《语言与语言学》

《语言与语言学》

《语言与语言学》主讲人：张兴双向视频课第二讲\nUnit3TheSymbolicNatureofLanguageActivity1Words,ThingsandWorldsActivity2AnAnatomyofWordActivity3TwoFundamentalRelationsinLanguage\n学习目标：tellaniconfromasignunderstandwhatasymbolisunderstandthetwofundamentalrelationsinlanguagestructure\nActivity1Words,ThingsandWorldsTellaniconfromasign(P.80-84)Tellasignfromasymbol(P.85)Triadicrelations(P.86-87)Therearethreeworlds:thematerialworld,thesubjectiveworldandthesymbolicworld;wordsrefertothingsfoundinthethreeworlds.(P.87)\nTellaniconfromasign(P.80-84)aniconrelatedtothethingitstandsforbyresemblance.asignrelatedtothethingitstandsforbyagreementorconvention.\nTellasignfromasymbol(P.85)Asymbolstandsforthingswithoutconsciousagreementorconvention,whereasasignrelatedtothethingitstandsforbyagreementorconvention.Asymbolhaspronunciation,whereasasignhasnot.Asymbol’smeaningcannotbechanged,whereasasign’smeaningcan.\nTriadicrelations(P.86-87)Wordsrelatedtothingsbythemindthatunderstandsthem.Thetermfor“thethingawordstandsfor”isreferent.请参考第86页到第87页的示意图学习，要求能够填出示意图的内容。\nTheThreeWorlds(P.87)Thingsinthisworldcanbesensedbyourfivesenseorgans.Thatis,theycanbeseen,touched,smelled,heardandtasted.Weknowtheyaretherebecausewecanseeitandotherpeoplecanalsoseeit.Thisworldisalsocalledamaterialworld.\nTheThreeWorlds(P.87)Thereisasubjectiveworld.Itconsistsofthingslikefeelings,attitudes,beliefs,values,motives,andintentions.Thesethingsareinsideus.Theycannotbeknownbyothersunlessweexpressthembylanguageandspeakthemout.Theycannotbeverifiedbyotherpeopleindependentfromourownconsciousness.\nTheThreeWorlds(P.87)Furthermore,thereisathirdsymbolicworld,thatis,theworldartificiallyconstructedbysymbols.Forexample,whatiswritteninbooksispartofthesymbolicworld.Starwars,mysteries,andfables,andsoononlyexistinthesymbolicworld.\nTheThreeWorlds(P.87)从以上的定义中我们可以看出判定事物是否属于物质世界的标准是看它是否能被我们的五官感受到。判定事物是否属于主观世界的标准是看它是否属于感情、态度、信仰、价值、动机和企图等的范畴；而判定事物是否属于象征世界的标准是看它是否是用符号（如语言）人工构建的。\nTheThreeWorlds(P.87)这一部分的掌握标准是能够判断出给出事例属于哪个世界，并且能够填出象89、90页那样的三元关系示意图中的指代物部分。注意模仿书上示例的句型结构。\nActivity2AnAnatomyofWordWhatmakesawordaword?(P.92-100)Theanalysisof“Figure1”onP.97\nWhatmakesawordaword?(P.92-100)王玲和史第文的辩论都是偏激的。无论文字的笔画（拼写）还是文字的发音都不可能使文字成为文字。\nWhatmakesawordaword?(P.92-100)Mainpointsofthelecture“FromPhysicalSubstancetoLinguisticForm”Whatmakesachairachair?Whatmakesawordaword?\nWhatmakesachairachair?AccordingtoPlato’stheory,allthechairs,realonesanddrawingsalike,areinessencemereimitationsoftheidealchair,whichisabstract,andwhichisaccessibleonlytoGod.Theidealchairisbelievedtobeaperfectformofallchairsincludingthoseyettobemadeinthefuture.\nWhatmakesachairachair?AccordingtoAristotle,allchairs,realonesanddrawings,sharesomethingamongthem.Itisthissharedcommonthingthatmakesthemachair.Thiscommonthingisknownastheformofallchairs.Theformisanabstractentitythatismaterializedbyeachchairwemakeordraw.Thechairformisdefinedbythefunctionchairsserveforus.Forexample,achairissomethingwecansiton,orpretendthatwecansiton.