语言学重点总结

语言学重点总结

Chapter6Cognitionisthementalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingaspectssuchasawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgment.Thereexistthreeapproachestothestudyoflanguageandcognition:theformalapproach,thepsychologicalapproachandtheconceptualapproach.TheFormalapproachbasicallyaddressesthestructuralpatternsexhibitedbytheovertaspectoflinguisticforms,largelyabstractedawayfromorregardedasautonomousfromanyassociatedmeaning.ThePsychologicalapproachlooksatlanguagefromtheperspectiveofrelativelygeneralcognitivesystemsrangingfromperception,memory,andattentiontoreasoning.Theconceptualapproachisconcernedwiththepatternsinwhichandtheprocessesbywhichconceptualcontentisorganizedinlanguage.Structurewillbeusedtoreferbothtopatternsandtoprocess,theconceptualapproachcanmoresimplybesaidtoaddresshowlanguagestructuresconceptualcontent.Psycholinguisticsisthestudyofpsychologicalaspectsoflanguage;itusuallystudiesthepsychologicalstatesandmentalactivitiesassociatedwiththeuseoflanguage.Sixaspectsofresearchwithinpsycholinguistics:①Acquisition②Comprehension③Production④Disorders⑤Languageandthought⑥NeurocognitionLanguageacquisition:①Holophrasticstage②Two-wordstage③Stageofthree-wordutterances④FluentgrammaticalconversationstageConnectionisminpsycholinguisticsclaimsthatreadersusethesamesystemoflinksbetweenspellingunitsandsoundunitstogeneratepronunciationsofwrittenwordsliketoveandtoaccessthepronunciationsoffamiliarwordslikestove,orwordsthatareexceptionstothesepatterns,likelove.Languagecomprehension:①wordrecognition②comprehensionofsentences③comprehensionoftextCohortmodel:thefirstfewphonemesofaspokenwordactivateasetorcohortofwordcandidatesthatareconsistentwiththeinput.Interactivemodelholdsthathigherprocessinglevelshaveadirect,“top-down”influenceonlowerlevels.Theracemodeldoesnotagree“top-down”effects,ithastworoutesthatraceeachother----apre-lexicalroute,whichcomputesphonologicalinformationfromtheacousticsignal,andalexicalroute,inwhichthephonologicalinformationassociatedwithawordbecomesavailablewhentheworditselfisaccessed.Serialmodelsproposethatthesentencecomprehensionsystemcontinuallyandsequentiallyfollowstheconstraintsofalanguage’sgrammarwithremarkablespeed.Parallelmodelsemphasizethatthecomprehensionsystemissensitivetoavastrangeofinformation,includinggrammatical,lexicalandcontextual,aswellasknowledgeofthespeaker/writerandoftheworldingeneral.Inresonancemodel,informationinlong-termmemoryisautomaticallyactivatedbythepresenceofmaterialthatapparentlybearsaroughsemanticrelationtoit.Languageproduction:①Accesstowords②Generationofsentences③Written6\nlanguageproductionFunctionalplanningprocessassignsgrammaticalfunctionssuchassubject,verbordirectobject.Positionalencodingusestheretrievedlexicon-grammarunitsandthefunctionstheyhavebeenassignedtogeneratesyntacticstructuresthatcapturethedependenciesamongconstituentsandtheirorder.Cognitivelinguisticsisbasedonhumanexperiencesoftheworldandthewaytheyperceiveandconceptualizetheworld.Construalistheabilitytoconceiveandportraythesamesituationinalternatewaysthroughspecificity,differentmentalscanning,directionality,vantagepoint,figure-groundsegregationetc.Construaloperationsaretheunderlyingpsychologicalprocessedandresourcesemployedintheinterpretationoflinguisticexpressions.①Attention/Salience②Judgment/Comparison③Perspective/SituatednessTrajectorreferstoadynamicfigureandlandmarktothegroundofamovingfigure.Deixisinvolveslinguisticformsthatpointatsomethingfromthespeechsituation.Categorizationistheprocessofclassifyingourexperiencesintodifferentcategoriesbasedoncommonalitiesanddifferences.Therearethreelevelsincategories:①thebasiclevel②thesuperordinatelevel③thesubordinatelevelThecategoriesatthebasiclevelarethosethataremostculturallysalientandarerequiredtofulfillourcognitiveneedsthebest.Superordinatecategoriesarethemostgeneralones.Themembersofasuperordinatecategorydonothaveenoughfeaturesincommontoconjureupacommongestaltatthislevel.Imageschemaisarecurring,dynamicpatternofourperceptualinteractionsandmotorprogramsthatgivescoherenceandstructuretoourexperience.①Acenter-peripheryschema:Itinvolvesaphysicalormetaphoricalcoreandedge,anddegreesofdistancefromthecore②Acontainmentschema:Itisanimageschemathatinvolvesaphysicalprmetaphoricalboundary,enclosedareaorvolume,orexcludedareaorvolume.