语言学_Chapter 4

语言学_Chapter 4

Chapter4SyntaxA4.1Syntax—Thedefinitionofsyntax—Approachestothestudyofsentences-Thetraditionalapproach-Thestructuralapproach-Thegenerativeapproach-Thefunctionalapproach4.2Categories4.2.1Word-levelcategories—Thedefinitionofsyntacticcategories—Twokindsofword-levelcategories-Majorlexicalcategories‐Noun(N)‐Verb(V)‐Adjective(A)‐Preposition(P)-Minorlexicalcategories‐Determiner(Det)‐Degreewords(Deg)‐Qualifier(Qual),Auxiliary(Aux)‐Conjunction(Con)‐Complementizer(C)4.2.2Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures—Thedefinitionofphrase—Phrasalcategories-Nounphrase(NP)-Verbphrase(VP)-Adjectivephrase(AP)-Prepositionalphrase(PP)—Theelementsofphrases-Head-Specifier-Complement4.3Phrasestructurerule\n—Thedefinitionofphrasestructurerules—ThephrasestructureruleforNP,VP,AP,PP-NP(Det)N(PP)...-VP(Qual)V(NP)...-AP(Deg)A(PP)...-PP(Deg)P(NP)...4.3.1XPruleTheXPrule:XP(specifier)X(complement)4.3.2Coordinationrule—Thedefinitionofcoordinatestructures—Thecoordinationrule:XX*ConX4.4Phraseelements4.4.1Specifiers4.4.2ComplementsTheXPRule(revised)XP(Specifier)X(Complement*)—Complementizer—Complementclause—Complementphrase(CP)—Matrixclause4.4.3ModifiersTheExpendedXPrule:XP(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)4.5Sentences(TheSRule)TheSrule:SNPVP4.6Transformations—Deepstructure(D-structure)andsurfacestructure(S-structure)—Sometransformationrules-Auxiliarymovement-Doinsertion‐Doinsertionrule:InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition-Whmovement\n‐WhMovement:Movethewhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence‐Whmovement(revised):MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP-MoveαandconstraintsontransformationsIntroductionofalinguist----LeonardBloomfielLeonardBloomfield(April1,1887—April18,1949)wasanAmericanlinguistwholedthedevelopmentofstructurallinguisticsintheUnitedStatesduringthe1930sandthe1940s.HisinfluentialtextbookLanguage,publishedin1933,presentedacomprehensivedescriptionofAmericanstructurallinguistics.HemadesignificantcontributionstoIndo-Europeanhistoricallinguistics,thedescriptionofAustronesianlanguagesanddescriptionoflanguagesoftheAlgonquianfamily.Bloomfield’sapproachtolinguisticswascharacterizedbyitsemphasisonthescientificbasisoflinguistics,adherencetobehaviorismespeciallyinhislaterworkandemphasisonformalproceduresfortheanalysisoflinguisticdata.TheinfluenceofBloomfieldianstructurallinguisticsdeclinedinthelate1950sand1960sasthetheoryofGenerativeGrammardevelopedbyNoamChomskycametopredominate.ImmediateconstituentanalysisorICanalysisisamethodofsentenceanalysisthatwasfirstmentionedbyLeonardBloomfieldanddevelopedfurtherbyRulonWells.TheprocessreachedafullblownstrategyforanalyzingsentencestructureintheearlyworksofNoamChomsky.Thepracticeisnowwidespread.MosttreestructuresemployedtorepresentthesyntacticstructureofsentencesareproductsofsomeformofIC-analysis.TheprocessandresultofIC-analysiscan,however,varygreatlybaseduponwhetheronechoosestheconstituencyrelationofphrasestructuregrammars(=constituencygrammars)orthedependencyrelationofdependencygrammarsastheunderlyingprinciplethatorganizesconstituentsintohierarchicalstructures.ICAnalysisreferstodivisionofasentenceupintoimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituents.Immediateconstituents:thetwopartsthatareyieldedafterasentenceiscutintoitsconstituentelements.Ultimateconstituent:thesmallestgrammaticalunitobtainedthroughthedivision,orsegmentationortheformsattheword-level.\n\nB4.1SyntaxSyntax:abranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.Thetraditionalapproachtakesasentenceasasequenceofwords.Itstudiessentenceformationbystudyingwordsintermsofcategoriesandtheirinterrelationships.Thestructuralapproachregardlinguisticunitsasinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructure(system),notasisolatedbits.Thisapproachtogrammar,basedonSaussure’sideasoflanguage,studiestheinterrelationshipsbetweenwords.Thegenerativeapproachismainlyreferredtotransformational-generativegrammarproposedbyNoamChomsky.Chomskyproposesthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework.Thefunctionalapproachoffersanalternativetostructuralism(formalism).Systemic-functionalapproachstartsfromclauseandextendsitselftodiscourse.Itinvolveswhatlanguagecanshow(ideationalfunction),whatkindofrelationcanitestablish(interpersonalfunction),andinwhatway(textualfunction).4.2CategoriesCategory:agroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Syntacticcategory（句法范畴）：refer to the linguistic forms that have paradigmatic relations,whichcangenerallysubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality.Wordlevelcategorycanbedividedintotwokinds:majorlexicalcategoriesandminorlexicalcategories.Majorlexicalcategories(实义语类）：Noun,Verb,AdjectiveandPrepositionMinorlexicalcategories(功能语类）：Determiner(Det)限定词:the,a,this,thoseDegreewords(Deg)表程度:quite,very,more,soQualifier(Qual)表频率:often,always,seldom,almostAuxiliary(Aux)助动词:can,will,do,do,be,haveConjunction(Conj)连词:and,or,butComplementizer(C)补语化成分:that,if,for,whetherPhraseisasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclauses.4.2.2PhrasecategoriesandtheirstructuresPhrasalcategories\nNounphrase(NP):theprettygirlVerbphrase(VP):oftendreamAdjectivephrase(AP):verypessimisticPrepositionalphrase(PP):mainlyaboutPhrasesareusuallycontainthefollowingelements:Head,SpecifierandComplement.ThewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedistermedheadThewordontheleftsideoftheheadissaidtofunctionasspecifierThewordontherightsideoftheheadiscomplement.4.3PhrasestructurerulePhrasestructurerule:grammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphrase.-NP(Det)N(PP)...-VP(Qual)V(NP)...-AP(Deg)A(PP)...-PP(Deg)P(NP)...NPcanconsistofadeterminer(Det),anNheadandaPPcomplement,forinstance:thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirlsVPcanbecomposedofaqualifier,aVandanNPcomplement,forinstance:alwaysplaygames,finishassignmentsAPcanbecomposedofadegreeword,aAandaPPcomplementforinstance:veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetoPPcanconsistofadegreeword,aPandanNPcomplement,forinstance:ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation\nTheXPrule:XP(specifier)X(complement)Coordinationrule:Coordinationstructures-----thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.Thecoordinationrule:XX*ConX4.4PhraseelementsWordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementaretermedcomplementizers(shortenedasCs)Thesentenceintroducedbythecomplementizersiscalledacomplementclause.Sentencecomplementiscalledcomplementphrase(shortenedasCP)Theconstructioninwhichthecomplementphraseisembeddediscalledmatrixclause.ModifiersinEnglishvaryintermsoftheirpositionwithrespecttothehead.XP(specifier)(Mod)X(complement*)(Mod)Thenewruleallowsamodifiertooccureitherbeforeorafterthehead.Wherethereisacomplement,amodifierthatoccursaftertheheadwilloccurtotherightofthecomplementaswell.E.g.,acarefulgirl,readcarefully,readabookcarefully,openthecanwithcare4.5Sentences(TheSRule):AsentencecombinesanNP(oftencalledthesubject)withaVP.Linguiststakeanabstractcategoryinflectionasasentence’shead.InflectiontakesanNP(thesubject)asitsspecifierandaVPcategoryasitscomplement.Inflp(=S）：NP+Infl+VPICAnalysis(直接成分分析法):referstodivisionofasentenceupintoimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituents.Immediateconstituents（直接成分）:thetwopartsthatareyieldedafterasentenceiscutintoitsconstituentelements.Ultimateconstituent（最终成分）:thesmallestgrammaticalunitobtainedthroughthedivision,orsegmentationortheformsattheword-level.4.6TransformationsInversion:moveinflectiontotheleftofthesubjectNP,forinstance,Thetrainwillarrive--------Willthetrainarrive?Doinsertion:insertinterrogativedointoanemptyinflectionposition,forinstance,Birdsfly--------birdsdoflyAftertheauxiliarydoisinsertedintotheinflectionposition,theinversiontransformationcanbemadebymovingtheinterrogativedointotheCposition.Birdsdofly-----Dobirdsfly?DeepstructureisformedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorizationproperties.Surfacestructurecorrespondstothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfrom\nappropriatetransformation.CThischapterisaboutSyntax.Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.(Accordingtothetextbook)Asforrules,thesequenceofwordsinformingthesentencesisalsoanimportantpartofsyntax.ThisbookmainlyfocusesonEnglishsyntax.Andthesequenceofwordsinasentencematters.Forexample,sentence“Mikeatetheapple.”and“TheappleateMike.”isverydifferentintheirmeanings.Ifwejustseetheelementsofthesetwosentences,wecanfindthattheyareidenticalinthewordspart.Theonlydifferencebetweenthemisthewordssequence.Sowecanrealizehowimportantthesequenceofwordsis.However,itisnotalwaystrueifwebroadourscaletoallthelanguagesintheworld.Forsomeofthelanguages,however,thesequenceofwordsisnotthatimportantthanEnglish.Theydohavesomerulesofthesequenceofwords,butnotthatserious.BecausemysecondforeignlanguageisGerman,IthoughtofitassoonasIencounteredthispart.AndIdecidetohaveabrieflookofit.InGerman,sentenceswithdifferentwordssequencecanhavethe\nsamemeanings.HereistherulesofGerman’ssentences:“subject+V+object+others.”TheonlyruleisthatVshouldbeputinthesecondplace.Andnomatterhowyoudealwiththeotherparts,thissentencecanonlyhaveonecertainmeaning.AndIthinkthisisbecauseinGerman,thereisfourdifferentdeclension.Notonlysubjectsandobjectshavetheirformofdeclension,butalsoverbsandadjectives.ThisdeclensionmakesGermanamoredifficultlanguagetolearn.Butatthesametime,thisdeclensionalsomakesGermanmoreaccurateandprecise.Sosyntaxisacomplicatedwhichrelatetonotonlylanguagerulesbutalsotheinnercharacteristicsofacertainlanguage.English、GermanandChinesearealldifferent.\nD7.Indicatethecategoryofeachwordinthefollowingsentences.a)Theoldladygotoffthebuscarefully.DetANVPDetNAdvb)Thecarsuddenlycrashedontotheriverbank.DetNAdvVPDetNc)Theblindingsnowstormmightdelaytheopeningoftheschools.DetANAuxVDetNPDetNd)Thisclothfeelsquitesoft.DetNVDegA