\nWhatmakesachairachair?在这次讲座中，ProfessorGuide阐述是什么使文字成为文字。为了能形象地阐述这一问题，教授先作了一个类比。他提出了“是什么使一把椅子成为一把椅子？”这一问题。他给出了两位哲学家的论述。柏拉图认为，椅子之所以成为椅子是因为我们物质世界的椅子无论什么形状、颜色等都是对“完美椅子”的模仿，而这把完美的椅子只有上帝才能接触到。这无疑是一种唯心的观点。另一位哲学家亚里士多德，柏拉图的学生，认为所有的椅子，真的还是图画，都有一些共性。正是这些个性使得椅子成为椅子。这种共性就是椅子的形式。椅子的形式是一种抽象体，它是由椅子的功能所定义的。较第一种解释，这种说法更容易接受。\nWhatmakesawordaword?Anabstractwordcannotbeheardorreaddirectly.Whenyouandotherssaytheword,oryouandotherswritetheword,thewordthusproducedisonlyaninstanceoftheabstractword.Weonlygettoknowtheabstractwordindirectly,thatis,bywhatyouutterorwhatyouwritedown.\nWhatmakesawordaword?Anabstractword-formhasasortofmeaningattachedtoit.Theformandtheattachedmeaningcannotbeseparated.Thetwoconstituteawordthatcanstandforsomethingelse.Awordthatcanstandforsomethingelseisalsocalledasymbol.Asymbolislikeacoinwithtwosides.Thecoinisnolongeracoinifoneofthetwosidesisdestroyed.Similarly,thesymbolisnolongerasymbolifthemeaningsideistakenawayortheabstractformistakenaway.Asaone-sidedcoinisuseless,soisaone-sidedsymbol.\nWhatmakesawordaword?文字之所以成为文字是因为文字具有它的形式和意义。文字的形式和意义是不可分的。文字可以代表其他事物，因此它就是一种符号。这种符号就象有两面的钱币一样。钱币失去一面就不能被称为钱币，文字失去了无论是意义还是形式都不会再是文字了。因此王玲和史第文的争论都是在强调文字的形式一面而忽视了意义一面，故而是偏激的争论。\nTheanalysisof“Figure1”onP.97Inourdailylife,thingsexistintheirmaterialworld.Butpeoplesymbolizethematerialexistenceofthingsbymeansoflanguage.Wordsofalanguageexistintheirabstractforms,whichnoonecanseeorreaddirectly.Howeverpeoplecanrealizetheabstractformoflanguageinthreeways.Firstly,differentpeoplespeaktheChinesewordindifferentways.Whenpeoplespeakouttheword,weachievethespokenrealizationoftheabstractformoftheword.Secondly,differentpeoplewritethewordindifferentstyles.Whenpeoplewritetheworddown,weachievethewrittenrealizationoftheabstractformoftheword.Andthirdly,peoplecanrealizetheabstractformbybothwritingandspeaking.\nActivity3TwoFundamentalRelationsinLanguageFromphysicalsequencetoabstractstructure--asyntagmaticrelation(P.104-108)Systemsofchoices--paradigmaticrelation(P.108-110)Analyzethemultiplelayersoflanguage(P.111-113)Structurallinguistics\nAsyntagmaticrelation(P.104-108)Wordsenterintoasyntagmaticrelationwithoneanotherwhentheytakeplaceinsequence.Thereisasyntagmaticrelationbetweenneighboringwordsinsequence.Therulesbasedonthesyntagmaticrelationsbetweenwordsarecalledsyntacticrules（句法规则）.\nAparadigmaticrelation(P.108-110)Wordsenterintoaparadigmaticrelationwhenwordsofthesamewordclasstaketheplaceofeachotherandactasthesamesentenceelements(values).请根据110页的示意图举出几个你自己的例子\nAnalyzethemultiplelayersoflanguage(P.111-113)ThemultipleLevelsofAnalysisIdiosyncraticanalysis（个体特征分析）,thatis,WingLing’svoicequalityanalysisPhoneticsoundanalysisArticulatoryphoneticanalysisWord-as-symbolanalysis(i.e.thetriadicrelationanalysis)Syntacticanalysis(i.e.syntagmaticrelation)Choiceanalysis(i.e.paradigmaticanalysis)\nAnalyzethemultiplelayersoflanguage(P.111-113)这部分内容要求学员能够读懂112页的具体分析知道各类分析所涉及的具体内容。