③Acycleschema:Itinvolvesrepetitiouseventsandeventseries.④Aforceschema:Itinvolvesphysicalormetaphoricalcausalinteraction.⑤Alinkschema:Itconsistsoftwoormoreentities,connectedphysicallyormetaphorically,andtheboundbetweenthem.⑥Apart-wholeschema:Itinvolvesphysicalormetaphoricalwholesalongwiththeirpartsandaconfigurationoftheparts.⑦Apathschema:Itinvolvesphysicalormetaphoricalmovementfromplacetoplace,andconsistsofastartingpoint,agoal,andaseriesofintermediatepoints.⑧Ascaleschema:Itinvolvesanincreaseordecreaseofphysicalormetaphoricalamount.⑨Averticalityschema:Itinvolves“up”and“down”relations.Metaphorinvolvesthecomparisonoftwoconceptsinthatoneisconstruedintermsoftheother.Thetargetdomainistheexperiencebeingdescribedbythemetaphorandthesourcedomainisthemeansthatweuseinordertodescribetheexperience.Threecategoriesofconceptualmetaphors:ontologicalmetaphors,structural6\nmetaphors,andorientationalmetaphors.Ontologicalmetaphormeansthathumanexperienceswithphysicalobjecetsprovidethebasisforwaysofviewingevents,activities,emotions,ideas,etc.,asentitiesandsubstances.Structuralmetaphorplaystheimportantrolebecauseitallowsustogobeyondorientationandreferringandgivesusthepossibilitytostructureoneconceptaccordingtoanother.Orientationalmetaphorgivesaconceptaspatialorientation.Theyarecharacterizednotsomuchbystructuringoneconceptintermsofanother,butbyaco-occurrenceinourexperience.Metonymyisdefinedasacognitiveprocessinwhichthevehicleprovidesmentalprocesstothetargetwithinthesamedomain.WehavethreeICMsinontologicalrealms:①SignICMs②ReferenceICMs③ConceptICMsBlendingtheoryorintegrationtheoryisacognitiveoperationwherebyelementsoftwoormore“mentalspaces”areintegratedviaprojectionintoanew,blendedspacewhichhasitsuniquestructure.Chapter7Language,CultureandSocietyContextofsituation:A.Therelevantfeaturesoftheparticipants:persons,personalitiesⅰ.Theverbalactionoftheparticipants.ⅱ.Thenon-verbalactionoftheparticipants.B.Therelevantobjects.C.Theeffectsoftheverbalaction.Ethnographyofcommunication:anauthoritativeresearchframeworkofourtimeinalinguisticstudyofsocialandculturalfactors.Theessentialelementssuggestedbythisframeworkinclude①speechcommunity②situation,eventandact③mnemonicspeakingcomponents.Sapir-WhorfHypothesis:ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressouruniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.Followingthisargument,twoimportantpointscouldbecapturedinthistheory.Ontheonehand,languagemaydetermineourthinkingpatterns;ontheother,similaritybetweenlanguagesisrelative.Linguisticdeterminism:oneofthetwopointsinSapir-Whorfhypothesis,i.e.languagedeterminesthought.Linguisticrelativity:oneofthetwopointsinSapir-Whorfhypothesis,i.e.there’snolimittothestructuraldiversityoflanguages.Duringcross-culturalcommunication,therearefivetypesofsub-cultureweshouldbefullyawareof:①ecologicalculture②linguisticculture③religiousculture④materialculture⑤socialcultureLinguisticuniversalityisthesimilaritiespossessedbymostlanguages,insteadoftheirassumeddifferences.6\nThereareatleastthreeobjectivesforustoteachcultureinourlanguageclass:1.Togetthestudentsfamiliarwithculturaldifferences2.Togetthestudentstranscendtheirowncultureandseethingsasthemembersofthetargetculturewill3.ToemphasizetheinseparabilityofunderstandinglanguageandunderstandingculturethroughvariousclassroompracticesSocialfactorsofinfluencingourlanguagebehaviorinasocialcontext:a)classb)genderc)aged)ethnicidentitye)educationbackgroundf)occupationg)religiousbeliefWomenregister’sfeatures:1)Womenusemore“fancy”colorwordssuchas“mauve”and“beige”2)Womenuselesspowerfulcursewords3)Womenusemoreintensifierssuchas“terrible”and“awful”4)Womenusemoretagquestions5)Womenusemorestatementquestionslike“Dinnerwillbereadyatseveno’clock?”