_________stress.