\nStructurallinguisticsStructurallinguisticsisaschooloflinguisticsthatisconcernedwithlanguagestructure.Structurallinguistsareparticularlyinterestedin:Wordsasabstractword-formsSoundstructureofwords,technicallycalledphonology（音系学）Syntagmaticrelationsoflanguage\nUnit4LanguageFunction1:OrganizingOurExperiencesoftheMaterialWorldActivity1Abstraction:FromImmediateExperiencestoAbstractConceptsActivity2UnderstandTimeinLanguageActivity3TowardsanUnderstandingofaSymbolicWorld\n学习目标DistinguishthefunctionofpropernamefromcategorynameBeawareoftheprocessofusinglanguagetocaptureimmediateexperiencesUnderstandabstractionasanintrinsicfeatureoflanguageBeawareofthesymbolicworldwelivein\nActivity1Abstraction:FromImmediateExperiencestoAbstractConceptsTask1Namingisdifferentfromcategorizing(P.118-121)Task2Understandtheprocessofabstracting(P.121-124)Task3ActionandAbstraction(P.124-126)Task4Qualityandabstraction(P.126-129)\nTwokindsofnamesTwokindsofnames赋予唯一个体的一个名字，如“王莉”、“John”。Categoryname区分一组事物与另一组事物的名字，如“人类”、“猪”或“狗”。在这部分中，请学员们认真阅读121页的表格。要求能够独立填写。\nTask2Understandtheprocessofabstracting(P.121-124)TheprocessofabstractingImmediateperception(experience)BracketingNamingAchievingabstractionFurtherabstracting\nTask2Understandtheprocessofabstracting(P.121-124)ThefundamentalwaysweuselanguagetocaptureourimmediateexperienceoftheexternalobjectsBracketingAchieveabstraction\nTask2Understandtheprocessofabstracting(P.121-124)ConceptWestartfromtheimmediateexperienceofaliveanimal,tobracketitintoalumpcalled“pig”.Thislumpisnolongeralive,butstatic,storedinourmind.Thismakesitpossibleforustotalkabouttheanimalwithoutactuallyseeingit.Thereisatechnicaltermforthe“lump”—concept.\nTask2Understandtheprocessofabstracting(P.121-124)在这部分中，请学员们认真阅读123页的示意图。要求能够独立分析。（答案参考124页的反馈部分）\nTask3ActionandAbstraction(P.124-126)在这部分中，请学员们认真阅读126页的示意图。要求能够独立填写类似的关于抽象阶梯的示意图。\nTask4Qualityandabstraction(P.126-129)Whenwesitonawoodchair,weknowitishard.Whenwesleeponawaterbedweknowitissoft.Iceissmooth,whereasacementroadisrough.Sugarissweetwhereasvinegarissour.\nTask4Qualityandabstraction(P.126-129)在这里我们所知道的是我们的直接经验（immediateexperience），当我们要表达这些直接经验时，我们会说，“我可以感到它的硬性（hardness）。”这样我们就完成了对物质特性的抽象。\nTask4Qualityandabstraction(P.126-129)示例：Thischairishard.Icanfeelitshardness.Thisbedissoft.Icanfeelitssoftness.Iceissmooth.Youcanseeitssmoothness.Thisroadisrough.Itsroughnessmakesourcarmuchslower.Sugarissweet.Ireallyappreciateitssweetness.Thisbottleofvinegarisverysour.Icannotbearitssourness.\nTask4Qualityandabstraction(P.126-129)这把椅子硬。我可以感到它的硬性。这张床软。我可以感到它的软性。冰是光滑的。你可以看出它的光滑性。这条路糙。由于它的糙性我们的车子走得很慢。糖是甜的。我真的喜欢它的甜性。这瓶醋很酸。我不能忍受它的酸性。\nTask4Qualityandabstraction(P.126-129)HaveyounoticedthatalthoughChineseallowsustoadd性afteranadjective,itislessproductivethantheEnglish-ness?Forinstance,甜+性and糙+性soundlessacceptableinChinese,buttheEnglishsweetnessandroughnessareperfectwords.\nActivity2UnderstandTimeinLanguageTask1UnderstandcalendarsTask3Understandtimeandtense(P.138-141)\nTask1Understandcalendars在这部分中，请学员们认真阅读131页至134页的文章。要求能够在阅读后回答134页的问答题。