(witharisingintonationattheend)6)Women’slinguisticbehaviorismoreindirectand,hence,morepolitethanmen’s.Linguisticsexism:manydifferencesbetweenmenandwomeninlanguageusearebroughtaboutbynothinglessthanwomen’splaceinsociety.Sociolinguisticsoflanguage:oneofthetwothingsinsociolinguistics,inwhichwewanttolookatstructuralthingsbypayingattentiontopotentialsocioculturalfactorsinasocialcontext.Sociolinguisticsofsociety:oneofthetwothingsinsociolinguistics,inwhichwetrytounderstandsociologicalthingsofsocietybyexamininglinguisticphenomenaofaspeakingcommunity.Communicativecompetence:aspeaker’sknowledgeofthetotalsetofrules,conventions,etc.governingtheskilleduseoflanguageinasociety.Sociolinguisticshasmadesomeimportantcontributions:1.Sociolinguisticshascontributedtoachangeofemphasisinthecontentoflanguageteaching2.Ithasalsocontributedtoinnovationsinmaterialsandactivitiesfortheclassroom3.Ithascontributedtoafreshlookatthenatureoflanguagedevelopmentanduse4.IthascontributedtoamorefruitfulresearchinthisfieldTripartitemodelforsuccessfulcommunication:1.trytolookatthingsfromotherpersons’pointofview2.trytosensetheirfeelingtoagivenissue3.trytounderstandingtheirwayofknowingtheworldGenderdifference:adifferenceinaspeechbetweenmenandwomenis“genderdifference”Variationistlinguistics:abranchoflinguistics,whichstudiestherelationshipbetweenspeakers’socialstartsandphonologicalvariations.Chapter8LanguageinUse6\nPerformative:anutterancebywhichaspeakerdoessomethingdoessomething,asapposedtoaconstative,bywhichmakesastatementwhichmaybetrueorfalse.Constative:anutterancebywhichaspeakerexpressesapropositionwhichmaybetrueorfalse.Locutionaryact:theactofsayingsomething;it’sanactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexicon,andphonology.Namely,theutteranceofasentencewithdeterminatesenseandreference.Illocutionaryact:theactperformedinsayingsomething;itsforceisidenticalwiththespeaker’sintention.Perlocutionaryact:theactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething,it’stheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.Conversationalimplicature:theextrameaningnotcontainedintheliteralutterances,understandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximsofthecooperativeprinciple.Cooperativeprinciple:Quantity1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange).2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.QualityTrytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue.1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse;2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.RelevanceBerelevant.MannerBeperspicuous.1.Avoidobscurityofexpression2.Avoidambiguity3.bebrief(avoidprolixity)4.Beorderly.Entailment:relationbetweenpropositionsoneofwhichnecessarilyfollowsfromtheother:e.g.“Maryisrunning”entails,amongotherthings,“Maryisnotstandingstill”.Ostensivecommunication:acompletecharacterizationofcommunicationisthatitisostensive-inferential.Communicativeprincipleofrelevance:everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.Relevance:apropertythatanyutterance,orapropositionthatitcommunicates,must,inthenatureofcommunication,necessarilyhave.Q-principle:oneofthetwoprinciplesinHorn’sscale,i.e.Makeyourcontributionsufficient(ofquantity1);Sayasmuchasyoucan(givenR).R-principle:oneofthetwoprinciplesinHorn’sscale,i.e.Makeyourcontributionnecessary(Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Saynomorethanyoumust(givenQ).6\nDivisionofpragmaticlabor:theuseofamarkedrelativelycomplexand/orexpressionwhenacorrespondingunmarked(simpler,less“effortful”)alternateexpressionisavailabletendstobeinterpretedasconveyingamarkedmessage(onewhichtheunmarkedalternativewouldnotorcouldnothaveconveyed).ConstraintsonHornscales:thehearer-basedQ-Principleisasufficiencyconditioninthesensethatinformationprovidedisthemostthespeakerisableto.Chapter12Schoolsofmodernlinguistics:ThePragueSchool,TheLondonSchool,AmericanStructuralism,Transformational-GenerativeGrammar.ThreepointsofPragueSchool:1.Itwasstressedthatthesynchronicstudyoflanguageisfullyjustifiedasitcandrawoncompleteandcontrollablematerialforinvestigationbutnorigidtheoreticalbarrieriserectedtoseparatediachronicstudy.2.Therewasanemphasisonthesystemiccharacteroflanguage.3.Languagewaslookedonasfunctionalinanothersense,thatis,asatoolperforminganumberofessentialfunctionsortasksforthecommunityusingit.Trubetzkoy’scontributionstophonologicaltheory:1.Heshoweddistinctivefunctionsofspeechsoundsandgaveanaccuratedefinitionforthephoneme.2.Bymakingdistinctionsbetweenphoneticsandphonology,andbetweenstylisticphonology,hedefinedthesphereofphonologicalstudies.3.Bystudyingthesyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsbetweenphonemes,herevealedtheinterdependentrelationsbetweenphonemes.4.Heputforwardasetofmethodologiesforphonologicalstudies,suchasthemethodofextractingphonemesandthemethodofstudyingphonologicalcombinations.FunctionalSentencePerspectiveisatheoryoflinguisticanalysiswhichreferstoananalysisofutterancesintermsoftheinformationtheycontain.6