语言学基本定义

语言学基本定义

语言languageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedbysocialgroupforcommunication.Arbitrariness:theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.Productivity:languageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsreclusiveness.Wecanuseittocreatenewmeanings.Duality:thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.Displacement:humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspare)atthemovementofcommunication.Culturaltransmission:languageisnotgeneticallyinherited.Passedfromgenerationtogeneration,itrequiressomelearning.Itistruehumanarebornwithlanguagecapacity,butaparticularlanguageapersonlearnstospeakisaculturalone,ratherthanageneticonelikethedogs’barkingsystem.Interchangeability:anyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandreceiverofmessages.Languagefunction:informative:languageistheinstrumentofthought,recordthefacts.Theuseoflanguagetorecordthefactsisaprerequisiteofsocialdevelopment.Interpersonal:byfarthemostimportantsociologicaluseoflanguage,andbywhichpeopleestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.Performative:theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersonsEmotive:tochangetheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.Phaticcommunion:weallusesuchsmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionstomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutinvolvinganyfactualcontents.\nRecreational:therecreationalfunctionofalanguageisoftenoverlookedbecauseitseemssorestrictiveinpurposeandsupposedlysolimitedinusefulness.Metalingual:ourlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutitself.Sociolinguistics—thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.Psycholinguistics---thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemind.Appliedlinguistics---theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning.Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics:规定性Prescriptive.描述性Descriptive/8.共时语言学Synchronicallinguistics7.历时语言学Diachroniclinguistics/5.语言能力Competence6.语言运用performance/9.语言langue10.言语parole/speech,writing/traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics第二章音系学1Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages.Itaimstodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur.2internationalphoneticalphabetAsetofstandardphoneticsymbolsintheformofachart,designedbytheinternationalphoneticassociationsince1888.Ithasbeenrevisedfromtimetotimetoincludenewdiscoveriesandchangesinphonetictheoryandpractice.3consonantsandvowelsConsonantareproducedbyaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowing,whichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction.Vowelisproducedwithoutsuchstricturesothatairescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthornose.4cardinalvowelAreasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguage.5anticipatoryandperseverativeco-articulation\nwhensuchsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationareinvolved,wecalltheprocessco-articulation.Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,itisknownasanticipatoryco-articulation.Ifthesoundshowstheinfluenceoftheproceedingsound,itisperseverativeco-articulation.6PhonemeThesmallestofsoundwhichcandistinguishtwowords7AllophonesDifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.8MinimalpairAretwowordsinalanguagewhichdifferfromeachotherbyonlyonedistinctivesoundandwhichalsodifferinmeaning.9freevariationiftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironmentdonotcontrast,thatisthesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotproduceadifferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword,thenthetwowordsareinfreevariation.Chapterthree词汇学Thetotalnumberofwordsstoredinthebrainiscalledthelexicon.Wordsarethesmallestfreeunitsoflanguagethatunitesoundswithmeaning.Word:Aunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynativespeakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.Lexeme:theabstractunitunderlyingthesmallestunitinthelexicalsystemofalanguage,whichappearsindifferentgrammaticalcontexts.Grammatical/Functionalwords:expressgrammaticalmeanings,suchasconjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronouns.Lexical/contentwords:havelexicalmeanings,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.Open-classwords:awordgroupwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited.Newmemberscanbeadded.\nClosed-classwords:awordgroupwhosemembershipisfixedorlimited,newmembersarenotregularlyadded.Morphology;thestudyofwordformation,theinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Morphemes:thesmallestunitlanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbefurtherdividedintosmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Freemorphemes:thosethatmayconstitutewordsbythemselves.Boundmorphemes；thosethatcannotoccuraloneRoot:thebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Itisthatpartofaword-formthatremainswhenalltheinflectionalaffixesandderivationalaffixeshavebeenremoved.Affix:thetypesofformative/morphemethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.Base:anyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded;aformtowhicharuleofwordformationisapplied.Stem:thepartofthewordformwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved.Inflection:indicatesgrammaticalrelationsbyaddinginflectionalaffixes.Derivation:combinationofanexistingwordandanaffixtoformanewword.Compounding/compositionisword-formationprocessconsistingofjoiningtwoormorebasestoformanewunit,acompoundword-AnIntroductiontoModernLinguistics.Endocentric:oneelementservesasthehead,ofsamesyntacticclassasthewholetherelationshipof‘akindof’.Exocentric:thereisnohead,noelementsisofthesamesyntacticclassasthewhole,sonotarelationshipof‘akindof‘something.Derivation:isalsocalled‘affixation’.Itisthemorphologicalprocesswherebygrammaticaloflexicalinformationisaddedtothebase.