\nTask1UnderstandcalendarsAnswerthefollowingquestions:WhatistheOldStylecalendar?TheJuliancalendarwasalsoknownastheOldStyle(O.S.)calendarWhatistheNewStylecalendar?TheNewStyle(N.S.)calendarcalledtheGregoriancalendar.\nTask1UnderstandcalendarsAnswerthefollowingquestions:WhatdotheabbreviationsBCandADmean?WhatyearmarksthedivisionbetweenBCandAD?ADmeansLatinannodomini,“intheyearofourLord”andBCmeansbeforeChrist.AlthoughthebirthofChristwasoriginallygivenasDecember25,1BC,modernscholarsnowplaceitabout4BC.\nTask1UnderstandcalendarsAnswerthefollowingquestions:WhydosomeChristianholidayshavenofixeddates?Christianity,formostofitsmajorfestivals,adherestotheJewishlunarcalendar.Therefore,manyofitsfeastsaremovable.\nTask1UnderstandcalendarsAnswerthefollowingquestions:Towhichcalendardoweownthenamesofmonth,andweek?ThenamesforthemonthsinthepresentaretakenfromtheJuliancalendar.Thedayswerenamedafterthethenknownsevenplanets:Saturn,Jupiter,Mars,thesun(notdistinguishedfromaplanetatthetime),Venus,Mercury,andthemoon(alsoconsideredaplanet).ThenamesofdaysinLatincountriesstillpointtotheseorigins,asdoSunday,Monday,andSaturdayinEnglish.Tuesday,Wednesday,Thursday,andFriday,however,arenamedaftertheScandinaviangodsTiw,Woden,Thor,andFrigga.\nTask3Understandtimeandtense(P.138-141)InChineseweusewordslike了，已经，在，着and将toindicatewhetheranactioniscompleted，orinprogress，ornotstartedyet．Suchaphenomenoniscalledbysomegrammariansasaspect（动词的体）incontrastwithtense（动词的时态）.SOitissaidthatChinesehasaspect，butnotense．\nActivity3TowardsanUnderstandingofaSymbolicWorldTask1Theessenceofabstraction:fromexperiencetosymbolizationTask2BeawareofaffectiveattachmenttowordsTask3BeawareofmotivationsandinterestsbehindclassificationsTask4Metaphor:spinningconceptualnetworks\nTask1Theessenceofabstraction:fromexperiencetosymbolization在这部分中，请学员们认真阅读144页至146页的内容，尤其是其间的几幅示意图。要求能够理解本部分的中心—从经验到象征化是抽象过程的实质。\nTask2BeawareofaffectiveattachmenttowordsConceptualmeaningTounderstandawordfully,therefore,youmustknownotonlywhatitrefersto,butalsowheretheboundariesarethatseparatesitfromwordsofrelatedmeaning.\nTask2BeawareofaffectiveattachmenttowordsStudent’sActivity:Haveadiscussionanddefinethedistinction.Sink&washbasinDistinction:largelyoneoffunctionandlocationi.e.sinksarefoundinkitchensandusedforwashingdishesandpans,whilewashbasinsarefoundinbathroomsandusedforpersonalhygiene.\nTask2BeawareofaffectiveattachmenttowordsAffectivemeaningWeareusingthistermtocovertheattitudinal（态度的）andemotional（情感的）factors,whichcanbeexpressedinanitemofvocabulary.(Theseareoftenreferredtoasconnotation，anapparentsynonymmayonexaminationprovetohaveasimilaroridenticaldenotationbutadifferentconnotation.Thatistosay,itmayhavereferencetoanidenticalobjectoraction,buttheemotionalorotherovertonesattachtoitsusemaydiffer.)\nTask2Beawareofaffectiveattachmenttowords这些通常被称为涵义，也就是表面上是同义词但却有不同的言外之义。也就是说它可能指代同一物质或行为却有不同的情感或言过其辞的意味Student’sActivityDoyouthinkthefollowingtwosentencesarethesameinmeaning?Why?Joannaisasinglewoman.Joannaisaspinster.