\nConversion:isaword-formationprocessbywhichawordisalteredfromonepartofspeechtoantherwithouttheadditionordeletionofanymorpheme.Allomorph:somemorphemeshaveasingleforminallcontexts.Butamorphememayhaveconsiderablevariations,alternateshapesorphoneticformscalledtheallomorph.Blending:aprocessofword-informationinwhichanewwordisformedbycombiningthemeaningsandsoundsoftwowords,oneofwhichisnotinitsfullformorbothofwhicharenotintheirfullforms.Back-formation:ashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguage.Acronym:wordsformedfromtheinitiallettersofthenameofanorganizationorscientificterm,etc.itdiffersfrominitialismsinthattheyarepronouncedaswordsratherthanassequenceofletter.Initialism:atypeofshortening,usingthefirstletterofwordstoformapropername,atechnicalterm,orphrase;aninitialismispronouncedletterbyletter.Analogicalcreation:Itcanaccountforthecoexistenceoftwoforms,regularandirregular,ItheconjugationofsomeEnglishverbs.Loanwords:bothformandmeaningareborrowedwithonlyaslightadaptation.Loanblend:partoftheformisnativeandpartisborrowed,butthemeaningisfullyborrowed.Chapter4syntaxSyntax:thestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimplythestudyoftheformationofsentences.Category:thetermcategoryinsomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense.Morespecifically,itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits.Phrase:isasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclause.Wordgroupisanextensionofwordofaparticularclassbywayofmodificationwithitsmainfeaturesoftheclassunchanged.\nClause:aconstituentwithitsownsubjectsandpredicatewhenitisincludedinalagersentence.Syntagmaticisarelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequenceorbetweenelementswhichareallpresent.Paradigmaticrelationreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.grammaticalconstruction;anysyntacticconstructwhichisassignedoneormoreconventionalfunctionsinalanguage,togetherwithwhateverislinguisticallyconventionalizedaboutitscontributiontothemeaningorusetheconstructcontains.constituentisatermusedinstructuralsentenceanalysisforeverylinguisticunit,whichisapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction.Anendocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttooneofitsconstituents,whichservesasthecenterorheadofthewhole.Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup,usuallyincludingthebasicsentence,theprepositionalphrase,thepredicateconstruction,andtheconnectiveconstruction.Subordinateconstructionthoseinwhichthereisonlyonehead,withtheheadbeingdominantandtheotherconstituentsdependent,Coordinateconstruction:therearemorethanonehead,theheadcanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally.Deepstructure:theabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstructionSurfacestructure:thefinalstageinsyntacticderivationofaconstruction.ChapterfiveSemanticsDenotationinvolvestherelationshipbetweenalinguisticunitandthenon-linguisticentitiestowhichitrefers.Thusitisequivalenttoreferentialmeaning.Connotation-oppositetodenotation,meansthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.\nSensebedefinedasthesemanticsrelationsbetweenonewordandanother,ormoregenerallybetweentheonelinguisticunitandanother.Reference:isconcernedwiththerelationbetweenawordandthethingitrefersto,ormoregenerallybetweenalinguisticunitandnon-linguisticentityitrefersto.Synonymy-referstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningAntonymy-oppositenessofmeaning.Complementaryantonymy-thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.Converse/reversalantonyms/relationalopposites-exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,onepresupposestheother.Hyponymy上下义-inclusiveness,arelationofinclusionCompositionality-theideathatthemeaningofasentencedependsonthemeaningoftheconstitutewordsandthewaytheyarecombined-theprincipleofcompositionality.Polysemy一次多义-thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Homonymy同音同形异义-thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaninghavethesameform.Conceptualmeaning-leechdefinedasthelogical,cognitive,ordenotativecontent.Inotherwords,itoverlapstoalargeextentwiththenotionofreference.Linguisticsemantics-thestudyofthemeaningoflinguisticunits,wordsandsentencesinparticularPropositionallogic-itisalsoknowaspropositionalcalculusorsententialcalculus,isthestudyofthetruthconditionsforpropositionsProposition-isexpressedbyadeclarativesentencewhenthatsentenceisutteredtomakeastatement.