\nTask2Beawareofaffectiveattachmenttowords"Spinster"hasaseriesofevaluateandemotionalassociations（审视和情感的意义）foranEnglishnativespeaker,whichwouldnotbetrueof"singlewoman".Theseassociationsmayincludeold,isolated,ontheshelf,asadfigure,etc.,inotherwordshardlycomplimentary.Theconceptualmeaningofbothitemsis,however,identicali.e.anunmarriedadultfemale.\nEuphemismsTherearewordsaboutdeath,sex,toiletactivities,somepartsofthebody,etc.,thatareeitheravoidedineverydayuse,orreplacedbyotherlessoffensiveexpressionsknownaseuphemisms.\nEuphemismsExamples:ItwasreportedthatJaneSpencerfaintedwhensheheardthewordbloodusedbyherclassmate.Canyouexplainwhy?\nEuphemismsPresumablyJaneSpencerhadaterribleexperienceofbloodbefore.Becauseofthisexperience,shehadattachedanemotionalmeaningtothewordblood.Whensheheardthewordagain,theattachedemotionrevivedandattackedher.Taketoiletactivitiesforexample.InChinese,insteadofsaying拉屎or撒尿,weuse方便一下，洗手，去一号andsoon.Theseexpressionsarepreferredtoothersbecausetheydonothavetheoffensiveaffectivemeaningsattachedtothem.\nEuphemismsMoreExamples:AscholarlystudyofAustralianEnglisheuphemismsshowstheconsiderablecreativityinvolved:Urinate:drainthedragonsyphonthepythonwaterthehorsesqueezethelemondrainthespudswringtherattlesnakeshakehandswithwife’sbestfriendpointPercyattheporcelaintrainTerenceontheterracotta\nEuphemismsHaveintercourse:shagrootcrackafatdipthewickplayhospitalhidetheferretplaycarsandgarageshidetheeggroll(sausage,salami)boilbangersslipalengthgoofflikeabeltfedmotorgolikearatuparhododendrongolikearatupadrainpipehaveginontherockshaveanorthwestcocktail\nTask3BeawareofmotivationsandinterestsbehindclassificationsTherearemotivationsandinterestsbehindclassifications,andasaresulttherearesocialaswellascognitiveconsequences.在这里作者是说，人们为事物命名时，尤其是在为事物取类别性的名字，会涉及到一种分类分类行为，而这种行为背后有人们的动机和兴趣，并且受社会的和认知能力的影响。也就是说，人们在为他周围的事物命名时会为它们取与自己生活和经验息息相关的名字\nTask3BeawareofmotivationsandinterestsbehindclassificationsExercise:CanyouexplainwhytheInuitpeoplehaveallsortsofcategorynamesforsnow?Theylivewithsnowforsixorninemonthsayear.Theirhouseiglooismadeofsnow.Theyevensleeponasnowbed.Snowisthereforeextremelyimportanttothem.Thesegivethemmotivationstoclassifysnowverycarefully,hencemanynamesforsnow.\nTask4Metaphor:spinningconceptualnetworksWhenwecommunicatebymeansofalanguage,wedependonthemeaningsofwhatwesaytomakeusunderstood.Mostofthetime,wemakeuseoftheconceptualmeaningofwords,whichmeansthemeaningpresentedasaconceptbywords（文字本身的概念意义）.Butsometimes,whenwefaceanewsituationwithanewneedofputtingitintowords,wecanmeetthedemandbyextendingtheexistingconcepttothisnewsituation.Wecandosobecauseweassignsomesortofresemblancebetweenthetwosituations.Thisiswhatwecallmetaphoricalextension.\nTask4Metaphor:spinningconceptualnetworks这个概念被称为“延展出的比喻意义”。之所以能够实现这种从概念意义到比喻意义的延展，是因为本体事物和喻体事物有一定的相似之处。那么，关于标题—比喻：编织概念网络的工具—我们又如何理解呢？这一标题概括的指出了，比喻，这种人类语言重要的修辞方式的功能。当我们说到“头”时，我们可能提到的是动物和人类身体上的一个重要组成部分。正是由于它的重要性，和不可被取代的地位，我们才将这个字的意义延展到另一个概念领域，那就是“领导”。而正是这个比喻义“头儿”将两个概念范畴连接在一起。因此，比喻将概念网络编织了出来。